The steel story! SS1 What is Steel?

? Steel is the general name given to a large family of ALLOYS of iron w/carbon and/or a variety of other elements The composition is determined by the job it has to do Iron containing 4% carbon is extremely brittle and has a limited range of uses. w/0.1% - is easily drawn into wire form and is ideal for making staples or paper clips. w/1%, is stronger w/o being too brittle used to make the huge cables supporting the Humber Bridge An alloy is a mixture of a metal w/one or more other elements. The components are mixed together while molten and allowed to cool uniform solid. The presence of other elements in a metal changes its props and can often inc its strength. Alloy composition is often expressed as a % by mass of the individual elements in it. However, not always fixed and can be represented by a specific formula Living w/steel Used in steel strings of piano, guitar,

triangle, lighting. Used in cars, gates, doors, locks, keys, fire extinguisher cases, sprinkler systems and surgical steel helps repair broken limbs Cars, bicycles, trains, ships, submarines, bridges, tunnels, roads
use strength and versatility of steel

Stainless steel cutlery, agricultural machinery, steel cans 17000 tonnes used in construction of Heathrow Airports Terminal 5
Helps to make clean, renewable energy available. Used in construction of wind

turbines, photovoltaic solar panels and fuel cells. Also most widely recycled material in the whole world.
SS2 From iron to steel Nearly all new steel made from impure iron in a blast furnace, prod. As a molten liquid Small amounts of phosphorous, sulphur or dissolved gases e.g. O2, N2 and H2 can lead to poor-quality steel Brittle steel problem. Could lead to serious consequences. Proportion of elements in steel need to be carefully monitored during production

 Final steel can be subjected to varying degrees of heating and cooling (heat treatment) and worked it by hammering or rolling (work treatment) Steel highly versatile material Each batch of steel destined for a particular customer who specifies the requirements for its compo.and any necessary treatments this is called the SPECIFICATION for that batch of steel Impure iron has many other elements dissolved in it. Most important are carbon, Si, manganese, P and S Metals of this are very brittle To turn it into steel, the C content must be lowered, most of the P and S removed and other elements added before material solidifies. Done in basic oxygen steelmaking process BOS Batches of about 300 tonnes of high-quality steel are made in just 40 minutes Extraction of metals: Metal ores are naturally occurring chemical compounds/elements that are mined on an eco.basis in order to process them to obtain the metal in elemental form After removing the worthless material (gangue) the metal is obtained by the process of reduction Can either be CHEMICAL or ELECTROLYTIC and the choice of method depends on relative reactivity of the metal and other factors HIGHLY reactive metals e..g alkali and alkaline earth metals of Groups 1 and 2 and Al are usually obtained by electrolysis of a molten compound of the element E.g. Na is obtained by elec.of molten NaCl At the cathode: Na+ + e- Na At the anode: Cl- Cl2 + eAl is obtained by electrolysis of molten aluminium oxide Cathode: Al3+ + 3e- Al Anode: O2- O2 + 2eLESS reactive metals e.g. Fe, Mn, Zn, tin and Pb can be obtained from their oxides by reduction using C or CO E.g. SnO2 + C Sn + CO2 Fe3O4 + 4CO 3Fe + 4CO2 (occurs in blast furnace) Certain important metals are extracted by reduction using a more reactive metal. Often the case when C reduction not feasible, either because temp needed to melt the metal compound is v.high and/or the C reacts with the metal at these temps to form a carbide E.g. TiCl4 + 2Mg Ti + MgCl2 Cr2O3 + 2Al 2Cr + Al2O3 Finally, some v.unreative metals found in their elemental form E.g. Ag and gold only need extraction from the material theyre found in.

Removing unwanted elements:

Many of the reactions involved in removing unwanted materials are REDOX Process Flow Diagrams are used extensively in industry to provide a clear overview of the stages involved in an industrial process Removing sulphur: Stage 1: Scrap steel and typically about 300 tonnes of molten iron from a b.f are poured into a huge container LADLE Sulphur is the 1st to be removed Done in a sep.reduction process. Several 100kg of powdered Mg are injected through a vertical tube- LANCE into the molten iron in the ladle In a violent exo reaction, the SULFUR is REDUCED to MgS floats to surface and is raked off: Mg + S MgS The huge ladle brings the molten desulferised iron to the steelmaking vessel or converter, which already contains some scrap steel Stage 2: C, P and other elements are removed by direct OXIDATION w/gaseous O C + O2 CO Si + O2 Si02 Mn + O2 MnO 4P + 5O2 P4O10 Fe + O2 FeO in preparation for the oxygen blow, the converter turns into a vertical position and a water-cooled lance gradually inches its way down close to the surface of the iron a supersonic blast of O under pressure forces its way into the vessel seething foam of molten metal and gas that is blasted up the wall of the converter CO escapes as a gas and is collected via a hood over the vessel Other oxides remain and must be separated Stage 3: Oxides of P and Si are acidic and will reacted w/bases salts Soon after the O blow has started, a mix of CaO and MgO is added These are basic oxides (the B in BOS) and react w/acidic oxides molten slag that floats to the surface. Oxides of Mn and Fe also collect in the slag Slag can be separated from the molten metal because they have diff.densities and form 2 layers Slag forms upper layer, molten metal the bottom layer. Keeping track: Closely monitored in control room where a computer models the conds in the converter 2 mins before the predicted end of the O blow, an automatic sampling device SUBLANCE, descends. Measures Temp and C content and removes a sample of metal for analysis Comp.uses up-to-date info on temp and C content to predict exactly how much more O is needed to reach target composition and temp

