Hydrocarbon Processing 01 2012

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JANUARY 2012
HPIMPACT SPECIALREPORT TECHNOLOGY
LNG/GAS PROCESSING
DEVELOPMENTS
Innovative technologies
treat shale gas, improve
LNG operations and
more
A radically different
transport sector
Scaling up renewables
Update on replacing
large columns in revamps
Are you losing money
with your controllers?
www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com
SPECIAL REPORT: LNG/GAS PROCESSING DEVELOPMENTS
41
Viewpoint
Prominent executives and analysts from the natural gas sector share their insights on
market trends and future opportunities for gas, including the development of shale gas
resources, new liquefied natural gas (LNG) applications, the changing landscape for LNG
trade, growth in gas-fired power generation, and more.
45
Overcome challenges in treating shale gases
Manipulating process plant parameters helps meet pipeline specifications
R. H. Weiland and N. A. Hatcher
49
Innovative APC boosts LNG train production
APC application yields significant operability, economic benefits
A. Taylor and S. Jamaludin
55
Apply new enhanced tubes to optimize heat transfer in LNG
trains
New developments for heat exchangers reduce capital and plot size of key equipment
B. Ploix and T. Lang
61
Select optimal schemes for gas processing plants
Careful process evaluation helps meet product requirements and environmental standards
M. Maleki and M. Khorsand Movaghar
65
Improve process control for natural gas heat exchangers
Dynamic simulation model identifies how to optimize plant controllability and safety
H-M. Lai
Cover The Karratha Gas Plant,
located north of Perth, Australia, is
one of the worlds most advanced
and integrated gas production
systems. The facility produces LNG
from five trains, domestic gas from
two trains, condensate from six trains
and LPG from three fractionation
units. Photo courtesy of Woodside.
HPIMPACT
23 A radically different
transport sector
by 2050
23 China dominates the
nylon engineering
plastics market
24 New policies needed
to scale up renewable
energy
24 Bioplastics demand
to exceed 1 million
metric tons in 2015
24 Cloudy outlook
COLUMNS
11 HPINSIGHT
Global HPI: 90+
years old and still
going strong
15 HPIN RELIABILITY
Dealing with asset
management and
life extension
19 HPINTEGRATION
STRATEGIES
Inline blending can
help process plants
cut costs and reduce
quality give-away
21 HPIN ASSOCIATIONS
Making safety
second nature
90 ENGINEERING CASE
HISTORIES
Case 66: Fiberglass
mixing tank flexing
vibration
DEPARTMENTS
9 HPIN BRIEF 27 HPI 2012 FORECAST 31 HPIN INNOVATIONS
35 HPIN CONSTRUCTION 38 HPI CONSTRUCTION BOXSCORE UPDATE
86 HPI MARKETPLACE 89 ADVERTISER INDEX
ROTATING EQUIPMENT

69
Consider lobe blowers combined with compressors
New blower meets low-pressure applications cost-effectively
H. P. Bloch
PROCESS CONTROL DEVELOPMENTS

73
Are you losing money when tuning controllers?
Here are 10 rules, if followed, that will result in poor process performance
M. J. King
PROCESS ENGINEERING

79
How to manage vaporization in an analytical system
When done properly, this process ensures that all compounds vaporize at the same time,
preserving the samples composition
D. Nordstrom and T. Waters
ENGINEERING AND DESIGN DEVELOPMENTS

83
Case history: Replacement of existing pressure vessel
Installing new equipment involves more processes to ensure safety and to meet new codes
D. Fearn and J. McKay
JANUARY 2012 VOL. 91 NO. 1
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BT@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING JANUARY 2012

