Normal distribution Statistics summary Normal distribution= ball shaped symmetrical Mean=mode=median

Proportion=aandeel To calculate the probability:

To calculate a value: Sampling distribution Population: all members of a group about which you want to draw a conclusion Parameter: Numerical measure that describes a characteristic of a population Sample: the portion of the population which is selected for the analysis Statistic: numerical measure that describes a characteristic of a sample Sampling distribution is distribution of the result if you actually selected all possible samples

Calculate mean of a sample:

Calculate standard deviation of a sample:

Standard error of the mean: gives a measure of the variability in the mean from sample to sample. The standard error of the mean decreases when the sample increases.

Z-value for the sampling distribution of sampling mean:

is the proportion of the population having some characteristics Sample proportion(p) provides an estimate of :

P has a binominal distribution (e.g. yes or no) Sampling distribution is a normal distribution The standard error of the proportion gives a measure of the variability in the proportion from sample to sample:

Making p to a Z-value:

Estimating (schatten) Sampling distribution: population mean known E.g.: what is the probability of sample mean when lower value then Estimating: population mean unknown, sample mean calculated E.g.: how confident can we are that the sample mean gives a good picture of the population mean A point estimate is a single number A confidence interval provides additional information about variability

Alpha (a) is the level of significance (0.05 or 0.001 etc.) To calculate the confidence interval of estimating you use: When you consider a confidence interval of 95%, the alpha (a) is 0.05

P=sample proportion The confidence interval for the population proportion () can be calculated by adding an allowance for uncertainty to the sample proportion (p).

Standard error of the proportion: The upper and lower limits for the population proportion are calculated with the following formula:

Example of calculating p: N=100, number of people left handed is 25 p=25/100=0.25 Testing Estimating Vs. Testing Estimating: based on measurement in the sample I try to know something about the population; sample proportion Testing: I have a theory or claim (hypothesis) about the population and I am testing whether it is true by using a sample; population sample Population mean hypothesis: - The mean monthly phone bill is 42 dollar Population proportion hypothesis: - The proportion of adults In this city is 0.68 The null hypothesis (H0) states the claim to be tested

Example: the average number of TVs is three - It is always about population parameter, not about a sample statistic - Begin with the assumption that the H0 is true - Refers to the status quo or current belief

The alternative hypothesis (H1) is the opposite of the H0 Example: average number of TVs is not three - Challenges the status quo

Hypotheses testing principle: If you reject the null hypothesis, you have statistical proof that the alternative hypothesis is correct. This is also true in the other way around. Alpha (a)=level of significance= left + right region of rejection Use a one tail test when the alternative

hypothesis is focused on above or below the mean So when there is only one critical value

To test a hypothesis about the population proportion based on the sample proportion:

Sample size N=population size n=sample size The size of the sample does not depend on the population size The margin of error=sampling error: - The amount of imprecision in the estimate of the population parameter

The amount added and subtracted to the point estimate to form the confidence interval = level of precision (D)= the maximum permissible difference between the sample mean ande the population mean

E=d To determine the required sample size for the mean, you must know: - The desired level of confidence, which determine the critical Z value - The acceptable level of precision (D) - The standard deviation Correlation Multivariate analysis (comparison/correlation) Nominal / Ordinal Interval / Ratio Nominal / Ordinal Cross-tabulation T-test Interval / Ratio T-test Correlation coefficient

Cross tabs / Chi-square: - Malhotra: Ch 18, p442-500 - SPSS book CH 6.1 Correlation

Malhotra: Ch 18, P551-556 SPSS book 7.3.2

Cross tabulation table, contingency table (example): - Two variables that are crossed - 3 categories for variable marks and 2 categories for gender, so it is called a 3x2 table - Sample size (n)=200

Chi-square (x2) test statistic, test of independence The x2 test statistic is calculated with frequencies in the table; - Observed frequency in a particular cell (Fo)

Expected frequency in a particular cell (Fe)

Calculate the expected frequency (Fe): Step2: determine the critical value X2u When X2 is above X2u, H0 is rejected What does the Chi-square (X2) do? - The test shows whether or not there is an relationship between two variables - In other words: whether or not the differences between Fo and Fe are significant What does it not do? The test does not show the direction of relationship The direction of relationship can be calculated statistically, but You can and have to observe the direction of relationship directly in the table

Correlation coefficient (Pearson variability/ product moment) - Measures the correlation between 2 variables on interval and ratio level - Can be negative or positive? (-1<c<+1) - Can be weak or strong? (e.g +0.5 or +0.9) Correlation scatter diagram

Correlation is no causal relation

Correlation coefficient:

Testing differences Hypotheses testing for a population mean The average number of tv sets in U.S. homes is equal to three Hypotheses testing for comparing the difference between the mean of two independent populations The average number of tv sets in U.S. is not equal to tv sets in Dutch homes

Two-sample testIndependent samplespopulation mean