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[Mukabi JN (Ph.

D) SPECIAL LECTURE] Page 1



The Challenges and Solutions for Problematic Soils for Infrastructure Development
in Kenya and the East African Region
John MUKABI
1
, Kazuyuki GONO
2
, Bernard NJOROGE
3
, Rikiya HATEKAYAMA
4
, Abiy TESFAYE
5
, Justus
OTWANI
6
, George AMOYO
7
, Protus MURUNGA
8
, John NDEMI
9
, Joram OKADO
10
, Silvester KOTHEKI
11

1
Kenstesu Kaihatsu Consultants Ltd. mukabinj@gmail.com/dr.mukabi@kensetsu.co.ke,
2
Kajima Corporation
kgono@kajima.co.jp,
3
University of Nairobi bnjoroge@uon.ac.ke,
4
Kajima Corporation
rhatekayama@kajima.co.jp,
5
European Union Abiy.TESFAYE@ec.europa.eu,
6
Kensetsu Kaihatsu Ltd.
Justus.otwani@gmail.com,
7
Kensetsu Kaihatsu Ltd. gamoyo@gmail.com,
8
Norken Ltd.
pmurunga@norken.co.ke,
9
Norken Ltd. jndemi@norken.co.ke,
10
Kensetsu Kaihatsu Ltd. jokado@gmail.com,
11
Kensetsu Kaihatsu Ltd. Silvester.kotheki@kensetsu.co.ke

Abstract: The existing technologies that deal with problematic soils are far from precise
and have been found to be grossly inadequate and usually culminate in extremely
expensive designs and methods of construction. On the other hand, when adopted without
due considerations, structures constructed on or within problematic soils have a tendency
of either deteriorating at an alarming rate and/ or failing altogether.
This Paper provides some pragmatic engineering solutions that have been developed on
the basis of long-term research and have been successfully adopted for design and
construction of various civil engineering structures within this region.
With the increased rate of rapid development in Africa, coupled with the wide existence of
problematic soils in this region, it has become a necessity to develop techniques that can
characterize such geomaterials as precisely as possible and subsequently innovate
technologies that can make their optimum use, either fully or partially as construction
materials.
1. INTRODUCTION
Tropical problematic soils found in various parts of Africa, commonly classified as
expansive, collapsing, pedogenic, volcanic, saline and industrial wastes, are usually
products of physical and chemical in-situ weathering of igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks influenced by complex interaction of variables as well as environmental
matrices and changes. Due to this, their characterization for use for geotechnical
engineering purposes has hitherto been deemed an extremely complex exercise.
Furthermore, precise determination of the appropriate extent or level of their suitability for
light structures has hardly been achieved due to the nature of their intrinsic properties and
the difficulty of precisely characterizing these soils. As a consequence, construction within
or above these soils has in most cases proven to be either disastrous and/or unreasonably
expensive.
In this study, the results of some long term experimental research are discussed. Some of
the new methods developed to provide cost-effective solutions aimed at enhancing the
engineering properties related to plasticity, shear strength, elastic, elasto-plastic and
resistance to deformation are also introduced. These methods, which include the OPMC,
Suction-Stress, Moisture-Swell Control Interface and Rerap, were developed by
comprehensively carrying out conventional and innovatively modified laboratory and in-situ
experimental testing, under various physical and mechanical conditions, particle matrix
interactions, stress-induced loading factors and environmental changes.
Innovative testing methods for comprehensively characterizing the physical and
mechanical properties of the expansive geomaterials were developed to effectively study
among other phenomenon:-
1) the influence of clay content, 2) nature of shape and structure of the soil minerals in
relation to the surface area in contact, 3) soil particle orientation, 4) micro-aggregate
[Mukabi JN (Ph.D) SPECIAL LECTURE] Page 2

cluster formation, 5) interaction of sesquioxides, 6) contribution of the chemical
composition of the colloid, and 7) influence of exchangeable ions.
Powerful analytical methods either modified or newly developed during this study based on
scientific and/or engineering concepts mainly associated with consolidation and stress
ratio functions, energy mobilization /dissipation, dynamic loading, excitation, stress-
induced transversal and shear wave propagation , elastic properties as well as theories for
back analysis of deformation stress history, are also introduced.
Some of the detrimental aspects of problematic expansive soils are depicted in Plate No. 1





Plate No. 1 Depiction of Some of Detrimental Aspects of Problematic Expansive Soils


2. TESTING REGIME
The In-situ and laboratory testing regimes which were innovatively designed are described
by Mukabi (2001c) and Gono et al (2003a) as well as in various other Engineering Reports
prepared by Kensetsu Kaihatsu Consultants.

