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a
(
%
)
Consolidation time (hrs)
Least disturbed
Pre-swelling stage (D79-3)
Post-swelling (D79-3)
Linear (Post-swelling (D79-3))
Fig. 4.8 Effects of Long Term Consolidation on Deformation Resistance
[Mukabi JN (Ph.D) SPECIAL LECTURE] Page 8
Figure 4.9 Consolidation time effect on elastic modulus and deviator stress
(1) Effect of Construction Equipment, Vehicular Compaction and Surcharge Pressure
Computation of total and initial settlement resulting from construction and surcharge of
upper layers is considered vital since this influences the characteristics of the roadbed
soils and the magnitude of their engineering parameters. In computing the total settlement,
the generalized Eq. (4.7) below was adopted.
|
|
.
|
\
|
A +
+
A =
= =
ij
K
iC
ij
o
j i
i
i
C
i
ij
T
P
P P
e
C
H S
0 1 , 1
10
log
1
(4.7)
where, H
i
= Thickness of each layer in cm. Back Calculation of induced stresses and
strains due to these effects were derived from equations 4.8 and 4.9.
( ) | |
0 0 10
/ log P P P
e
C
i
ci
A +
A
=
(4.8)
Rewriting Equation (7) we obtain,
) 1 10 (
0
A
=
i
k
sc ij
P
P
o
(4.9)
Where,
i
c i
i
C e i A =
=1
o
It is assumed that the stress is induced uniformly and that the magnitude of induced stress
reduces proportionally with depth. However, the quantitative reduction is average over the
depth of each layer as a logarithmic function of the summed reduction in voids ratio (e)
and compression Index (C
C
). The stress induced is computed as a resulting value of the
post-construction surcharge. This effect is depicted in Figures. 4.10 and 4.11 for expansive
tropical soils. Figure 4.12 and the insert equation after Mukabi and Gono (2003a) were
used for the design of containing swell for pavement structures constructed within areas of
expansive tropical soils.
[Mukabi JN (Ph.D) SPECIAL LECTURE] Page 9
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
L1 L2 L3
C
C
(
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
I
n
d
e
x
)
Layers
BC (Before Consolidation)
AC (After Consolidation
Reduction in
Compression
Properties
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
L1 L2 L3
S
w
e
l
l
,
%
Layers
AC (After Consolidation)
BC (Before Consolidation)
Reduction
in Swelling
Properties
Fi
gure 4.10 Reduction in compression Figure 4.11 Reduction in swell
(2) Dynamic Loading Effects
Subsequent to longterm static loading, the trial sections described by Gono and Mukabi
(2003a) were subjected to dynamic loading. As can be noted from Figs. 4.13, the three
trial sections were initially subjected to around 61 passes of dynamic loading by use of a
loaded dump truck of 1.2 axle configuration and front and rear axl e loads of 4.5 and 9.5
tons respectively. This vehicle was chosen since it represents the most common type of
traffic along the project road (Addis Ababa ~ Goha Tsion).
Fi
gure 4.12 - Surcharge Pressure on Swell Figure 4.13 Deformation characteristics
Deformation during the static loading stages was measured by use of imbedded pegs (ref.
to Gono and Mukabi, 2003a), while steel plates were adopted during the dynamic loading
stage. In order to analyze the seasonal effects, the sets of both insitu and laboratory
tests were carried out in two stages during the wet and dry seasons under static loading
conditions. Dynamic loading was carried out for 20 days subsequent to which the ground
response was monitored for 3 days under static loading conditions. Dynamic reloading
was then effected for another 4 days after which insitu measurement of deformation,
extrusion of least disturbed samples and material sampling for laboratory testing was
undertaken. It can be noted from the results in Fig. 4.14 that longterm consolation and
primary dynamic loading tend to enhance the strength and deformation properties of
expansive soils.
[Mukabi JN (Ph.D) SPECIAL LECTURE] Page 10
Figure 4.14 Static/dynamic loading Figure 4.15 Coupling design
Notes:
1: Primary Static Loading, 2: Secondary Static Loading, D: Dynamic Loading
4.5 Coupling Method (Drainage Layer and Suction Stress)
Figure 4.15 shows an example of the coupling method that was used in maintenance of
some defect areas along the Addis Ababa ~ Goha Tsion Trunk Road in an area that had
very high precipitation levels Ethiopia. This method proved quite effective in enhancing the
strength, stability, bearing capacity and deformation resistance of the pavement structure
under the stated conditions.
4.6 Moisture Control and Interface Technique
This method, depicted in Figure 4.16, was also effectively applied in maintaining various
sections of road in Ethiopia.
t
A
f
=12.5cm
t
B
f
=20cm
20cm Boulders (Natural
Gravel) Filter Course
Crushed Aggregate
Filter Course 0~40 only
Crushed Aggregate Base
Course M.S @ 3:20.5 : 0~40
Asphalt Concrete
Constructed to Specifications
Carriageway
Shoulder
M.S Drainage Layer
Subgrade
10cm 25cm 75cm
t
A
S
=7.5cm
Fig. 4.16 Depiction of Moisture Control and Interface Technique
CONCLUSIONS
The techniques proposed in this study have been successfully applied to enhance the
geotechnical engineering properties and overall performance of the problematic soils
investigated, particularly Black Cotton Soils.
The following conclusions are derived from this study:
[Mukabi JN (Ph.D) SPECIAL LECTURE] Page 11
1. It is demonstrated that, for foundation, geotechnical and highway pavement
structures, these techniques can be effectively utilized in; deriving the consolidation
and shear stress-strain and deformation history, facilitating for the acquisition of
post-construction history data and determining appropriate engineering
countermeasures.
2. The results presented in this paper show that the recently developed methods were
effective in enhancing physical, mechanical and other integral geomaterial
properties of the expansive soils studied, such as shear strength, bearing capacity,
intrinsic elastic properties, and deformation resistance.
3. Case Study Analysis for some structures already constructed in the East African
region by applying these techniques also introduced in this study indicate that
performance of the geotechnical engineering structures was not only commendable
but also cost-effective due to the effective enhancement of the engineering
properties of the problematic soils.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is highly indebted to the contributions of Professor Fumio Tatsuoka and the
University of Tokyo. Sincere appreciation is also expressed to the Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA), Japan Bank of International Cooperation (JBIC), Construction
Project Consultants Inc., Kajima Corporation and Kajima Foundation for funding the
subsequent part of the study conducted in Africa. The authors wish to express their
sincere appreciation to the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Japan Bank of
International Cooperation (JBIC), Construction Project Consultants Inc., Kajima
Corporation and Kajima Foundation for funding most of the study. The paper would
certainly not have been completed without the crucial support of Ms. Piera Cesaroni, and
the input of Kenneth Wambugu, Ms. Zekal Ketsella, Joram Okado, Paul Kinyanjui, Bryan
Otieno, Walter Okello, and Anthony Ngigi. It is also important to mention the cooperation
and assistance extended by the Ethiopian Roads Authority as well as the Ministry of
Roads, Public Works and Housing, Kenya.
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