CHAPTER ONE 1.

1 INTRODUCTION

The purposed of this experiment was to determine the viscosities of crude oil, condemned oil and motor oil in Redwood units (seconds Redwood) Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of flow due to internal friction when one layer of fluid is caused to move in relationship to another layer. The Poise represents absolute viscosity, the tangential force per unit area of either of two horizontal planes at unit distance apart, the space between being filled with the substance. A liquid with an absolute viscosity of one Poise requires a force of one dyne to maintain a velocity differential of one centimeter per second over a surface one centimeter square. When the ratio of shearing stress to the rate of shear is constant, as is the case with water and thin motor oils, the fluid is called a Newtonian fluid. In the case of non-Newtonian fluids, the ratio varies with the shearing stress, and viscosities of such fluids are called apparent viscosities. In the new SI system, it is proposed that values for the Poise be stated as Pascal seconds, the conversion factor being 1 Poise equal to 1 10-1 Pas. A common measurement unit is the milliPascal second (mPas). Conversion factors are as follows: 1 centipoise (cP) = 0.01 poise (P) 1 Pas = 10 P 1 cP = 0.001 Pas = 1 mPas 1 Pas = 1000 cP 1.2 I. II. APPARATUS USED DURING EXPERIMENT: Viscosity cup with capillary and ball valve Constant temperature bath with stirrer
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III. IV. V.

Measuring cylinder Stop watch Thermometer

CHAPTER TWO 2.1 THEORY

2.1.1 WHAT IS VISCOSITY? Viscosity is, essentially, fluid friction. Like friction between moving solids, viscosity transforms kinetic energy of (macroscopic) motion into heat energy. Heat is energy of random motion at the molecular level, so to have any understanding of how this energy transfer takes place, it is essential to have some picture, however crude, of solids and/or liquids sliding past each other as seen on the molecular scale. The viscosity of a fluid may be thought of as a measure of its willingness to flow. When two layers of fluid move past one another with a certain relative velocity, both layers experience a force which tends to oppose their relative motions. The magnitude of this force is dependent on two factors, namely the plane of contact between the layers and the velocity gradient normal to it. Mathematically the effect is expressed as: F A du/dx Where u= velocity in the direction of flow (m/s) du= difference in velocity between two fluid layers (m/s) dx= difference in position, normal to the flow, between two fluid layers (m) A=the area of contact (m2)

i.e F/A du/dx

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F/A is termed viscous shear stress, R. The introduction of a constant of proportionality yields, R=du/dx

is defined as dynamic viscosity, or simply viscosity of the fluid. Now, looking at the dimensions involved, R is force per unit area, i.e Newton
=

kg.m 1 . s2

kg
=

m and

m2

ms2

du/dx = m/s.1/m=1/s This means must have the dimensions of kg/ms in order to make the equation balance. 2.1.2 BASICS

Molecules of fluids exert forces of attraction on each other. In liquids this is strong enough to keep the mass together but not strong enough to keep it rigid. In gases these forces are very weak and cannot hold the mass together.

When a fluid flows over a surface, the layer next to the surface may become attached to it (it wets the surface). The layers of fluid above the surface are moving so there must be shearing taking place between the layers of the fluid.

Fig.1

Let us suppose that the fluid is flowing over a flat surface in laminated layers from left to right as shown in figure 1.

y is the distance above the solid surface (no slip surface) L is an arbitrary distance from a point upstream. dy is the thickness of each layer. dL is the length of the layer. dx is the distance moved by each layer relative to the one below in a corresponding time dt. u is the velocity of any layer. du is the increase in velocity between two adjacent layers.

Each layer moves a distance dx in time dt relative to the layer below it. The ratio dx/dt must be the change in velocity between layers so du = dx/dt.

When any material is deformed sideways by a (shear) force acting in the same direction, a shear stress is produced between the layers and a corresponding shear strain is produced. Shear strain is defined as follows.

= dx Height of the layer being deformed dy

Sideways deformation

the rate of shear strain is defined as follows = Shear strain Time taken = dt dx dt dy du dy

It is found that fluids such as water, oil and air, behave in such a manner that the shear stress between layers is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. = constant x Fluids that obey this law are called NEWTONIAN FLUIDS.

It is the constant in this formula that we know as the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.

Shear stress DYNAMIC VISCOSITY = Rate of shear

dy du

A shear stress exists between each layer and this increases by d over each layer. The pressure difference between the downstream end and the upstream end is dp.

The pressure change is needed to overcome the shear stress. The total force on a layer must be zero so balancing forces on one layer (assumed 1 m wide) we get the following.

It is normally assumed that the pressure declines uniformly with distance downstream so the pressure gradient is assumed constant. The minus sign

indicates that the pressure falls with distance. Integrating between the no slip surface (y = 0) and any height y we get

Integrating twice to solve u we get the following.

A and B are constants of integration that should be solved based on the known conditions

(boundary conditions). For the flat surface considered in figure 1 one boundary condition is that u = 0 when y = 0 (the no slip surface). Substitution reveals the following.

0 = 0 +0 +B hence B = 0 At some height above the surface, the velocity will reach the mainstream velocity uo. This gives us the secondary boundary condition u=uo when y=. Substituting we find the following.

2.1.3 BOUNDARY LAYER. The velocity grows from zero at the surface to a maximum at height . In theory, the value of is infinity but in practice it is taken as the height needed to obtain 99% of the mainstream velocity. This layer is called the boundary layer and is the boundary layer thickness. The inverse gradient of the boundary layer is du/dy and this is the rate of shear strain .