[Mukabi JN (Ph.D) SPECIAL LECTURE] Page 3

3. TEST RESULTS AND MATERIALS CHARACTERIZATION

Numerous tests have been undertaken comprehensively for purposes of characterizing
problematic soils as precisely as possible.
The discussions of these test results and the corresponding materials characterization are
presented in various Engineering Reports prepared by and compiled by Kensetsu
Kaihatsu Consultants and partly reported by Mukabi (2001c) and Gono et al. (2003a).

4. SOME SOLUTIONS AND APPLICATIONS
4.1 The Rerap Methods
Determination of appropriate counter-measures
1) Replacement Method - Tables 4.1 and 4.2 as well as Figures 4.1 and 4.2 show the
design and QC criteria developed on the basis of research and adopted for the
construction of the Addis Ababa ~ Goha Tsion Trunk Road Project. In determining the
necessary thickness t
CL
to replace the expansive soil, the following equations proposed in
this study were adopted.

{ }
SP
b
p P CL
xS t T t =
(4.1)
The total pavement thickness T
P
is expressed as:
v f
b
P P
t xR t T + =
(4.2)
And the coefficient of subgrade structural performance S
SP
is computed from:
| |
5 . 0
/ / 1
e d
CBR
SP
e S
o
=
(4.3)
On the other hand, the basic pavement thickness t
P
b
from Eq. (3.10) is computed from the
following equation.
( ) ( ) | |
| |
P
d P d P P
b
P
D N
CBR C CBR B A t
/ log
log log
2
+ =
(4.4)
Where the roughness factor ( ) | |
25 . 0
2
i t i f
R R R R = : R
i
is the initial roughness factor and R
t
is the
terminal roughness factor, t
V
in Equation 11 is the positive value of the specified tolerance
for pavement thickness, A
P
=219, B
P
=211, C
P
=58 and D
P
=120. The parameter o
e
in
Equation 12 is defined as:
( )
cn
e e e
M LL
V C B
e e
e A

= o
(4.5)
[Mukabi JN (Ph.D) SPECIAL LECTURE] Page 4

where A
e
=0.23, B
e
=0.54, C
e
=0.08 are constants and V
e
=Annual Average
Evapotranspiration in m/year (ref. to Mukabi et al. (2003c), LL=liquid Limit in percentage
and M
cn
=Natural Moisture Content of the subgrade material expressed in percentage form.
All thickness are calculated in mm. Continuous assessment and evaluation of the
performance of the sections already constructed by adopting this criteria indicates that the
method has so far been quite successful.
Table 4.1 - Determining Required Capping Layer Thickness (cm) for RE 1 Type Phase II
C
o
d
i
n
g

O
p
t
i
o
n

Plasticity and
Swell Condition
Required Thickness
for Different Subgrade
Bearing Capacity
P
l
a
s
t
i
c
i
t
y

I
n
d
e
x

S
w
e
l
l

(
%
)

S
m

C
B
R

=

1

C
B
R

=

2

C
B
R

=

3

C
B
R

=

4

4
<
C
B
R
<
7

A PI>45 S
m
>10 140 90 70 60 30
B 35<PI<45 S
m
<10 110 75 60 50 20
C PI<35 S
m
<5 70 65 55 50 20


Table 4.2 - Determining Required Capping Layer Thickness
CBR of
Imported
material
Required Thickness for Different Native
Subgrade Bearing Capacity (cm) for RE 1 Type
Required Thickness for Different Native
Subgrade Bearing Capacity (cm) RE2 Type
CBR = 1 CBR = 2 CBR = 3 CBR = 4 CBR = 5 CBR = 6 CBR = 7
15 70 65 55 50 40 30 20
20 60 55 45 40 30 25 20
25 55 45 40 35 25 20 15
30 50 40 35 30 20 15 10
40 45 35 30 25 15 10 10
50 40 30 25 20 10 10 10
60 35 25 20 15 10 10 10



Notes
+ Where the results are on the Boundary Limit or
within its vicinity, the Criteria of Clay Activity (Ac)
expressed as Ac = 3.6R
-2.35
(R=LL/PI) may be
adopted or otherwise as directed by the
Consultant. For example, should the PI > 45 and
Sm < 10, if Ac <1.0 then option B may be adopted
instead of Option A or vice versa.
+ If Ac < 0.75 then maximum swell values of S
m
=
15% can be allowed for Options B and C.
+ S
m
represents maximum swell measured
uniaxially after 4 days soak and under a standard
surcharge pressure of 298kg/m
2
.
+ For materials that exhibit excessively high initial
rates of swell, the Consultant shall be consulted
for further analysis prior to characterizing the
expansive subgrade material.