I

9

A group of physicists and engineers
in Berkeley, California, have devel-
oped a new safety system to moni-
tor and prevent pipeline ruptures by
using magnetic-resonance imaging
(MRI) medical technology to remotely
monitor the structural integrity of
metal pipelines.
The new technology would help
prevent failures such as the PG&E pipe-
line incident in San Bruno, California,
as well as other leaks, explosions and
disruptions, according to the scientists
at 4D Imaging, the Berkeley company
that invented and patented the MRI-
based pipeline-monitoring system.
The system transmits the status of
a pipeline to the Internet and gives
pipeline operators a real-time picture
of the health of the pipeline, check-
ing for fractures at welds or support
systems and corrosion failure.
After installation of the MRI moni-
toring system, the status of the pipe-
line can be visualized via the Internet.
The monitoring is constant, and any
change in the mechanical health of
the pipeline is measured and transmit-
ted immediately to operating officers
and pipeline managers.
The MRI system can be installed on
any pipeline. It works by wrapping the
pipe in wire coils, which accomplishes
two things: First, one set of coils is
electrified, which magnetizes the steel
pipe (over 90% of the worlds pipe-
lines are steel). Next, a second set of
coils detects the magnetic field being
given off by the now magnetized pipe.
Conveniently, when steel corrodes and
degrades, it becomes less magnetic, so
variations in the pipes magnetism rep-
resent areas that may have corroded
or become compromised.
If the level of corrosion exceeds
0.008 of the pipe, the system will
issue a warning that the area of pipe
has become compromised. The pipes
temperature is also measured, both
to account for changes in magnetism
unrelated to corrosion and to keep
track of heat or cold stresses.
The coils electrify and record their
data one at a time in sequence along
the length of the pipeline. It takes the
system about three seconds to thor-
oughly test a segment of pipe. HP
US refiner Sunoco is indefinitely idling the main processing units at its
refinery in Marcus Hook, Pennsylvania, citing deteriorating refining market condi-
tions. The company said it now expects to begin idling the Marcus Hook facility
immediately while it continues to seek a buyer and also pursues options with third par-
ties for alternate uses of the facility. Sunoco said it also intends to increase the capacity
utilization rate of its Philadelphia refinery and will continue to operate the refinery as
long as market conditions warrant. However, if a suitable sales transaction cannot be
implemented, the company intends to permanently idle the main processing units at
the Philadelphia refinery no later than July 2012.
Chevron Phillips Chemical has successfully completed the acquisition
of a polyalphaolefin (PAO) plant in Beringen, Belgium, from Neste Oil. A company
spokesperson said the deal will help the company better service the growing demand
for PAOs that are used in high performance lubricants and other applications. The
agreement was first announced in September.
Honeywells UOP plans to expand its portfolio of natural gas treatment
technologies through an exclusive marketing alliance with the Netherlands-based Twister
B.V. UOP will now offer the Twister supersonic gas separation technology, which is used
to remove water and heavy hydrocarbons present in natural gas when it comes out of the
ground. The technology expands UOPs current suite of natural gas processing technolo-
gies and equipment that remove impurities such as water, carbon dioxide, sulfur com-
pounds and mercury from natural gas streams, and that separate and recover natural gas
liquids. UOP has also acquired a minority position in Twister B.V., the company said.
OriginOil has announced the funding of a new research agreement
with the US Department of Energys Idaho National Laboratory (INL). Under the
agreement, OriginOil and INL will collaborate with a goal toward establishing industry
standards for algal biomass, a critical step toward making algal biofuels a competi-
tive alternative to petroleum. Under the terms of the new Cooperative Research and
Development Agreement (CRADA), OriginOil will provide INL with its extraction
technology, and contribute its knowledge of how to stimulate oil production and pre-
treat for consistent extraction of the algae and its co-products.
Plains All American Pipeline is converting an existing Oklahoma
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) pipeline into crude oil service. The pipeline, which
extends from Medford, Oklahoma, to PAAs crude oil terminal facility in Cushing,
Oklahoma, will provide an initial crude oil throughput capacity of 12,000 bpd by
January 2012 and will be expanded to 25,000 bpd by July 2012.
The oil and gas division of GE will supply advanced combustion
technology to reduce gas turbine emissions at the Qatargas 1 utility complex in Qatar.
The technology is being installed in order to meet new regulations from the Qatari
Ministry of Environment. GE will provide a combustion system designed to achieve
low emissions levels of 25 parts per million (ppm) for nitrogen oxide. The system will
be used to upgrade six gas turbines that are providing the power for three onshore LNG
trains at the Qatargas 1 site.
Investment in high-voltage transmission (greater than 345 kilovolts)
in the US is expected to top $41 billion over the next 10 years with more than 40% of
it being made in just the first three years, according to a new IHS study. Growing power
demand, increasingly rigorous reliability standards and the ongoing drive to integrate
larger amounts of renewables into the power mix are among the major factors driving
transmission investment, the study finds. HP
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HPINSIGHT