 Sample withdrawn is used to determine %s of elements in the steel Use atomic emission spectroscopy. Involves making the steel sample into an electrode for an electric arc, so that each element present emits a characteristic line spectrum Intensities of lines are proportional to conc of atoms of each element. At this stage, analysis involved only a few elements but method can be used to monitor up to 20 elements During the O blow the elements are oxidised in a sequence, Si 1st, Mn, P and then C When most of the impurities have been removed, some of the Fe is also oxidised unavoidable but kept to a min Controlling the temperature: Careful control is vital At the end of the O blow, a temp of about 1700-1740oC must be reached TARGET TAPPING TEMP Higher temps waste energy and can cause severe damage to converter linings Lower temps can be even more costly is metal solidifies No external heating, oxidation reactions are all highly exo and generate lots of energy Some is lost to the surroundings. Rest is absorbed in raising the temp Some is absorbed by scrap steel as it heats up and melts, maintains a heat balance The scrap serves both as a coolant and source of recycled steel At the end of the blow: Converter is rotated to pour off the molten steel through a hole near the top into a ladle (tapping) and then tilted in opp direction to remove the slag (slagging) Stage 4: Lumps of Al are thrown into ladle Combines w/excess O that dissolved in the metal during O blow, AlO forms and floats to surface Stage 5: Computer model predicts exact quantity of each substance to achieve specification for particular batch of steel C, Mn and Si are often added again Cr and Al are other common additions Addition of Co results in a v.hard steel for cutting tools or robots Niobium, molybdenum and tungsten may be added Ar is blown into the liquid steel using a lance, to stir the mix and make sure composition and temp are uniform Ladle arc furnace allows steel in the ladles to be reheated electrically so its poss to control the temp precisely Particularly imp in producing high C/Low P steels steel rods Samples taken frequently for analysis A final trimming adjusts the concs of elements in the steel to required values, and molten steel is now ready for CASTING A cont process carried out by casting into very long strands of solid metal, or poured into moulds in which it solidifies into INGOTS

Can steelmaking be improved? Growing demand for even higher quality steels w/uniform compositions The BOS process is kept under review and new tech is introduced to produce batches of steel to these very precise spec.as efficiently and economically possible E.g. recent advances in cont.casting process large energy savings May be poss to direct roll the hot steel from the caster energy saved Process is cont monitored by computers and are quality measurements at all stages Computers alert plant engineers when there are problems and programs give advice on solutions or perhaps even correct the solution Larger more efficient electric arc furnaces are taking over This uses old scrap steel that is melted by the heat generated when a spark is produced b/w c electrodes Lime is added and impurities are removed as slag By carefully selecting the scrap and making necessary additions, relatively small batches of steel are made to meet given to meet spec Steelmaking has traditionally been a LARGE SCALE PROCESS If only small quantities of it is required, is uneconomic to use a large scale operation and the MINI-MILL route is becoming used routinely Involves an electric arc furnace, using scrap steel, where as few as 75tonnes can be produced Adjacent to the furnace is a casting machine to process the product. SS3 Steel for a purpose Stainless steel needs no extra protection Developed in 1913 by a Sheffield chemist (Harry Brearley). Investigating the rapid wear of rifle barrels and decided to try a steel containing a high level of CHROMIUM to see if this would prolong their life Routine analysis involved dissolving it in acid. His high-Cr steel wouldnt dissolve Samples left lying were shiny Immediately realised he found steel cutlery. Not need to be dried after washing and no frequent polishing Addition of high levels of Cr to produce stainless steel stopping a perfectly natural/spontaneous process tendency of elemental iron compound state Many metals inc Fe occur in Earths surface as OXIDES Change from a metal oxide energetically favourable process. Oxide is more stable than metal To reverse is requires GREAT DEAL of energy (high temps in blast furnace) Iron tends to re-form its oxide i.e. RUSTS. Common name for CORROSION OF IRON Rusting of steel familiar problem for car owners ironoxide Cars rust because the steel theyre made from reacts w/O2 and H2O in atmosphere When it rusts a hydrated form of iron(III)oxide w/variable composition (Fe2O3.H2O) is produced

 Oxide is permeable to air and water and doesnt form a protective later on the metal surface metal conts to corrode under layers of rust Fe and steel will rust whenever in contact w/moist air, rate of it is greatly influenced by impurities, presence of acids or other electrolytes in sol.in contact w/iron and availability of dissolved O2 Stainless steel: Doesnt rust because it forms a surface layer of chromium(III)oxide (Cr2O3) This oxide isnt hydrated and adheres closely to metal surface Oxide layer invisible, only a few nanometres thick, allows natural brightness of metal to show Impervious to air and water and so protects metal beneath it. If you scratch surface film, quickly reforms and restores protection

What happens during rusting?