Figure 4.1 Nomograph for Replacement Layer
thickness (1<CBR
d
<4)
Figure 4.2 Nomograph for Replacement Layer
Thickness for (4<CBR
d
<8)
[Mukabi JN (Ph.D) SPECIAL LECTURE] Page 5

4.2 MC Technique
The importance of moisture control has been clearly demonstrated by Mukabi etal. (2007a
and 2007c) through nomographs that depict the influence of moisture~suction variation
on the bearing strength of varying geomaterials and can also be witnessed from plate No.2.

Plate No. 2 Typical Problematic Soils Black Cotton Soil in E. Africa
The variation in the nature of geomaterials is simulating through the application of varying
plasticity characteristics and magnitudes. The inset equations also indicate that the moduli
of deformation or deformation resistance are susceptible to moisture~suction variations, a
fact that has also been discussed by Mukabi (2008a-this conference). The ongoing
research on this subject intends to develop a technique of controlling the moisture content
of a subgrade of an expansive nature by systematically and technically imbedding sand
columns in predetermined areas or zones. Figures 4.3 ~ 4.4 present part of the preliminary
results that have been obtained in the initial stages of testing. Although definite
conclusions cannot be derived from these results yet, the trends exhibited from these
graphs are distinctly clear. In other words, embedment of sand interface layers seams to
be effective in reducing swell and increasing the bearing capacity notwithstanding the
magnitude of the surcharge pressure.

Figure 4.3 - Free swell soaking Figure 4.4 Soaking period for CBR

4.3 Suction Stress Method
[Mukabi JN (Ph.D) SPECIAL LECTURE] Page 6

Research for purposes of developing this method is still in the initial stages. The basic idea
is to develop a technique of constructing a subsurface drainage layer underlain by a layer
compacted to a higher degree in order to induce high but varying suction stresses. The
layer is intended to facilitate in directing any excess moisture away from the pavement
structure. Reference can be made to Mukabi (2008a-this conference) which discusses
maintenance and Mukabi (2004a). Figures 4.5 and 4.6 are a representation of how this
technique was used by incorporating a suction stress column in the design of an OPMC
Stabilized retaining wall and maintenance along the Addis Ababa ~ Debre Markos
International Trunk Road, the all important northern corridor that connects Sudan and
Eritrea.

Figure 4.5 - Use of a Suction Column for OPMC Stabilized Retaining Wall.

t
A
BC
=15cm
t
A
f
=12.5cm
t
B
f
=20cm
Natural Gravel Boulders
Filter Course
Crushed Aggregate
Filter Course 0~40 only
Crushed Aggregate Base
Course M.S @ 3:20.5 : 0~40
Asphalt Concrete
Constructed to Specifications
Carriageway
Shoulder
Stepped & Compacted to higher degree
to achieve high suction stresses
Subgrade
10cm 25cm 75cm
t
A
S
=7.5cm
Crushed Aggregate Base
Course M.S @ 3:20.5 : 0~40
t
A
f
=7.5cm
t
A
f2
=7.5cm

Figure 4.6 Suction-stress method

4.4 Long Term Consolidation
Mitchell (1976), Leroueil and Vaughan (1990), Mukabi (1995a), Mukabi and Tatsuoka
(1999c) and Mukabi et al. (2003d) have shown that long term consolidation enhances the
strength and deformation resistance of geomaterials subjected to various conditions
including disturbance and swelling. Anderson and Stokoe (1978) performed resonant
column tests under constant isotropic confining pressure
0
, and showed that the value of
[Mukabi JN (Ph.D) SPECIAL LECTURE] Page 7