2.2

UNITS OF VISCOSITY

2.2.1 DYNAMIC VISCOSITY () The units of dynamic viscosity are N s/m2. It is normal in the international system (SI) to give a name to a compound unit. The old metric unit was a dyne.s/cm2 and this was called a POISE after Poiseuille. It follows that the SI unit is related to the Poise such that 10 Poise = 1 Ns/m2 This is not an acceptable multiple. Since, however, 1 CentiPoise (1cP) is 0.001 N s/m2 then the cP is the accepted SI unit.

1cP = 0.001 N s/m2. The symbol is also commonly used for dynamic viscosity.

2.2.2 KINEMATIC VISCOSITY This is defined as follows v= Dynamic viscosity density

The basic units are m2/s. The old metric unit was the cm2/s and this was called the STOKE after the British scientist. It follows that 1 Stoke (St) = 0.0001 m2/s and this is not an acceptable SI multiple. The centiStoke (cSt) ,however, is 0.000001 m2/s and this is an acceptable multiple.

1cSt = 0.000001 m2/s = 1 mm2/s

2.3

OTHER UNITS

Other units of viscosity have come about because of the way viscosity is measured. For example redwood seconds comes from the name of the Redwood viscometer. Other units are Engler Degrees, SAE numbers and so on. Conversion charts and formulae are available to convert them into useable engineering or SI units.

2.4

TYPES OF VISCOMETERS

The measurement of viscosity is a large and complicated subject. The principles rely on the resistance to flow or the resistance to motion through a fluid. Many of these are covered in British Standards 188. The following is a brief description of some types.

2.4.1 U TUBE VISCOMETER The fluid is drawn up into a reservoir and allowed to run through a capillary tube to another reservoir in the other limb of the U tube. The time taken for the level to fall between the marks is converted into cSt by multiplying the time by the viscometer constant. = ct

The constant c should be accurately obtained by calibrating the viscometer against a master viscometer from a standards laboratory.

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U tube viscometer

2.4.2 REDWOOD VISCOMETER This works on the principle of allowing the fluid to run through an orifice of very accurate size in an agate block. 50 ml of fluid are allowed to empty from the level indicator into a measuring flask. The time taken is the viscosity in Redwood seconds. There are two sizes giving Redwood No.1 or No.2 seconds. These units are converted into engineering units with tables.

2.4.3 FALLING SPHERE VISCOMETER This viscometer is based on measuring the time for a small sphere to fall in a viscous fluid from one level to another. The fluid resistance balances the buoyant weight of the sphere and the sphere falls with a constant velocity. The theory is based on Stokess Law and is only valid for very slow velocities. The

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theory is covered later in the section on laminar flow where it is shown that the terminal velocity (u) of the sphere is related to the dynamic viscosity () and the density of the fluid and sphere (f and s) by the formula = F gd2(s -f)/18u

F is a correction factor called the Faxen correction factor, which takes into account a reduction in the velocity due to the effect of the fluid being constrained to flow between the wall of the tube and the sphere.

2.4.4 ROTATIONAL TYPES There are many types of viscometers, which use the principle that it requires a torque to rotate or oscillate a disc or cylinder in a fluid. The torque is related to the viscosity. Modern instruments consist of a small electric motor, which spins a disc or cylinder in the fluid. The torsion of the connecting shaft is measured and processed into a digital readout of the viscosity in engineering units.

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CHAPTER THREE 3.1 EXPERIMENT

3.1.1 OBJECTIVE: To determine the viscosity of crude oil, motor oil and condemned oil.

3.1.2 APPARATUS: i. Viscosity cup with capillary and ball valve: The apparatus consist of a viscosity cup, which is used to collect the sample for the experiment. The ball valve for stopping the sample from flowing before the required temperature is reached i.e. for controlling the movement (flow) of the sample. ii. Constant temperature bath and stirrer: The water bath is used to heat up the sample and maintain the temperature of the sample during the experiment. It usually comes as part of the apparatus. The stirrer is used for stirring the water to maintain a constant temperature of entire sample. iii. Redwood flasks 50ml: It is used for measuring out the sample to be used for the experiment

iv.

Stopwatch: It is used for measuring the time for the fluid to flow i.e. viscosity of the sample in seconds.

A STOPWATCH

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v.

Thermometer: It used to measure the temperature of the experiment

REDWOOD VISCOSITY APPARATUS

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3.2

PROCEDURE 1. We filled the viscosity cup with the 50 cm3 of the sample oil. 2. We filled the water bath with water. 3. We raised the temperature from room temperature to the desired temperatures for the experiment (38oC, 60 oC, 82 oC) 4. We placed a 50cm3 measuring cylinder at the bottom of the apparatus to allow runoff oil to flow into it. 5. When the desired temperature was reached we stirred the water bath cause uniform temperature of the sample. 6. We lifted the ball valve and allowed the oil to flow out, at the same time we measured using a stopwatch, the time taken for the oil to completely flow out. 7. We repeated the procedures for the different temperatures at their respective samples.

3.3

PRECAUTIONS 1. It was ensured that the heated viscosity cup was not touched to avoid burns 2. It was ensured that the water bath was stirred properly to ensure uniform temperature across the whole sample.

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CHAPTER FOUR 3.1 TABLE OF VALUES MOTOR OIL CONDEMNED OIL

Temperature (oC) Room temperature 32 38 60 82

Time (s) 12.93

Temperature (oC) 34

Time (s) 6.23

38 12.60 6.68 5.35 60 4.27

82

4.27

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