I

11

Global HPI: 90+ years old and still going strong
In 2012, Hydrocarbon Processing (HP) will celebrate its 90th anni-
versary as a publication for the professionals involved in the daily
activities of the global hydrocarbon processing industry (HPI). Much
has changed since the first edition of The Refiner and Natural Gasoline
Manufacturerthe forerunner of HPin September 1922. And, yet,
so many factors continue to remain the same. This early publication
was designed by its founders to serve the HPI. In the first issue, the
publisher, Ray L. Dudley wrote, The Refiner and Natural Gasoline
Manufacturer will bring to its readers. . . new data on refinery meth-
ods, written by men who are in a position to write with authority.
In our 90th year of service to the global HPI, HPs same mis-
sion statement and goals still stand. Our feature editorial content
continues to be authored by professional men and women actively
working in the HPI. Going forward in 2012, our mission will be
to provide data on new methods for the global refining and trans-
portation fuels manufacturing industries. In addition, our focus
includes the new HPI sectors that grew over the past 90 years. Of
course, this includes the massive petrochemical and the natural
gas/liquefied natural gas (LNG) industries. Both segments grew
from the newly discovered innovations and in response to changing
demands by the HPI and society.
The beginning. When did the modern HPI actually begin?
There are several dates, depending on which part of the HPI that
you focus on. In the case of crude oil and natural gas, the begin-
ning goes back to the mid-1800s. In that century, technology and
opportunity were linking up. Crude oil had been around for years,
but it had no real value until innovative inventors discovered how to
pull the middle fraction (kerosine) from crude oil. At the same time,
the bottom-of-the-barrel was distilled and stabilized with sulfur to
produce asphalt. With asphalt, cities could top-pave streets to han-
dle the newest transportation formthe automobile. Quick note:
In the late 1890s in the US, there were more electric automobiles
(EVs) than gasoline powered vehicles. EVs developed by Thomas
Edison initially outnumbered the internal-combustion engine units.
Mobilization of society. Cost was a factor in owning a pri-
vate car at that time. Early automobiles were very expensive, and
only the truly wealthy could afford such a luxury. And then a
clever solution arose to meet societys needs. In this case, a bright,
young engineer working for and mentored by Thomas Edison,
Henry Ford had his own vision for personal transportation. This
keenly bright engineer later discovered the modern assembly line
to mass produce his gasoline-powered vehicle. The ability to mass
produce quality vehicles dramatically cut entry ownership costs.
And soon, more people were more mobile, and commerce grew
with an increasingly easy flow of goods, materials and manpower
to further build manufacturing capacity and capability.
Revolutionary changes. Hydrocarbon-based energy (crude
oil, coal and natural gas) is the lubricant that drives domestic and
global economies. Hydrocarbons will remain the primary energy
sources for the next 35 years.
History has shaped the HPI. Likewise, the HPI has changed the
course of history for the global economy. The more things change,
the more they remain the same. Change is a constant part of the
HPI. Hard work and innovation often supply the solutions to the
rising needs of society. The modern HPI grew out from the constant
demands by the modern societies of the 1900s, and it still continues
as developing nations improve the standard of living for their citizens.
In 2012, HP will look back and share from our archives many
of the major breakthroughs in processing technologies along with
catalyst, equipment, instrumentation, analytical and automation
developments that have revolutionized the global HPI.
HPI headlines from Hydrocarbon Processing,
January 2002:
China gains official entry into World Trade Organization
(WTO). On Dec. 11, 2001, China became the WTOs 143rd
member. As a result, China has agreed to open and liberalize its
regime, offering a more predictable environment for trade and
foreign investment. In 2000, China was the worlds seventh lead-
ing exporter and eighth largest importer of merchandise trade.
For commercial services, China was the 12th leading exporter and
10th largest importer, according to the WTO.
Natural gas supplies in US are up; pricing continues downward
trend. The Department of Energy analysis of the natural gas (NG)
market indicates that prices should continue to decline through
next year and that supplies are to increase. NG prices are expected
to decline from $4.09/thousand cubic feet (Mcf ) in 2001 to $1.96/
Mcf in 2002, while supplies should increase from 22.45 Tcf in 2001
Giant cokers at the Great Canadian Oil Sands Ltd. plant near Fort
McMurray, Alberta, Canada, will upgrade bitumen into a variety of
hydrocarbon products. They will also produce about 2,800 tpd of coke
to supply fuel to the power plant. Each of the six drums is 94 ft tall
and 26 ft in diameter. Photo courtesy of Sun Oil Co., September 1967.
HPINSIGHT
12