low amplitude shear modulus increases with time and expressed this empirically as
depicted in the following formula.
G0 (t) = G0 (t-tp) [1+NGlog (t/tp)] (4.6)
On the other hand, Mukabi (1995), generated formulae related to the enhancement of
strength, deformation resistance (maximum elastic modulus) and linear elastic limit as
graphically represented in Figs 4.8 and 4.9. Figure 4.7 presents the fundamental concept
of stage construction.
Note:
Shortcomings
requires
Long Term Planning
Long Term
Construction
Close Monitoring
Proper Construction
& Maintenance of
Drainage Facilities
Construct Separating or
Impermeable OPMS Layer with
Good Drainage Facilities
Determine
Linear Elastic
Range &
deformation
Properties
Apply Long
Term
consolidation
Concept
Construct Gravel Layer
Continue Stage
Construction Until
Enhanced
Engineering
Properties are
Achieved According
to Design
Requirements
Implement Strain
Controlled Preloading
Determine Range of
Linear Elasticity
Is Linear Elastic
Range Expanding?
Prepare & Compact Expansive Soil
Subgrade In Accordance with
Specifications
YES
NO

Figure 4.7 - Fundamental Concept of Stage Construction Applying The Concept of Elastic Limit Strain


y = 3E+30x3E+30
5000
5200
5400
5600
5800
6000
6200
6400
6600
6800
7000
0 200 400 600 800 1000
E
l
a
s
t
i
c

M
o
d
u
l
u
s
,

E
m
a
x
(
k
g
f
/
c
m
2
)
Consolidation time (hrs)
Pre-swelling (D79-3)
Post-swelling (D79-3)
Undisturbed (D79-5)
OAP Clay
a = 0.01%/min
y = 3E+30x3E+30
0
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0 200 400 600 800 1000
E
l
a
s
t
i
c

l
i
m
i
t

s
t
r
a
i
n
,

a
(
%
)
Consolidation time (hrs)
Least disturbed
Pre-swelling stage (D79-3)
Post-swelling (D79-3)
Linear (Post-swelling (D79-3))

Fig. 4.8 Effects of Long Term Consolidation on Deformation Resistance
[Mukabi JN (Ph.D) SPECIAL LECTURE] Page 8


Figure 4.9 Consolidation time effect on elastic modulus and deviator stress
(1) Effect of Construction Equipment, Vehicular Compaction and Surcharge Pressure
Computation of total and initial settlement resulting from construction and surcharge of
upper layers is considered vital since this influences the characteristics of the roadbed
soils and the magnitude of their engineering parameters. In computing the total settlement,
the generalized Eq. (4.7) below was adopted.
|
|
.
|

\
|
A +
+
A =

= =
ij
K
iC
ij
o
j i
i
i
C
i
ij
T
P
P P
e
C
H S
0 1 , 1
10
log
1
(4.7)
where, H
i
= Thickness of each layer in cm. Back Calculation of induced stresses and
strains due to these effects were derived from equations 4.8 and 4.9.
( ) | |
0 0 10
/ log P P P
e
C
i
ci
A +
A
=
(4.8)
Rewriting Equation (7) we obtain,
) 1 10 (
0

A
=
i
k
sc ij
P
P
o
(4.9)
Where,
i
c i
i
C e i A =
=1
o

It is assumed that the stress is induced uniformly and that the magnitude of induced stress
reduces proportionally with depth. However, the quantitative reduction is average over the
depth of each layer as a logarithmic function of the summed reduction in voids ratio (e)
and compression Index (C
C
). The stress induced is computed as a resulting value of the
post-construction surcharge. This effect is depicted in Figures. 4.10 and 4.11 for expansive
tropical soils. Figure 4.12 and the insert equation after Mukabi and Gono (2003a) were
used for the design of containing swell for pavement structures constructed within areas of
expansive tropical soils.
[Mukabi JN (Ph.D) SPECIAL LECTURE] Page 9


0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
L1 L2 L3
C
C
(
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n

I
n
d
e
x
)
Layers
BC (Before Consolidation)
AC (After Consolidation
Reduction in
Compression
Properties
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
L1 L2 L3
S
w
e
l
l
,