Is an ELECTROCHEMICAL process Electrochemical cells are set up in metal surface where diff areas act as sites of OX and REDUC 2 half equations involved in rusting: Fe2+(aq) + 2e- Fe(s) E = -0.44V 1/2 O2(g) + H2O(l) + 2e- 2OH-(aq) E = +0.40V the reduction of O2 to OH ions occurs at more +ve potential and so e- flow to this cell from the Fe half cell in which Fe is OXIDISED to iron(II)ions conc.of dissolved O2 in water determines which regions of metal surface are sites of reduction and which are OX at edges of drop where conc of O2 is highest, O2 is reduced OH- ions e- needed come from oxidation of Fe at centre of water drop e- released flow in metal surface to edges of drop explains why corrosion is greatest at centre of a water drop or under a layer of paint rust forms in a series of 20 processes w/in solution as Fe2+ and OH- ions diffuse away from metal surface. Doesnt form as a protective layer some ionic impurities e.g. NaCl from salt spray near the sea, promote rusting by inc.conductivity of H2O other ionic compounds can interfere w/electrochemical reactons involved and actually inhibit rusting. Might happen if +ve ions form an insol.OH w/ OH- ions produced Or if ve ions form an insol.Fe compound pH of sol is also important rusting is accelerated under acidic conds but inhibited under alkaline conds simplest way of protecting steel against rust is providing a barrier b/w metal and atmos. may be oil, grease or paint barriers made from organic polymers are inc.used steel is coated w/plastic film colourful and flexible sometimes Fe is covered w/thin layer of another metal.

 Many car manufacturers use GALVANISED STEEL protective coating of zinc. Zinc layer is protected from corrosion by zinc oxide Even if coating is scratched, protection is still maintained zinc is being used as a SACRIFICIAL metal If steel is used in car bodies, rusting only postponed not eliminated In the sea, conds are far from standard, ORDER of electrode potentials for this reactions isnt changed Blocks of zinc are used to protect North Sea oil rigs and hulls of ships by transferring corrosion from a valuable complex steel structure to a readily replaceable metal lump Any metal w/a more ve e.p than Fe could be used as a sacrificial metal Tin cannot be used, but iron coated with tin was used to make containers to preserve food SS4 Recycling steel about 45% of worlds steel production is from recycled steel Magnetic properties of steel make it easy to separate from other materials, and cleaning can usually be done by simple incineration to remove labels and paint Scrap steel makes up about 18% of every cast of new metal Much of scrap used in steelmaking comes from steelworks itself - waste from previous batches, miscasts etc. the steel industry consumes its own waste Scrap from discarded products, such as cars and washing machines, must be carefully graded and selected. Steelmakers need to have a good idea of the content of the scrap metal to avoid adding unwanted elements Some elements improve properties. E.g. some mild steels contain low concs of transition metals such as Ni and Cr. Other elements such as Cu can cause issues by altering softness

Recycling used tin cans:

Involves removing tin coating from steel Has been done using the waste metal from tin plating works Shredding cans and removing unwanted paper and residual food is a vital part of the preparation before detinning One easy way of cleaning- burning unwanted things but tin diffuses into steel during it and makes it less useful Mechanical shredding devices now shred and clean cans and steel fragments picked out magnetically (98% unwanted material removed) Treated w/hot sol of NaOH in presence of an oxidising agent Tin dissolves as a compound of tin(IV) : Sn(s) + 6OH-(aq) [Sn(OH)6]2-(aq) +4e The steel left behind is rinsed and pressed into bales for transport to a steel plant. Tin can be recovered by electrolysis

SS5 Partners in steel May be many diff.elements present in steel E.g. C and Si are non-metals but most are metals. Mainly d-block elements

 Sometimes called TMs show a transition in properties b/w the reactive s-block metals and the less reactive metals on the left hand side of the p-block Their chemistry is v.characteristic and is a direct result of their elec.structure Elements on the edges of the d-block e.g. Sc and Zn dont show props and arent classed as TMs Can form compounds in a range of O.states w/characteristic colours Copper(II) ions blue complex w/H2O and NH2 ligands. Complex formation central metal atom/ion is surrounded by 6 e- donating ligands, 4 and 2 are also common Iron forms the red complex haemoglobin, responsible for transporting O2 to the blood. O2 mol is relatively loosely attached to the iron. Carried around the body and released from the complex when needed Can act as catalysts e.g. Fe in Haber Process, Platinum-rhodium mix in catalytic convertors Some can be expensive cost of steel rises if used in steelmaking Price of a metal depends on many factors other than its abundance in the Earths crust. Includes cost of mining the ore, ease of extraction, demand for the metal, transportation costs and political factors in countries Some elements are said to be STRATEGICALLY CRITICAL because 1 or 2 countries have a monopoly over their supply