The Literature

Analyzing and Critiquing the Literature

A review of literature should be integrated and critical. Each study should be reviewed individually, summarized and then juxtaposed with other studies in the area showing how this research leads to the question in your specific research. The variables under study in your research should emerge from the literature. The design of the study should emerge from the review of literature. This chapter should lead the reader to an understanding of how your study will contribute to the literature.

What is meta-analysis?
Meta-analysis is a statistical approach to understanding the literature. Meta-analysis uses effect size statistics to evaluate the literature.

Criticisms of Meta-analysis
Coding of the data Reporting of significant effects only or lack of reporting of effects that are not statistically significant

Descriptive Research Methods

Scientific Method
Decide on a problem Gather facts to refine the problem (narrow definition is best) Develop hypotheses (through induction) Test hypotheses

Definition of Descriptive Research

Descriptive research describes the present status of people, attitudes, and progress.

Forms of Descriptive Research

Ex post facto (after the fact) Case studies Correlation studies Developmental studies Survey studies

Sampling Techniques

Good sampling techniques are required of all researchers.

Population

A population is defined as all members that are described by the characteristics selected by the experimenter.
All students at SJSU. All women students at SJSU. All Kinesiology majors. All MA sport management students. All students in KIN 250.

Sample

A sample is a portion of the defined population.

Different types of Samples

Simple random sample Systematic sample Stratified sample Cluster sample Proportional sample

Simple Random Sample

Table of Random Numbers Choosing numbers out of a hat

Systematic Sample

Systematically selects every nth person

Stratified Sample

A stratified sample assures a random sample, however the sample has equal numbers within a particular characteristic.

Cluster Sample
A sample is chosen because it is difficult to sample the entire population, e.g., choosing all members of a particular class rather than individuals. A cluster sample is often easier and less costly, but generalizability is limited because of an N of 1.

Proportional Sample
Proportion out groups that you might want in your sample. The proportions should be logically based in the literature.

Ex Post Facto Research

Ex post facto research is sometimes called causal comparative research. Ex post facto research is research that takes place after the fact. Often ex post facto research is used to explain something in the present from data collected sometime in the past.

Problems with Ex Post Facto Designs

Is the cause that you hypothesize correct? Many causes may be interrelated or the result of more than one variable interacting. Extraneous variables may not be accounted for. Participants are self-selected. What puts them into these categories?

Case Studies
Case studies are usually an examination into one element of a population, e.g., one school district, one school, one research class, one person. Case studies are often conducted in social work and counseling for diagnosis and recommendation purposes.

Case Studies
Observe take notes on events and their relationships by their location in time and space. Subjects recall personal documents, diaries, and letters Measures may be physical, sociological, or psychological

Case Studies
Must be careful about generalization Data are limited to one unit Case studies can be qualitative or quantitative

Writing Hypotheses

Directional (H1)
Physical activity program will affect body composition such that physical activity individuals will lose more fat than sedentary individuals.

Null (HO)
Physical activity will not affect body composition.

Alternative
Physical activity will affect body composition.

The researcher wants to accept the directional hypothesis. The hypothesis is accepted if the probability of finding a statistically significant effect by chance alone is less than 5 times in100 (p<.05).
The researcher wants to reject the null hypothesis. The hypothesis is rejected if the probability of finding a statistically significant effect by chance alone is less than 5 times in 100 (p<.05).

Hypothesis Testing
HO True Accept Reject Correct decision Type1 error () HO False Type II error Correct decision ()

Alpha () means the probability level acceptable for statistical significance in a study. Type I error also means the probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis. Beta ()) measures the Type II error. Type II error means the probability of accepting a false null hypothesis.

Hypothesis Testing
Directional H1 True Accept Correct decision H1 False Type1 error () HO True Correct decision Null HO False Type II error ()

Reject

Type II error ()

Correct decision

Type1 error ()

Correct decision

Alpha () means the probability level acceptable for statistical significance in a study. Type I error also means the probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis. Beta ()) measures the Type II error. Type II error means the probability of accepting a false null hypothesis.

Correlational Studies
Correlational studies examine the relationship between two or more variables. Correlations examine how variables covary together.

Positive Correlation

From: Rothstein, A. L. (1985). Research Design & Statistics for Physical Education. Prentice-Hall, Inc.: Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Types of Correlations
Pearson correlation Spearman correlation Partial correlation Multiple correlation Multiple regression

Developmental Studies

Developmental studies are concerned with changes that take place as a function of time.

Kinesiology

Growth and Development

Physical milestones

Motor Development
Studies of the patterns of movement Motor learning across the lifespan Exercise physiology across the lifespan Biomechanics across the lifespan Sociocultural effects across the lifespan

Types of Developmental Studies

Longitudinal studies
Long term, collect data from the same subject over a number of years

Cross sectional studies

Short term, usually 6 months or less and all data are collected

Survey Design

Surveys are used to gather extensive amounts of information for large groups of individuals in short time spans.

Survey Designs
Public opinion Attitudes Achievement

Educational Governmental Industrial Political

Survey Design

A good survey
Wide scope Accuracy Ease of data collection

A bad survey
Superficial Poor return rate Poor survey instruments

Things to Keep in Mind When Creating Surveys

Define terms Avoid statements with double implications Avoid leading questions Beware of double negatives

Things to Keep in Mind When Creating Surveys

Clearly identify the survey purpose Outline the field of study Avoid overlapping questions Order questions in a logical format

Simple to complex

Make sure questions are clear

Eliminate ambiguities Eliminate all grammatical errors

Pre-code data for computation

Profile of Mood States

Bem Sex Role Inventory and the Personality Attributes Questionnaire

Bem (1974) constructed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) It presented from 20 adjectives viewed as desirable for men, 20 adjectives viewed as desirable for women, and 20 gender-neutral adjectives. Spence and Helmreich constructed the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ).

Examples of Popular and Widely Used Instruments

Beck Depression Inventory Myers Briggs Indicator Keirsey Temperment Sorter Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Leadership Opinion Questionnaire Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale IV (WAIS IV) Kolb's Learning Styles Inventory Measures of Self-Esteem; Self Efficacy Dishmans Exercise Adherence Measure

LeUnes, A.D. (2002). Bibliography on psychological tests used in research and practice in sport and exercise psychology. Lewiston, N.Y. : E. Mellen Press. See: HaPI - Health and Psychosocial Instruments