%
Layers
AC (After Consolidation)
BC (Before Consolidation)
Reduction
in Swelling
Properties
Fi
gure 4.10 Reduction in compression Figure 4.11 Reduction in swell
(2) Dynamic Loading Effects
Subsequent to longterm static loading, the trial sections described by Gono and Mukabi
(2003a) were subjected to dynamic loading. As can be noted from Figs. 4.13, the three
trial sections were initially subjected to around 61 passes of dynamic loading by use of a
loaded dump truck of 1.2 axle configuration and front and rear axl e loads of 4.5 and 9.5
tons respectively. This vehicle was chosen since it represents the most common type of
traffic along the project road (Addis Ababa ~ Goha Tsion).
Fi
gure 4.12 - Surcharge Pressure on Swell Figure 4.13 Deformation characteristics
Deformation during the static loading stages was measured by use of imbedded pegs (ref.
to Gono and Mukabi, 2003a), while steel plates were adopted during the dynamic loading
stage. In order to analyze the seasonal effects, the sets of both insitu and laboratory
tests were carried out in two stages during the wet and dry seasons under static loading
conditions. Dynamic loading was carried out for 20 days subsequent to which the ground
response was monitored for 3 days under static loading conditions. Dynamic reloading
was then effected for another 4 days after which insitu measurement of deformation,
extrusion of least disturbed samples and material sampling for laboratory testing was
undertaken. It can be noted from the results in Fig. 4.14 that longterm consolation and
primary dynamic loading tend to enhance the strength and deformation properties of
expansive soils.
[Mukabi JN (Ph.D) SPECIAL LECTURE] Page 10


Figure 4.14 Static/dynamic loading Figure 4.15 Coupling design
Notes:
1: Primary Static Loading, 2: Secondary Static Loading, D: Dynamic Loading

4.5 Coupling Method (Drainage Layer and Suction Stress)
Figure 4.15 shows an example of the coupling method that was used in maintenance of
some defect areas along the Addis Ababa ~ Goha Tsion Trunk Road in an area that had
very high precipitation levels Ethiopia. This method proved quite effective in enhancing the
strength, stability, bearing capacity and deformation resistance of the pavement structure
under the stated conditions.

4.6 Moisture Control and Interface Technique
This method, depicted in Figure 4.16, was also effectively applied in maintaining various
sections of road in Ethiopia.
t
A
f
=12.5cm
t
B
f
=20cm
20cm Boulders (Natural
Gravel) Filter Course
Crushed Aggregate
Filter Course 0~40 only
Crushed Aggregate Base
Course M.S @ 3:20.5 : 0~40
Asphalt Concrete
Constructed to Specifications
Carriageway
Shoulder
M.S Drainage Layer
Subgrade
10cm 25cm 75cm
t
A
S
=7.5cm

Fig. 4.16 Depiction of Moisture Control and Interface Technique

CONCLUSIONS
The techniques proposed in this study have been successfully applied to enhance the
geotechnical engineering properties and overall performance of the problematic soils
investigated, particularly Black Cotton Soils.
The following conclusions are derived from this study:
[Mukabi JN (Ph.D) SPECIAL LECTURE] Page 11

1. It is demonstrated that, for foundation, geotechnical and highway pavement
structures, these techniques can be effectively utilized in; deriving the consolidation
and shear stress-strain and deformation history, facilitating for the acquisition of
post-construction history data and determining appropriate engineering
countermeasures.
2. The results presented in this paper show that the recently developed methods were
effective in enhancing physical, mechanical and other integral geomaterial
properties of the expansive soils studied, such as shear strength, bearing capacity,
intrinsic elastic properties, and deformation resistance.
3. Case Study Analysis for some structures already constructed in the East African
region by applying these techniques also introduced in this study indicate that
performance of the geotechnical engineering structures was not only commendable
but also cost-effective due to the effective enhancement of the engineering
properties of the problematic soils.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is highly indebted to the contributions of Professor Fumio Tatsuoka and the
University of Tokyo. Sincere appreciation is also expressed to the Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA), Japan Bank of International Cooperation (JBIC), Construction
Project Consultants Inc., Kajima Corporation and Kajima Foundation for funding the
subsequent part of the study conducted in Africa. The authors wish to express their
sincere appreciation to the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Japan Bank of
International Cooperation (JBIC), Construction Project Consultants Inc., Kajima
Corporation and Kajima Foundation for funding most of the study. The paper would
certainly not have been completed without the crucial support of Ms. Piera Cesaroni, and
the input of Kenneth Wambugu, Ms. Zekal Ketsella, Joram Okado, Paul Kinyanjui, Bryan
Otieno, Walter Okello, and Anthony Ngigi. It is also important to mention the cooperation
and assistance extended by the Ethiopian Roads Authority as well as the Ministry of
Roads, Public Works and Housing, Kenya.

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