I

to 23.53 Tcf in 2002. Mild weather, additional drilling and a slow-
ing economy have reduced NG consumption.
Study sorts through oxygenate issues. Whatever environmental
benefits the oxygenate requirement in the US had in the early
1990s, they have since weakened considerably as a more decisive
role is played by improved auto emissions technology. Over the
past two driving seasons supply problems, especially for reformu-
lated gasoline (RFG), have had major impact on prices. MTBE
and ethanol are the most widely used oxygenates. Together they
make up 5% of the gasoline barrel, with MTBE volumes nearly
three times those of ethanol.
January 1992:
The European Energy Charter is signed in The Netherlands
by 40 nations including the US, Japan, European Community
member countries and the USSRs successor, the Commonwealth
of Independent States (CIS). Parties agree to keep their energy
accessible to foreign investment and to encourage technology
transfer to states that dont have current equipment and knowledge.
OPEC will export 25.5 million bpd of crude in first-quarter
1992, the International Energy Agency forecasts. Production is
now at 25 MMbpd and is expected to remain the same for a few
months. A diplomatic stalemate in the Iraq/UN negotiations
continues, along with instability in the Commonwealth of Inde-
pendent States. World oil markets could maintain their strength
through the first quarter. It is uncertain whether OPEC can main-
tain its $21/bbl target price in the second quarter.
Very tough gasoline reformulation standards are on the way for
California. Cited as the toughest in the world, the California regs
will greatly alter eight motor gasoline chemical and physical param-
eters: Rvp, oxygenates, aromatics, olefins, sulfur, benzene and two
distillation ranges. Regs will take effect by March 1, 1996. Total esti-
mated capital outlay by California refiners is $2 billion to $5 billion.
January 1982:
Energy independence for US is within reach, says Houston
oilman, George Mitchell. Within 10 to 15 years, the US can
be 90% energy self sufficient, says Mitchell who focuses on the
underestimated oil/gas reservesespecially gas, which, in tight
formations alone, may hit 500 Tcf.
Energy R&D and demonstration urgently needed according to
new IEA report. The International Energy Agencys latest study
calls for more R&D to develop new technology choices to deliver
more energy in the 1990s. Vulnerability of national economies
to oil price increases, supply cutoffs, unsteady foreign exchange
rates, inflation and unemployment are having impacts on R&D
investments in IEA countries.
January 1972:
Worldwide plastics boom seen continuing. All market signs
show 1971 to be a record-breaking year for the US plastics indus-
try. In 1970, US plastics production reached 18.7 billion lb.
Major markets for plastic include construction, packaging, trans-
portation, appliance and furniture industries. During the past
decade, plastics experienced a 300% production increase with a
30% annual average increase. Global plastic (exclusive of Com-
munist Asia) increased from 17.3 billion lb in 1960/1962 to 58.4
billion lb in 1969 and is projected to reach 220 billion lb by 1980.
Increasing global gross national product support this growth along
with new and broader dissemination of plastic technologies.
US had about as many engineering grads in 1971 as in 1970.
Just over 43,000 bachelors degrees were awarded in 1971. Of
these, 8,966 were MEs, and 3,626 were ChEs.
US refining capacity up 4% in 1971. Daily operating capacity of
US refineries, as of Sept. 30, 1971, has risen to 13.1 million bpd, an
increase of 529, 944 bpd. West Coast refineries increased capacity by
53,091 bpd and East Coast refineries increased capacity by 72,800
bpd. Texas Gulf Coast refineries increased thruput by 284,915 bpd,
and the Louisiana Gulf Coast increased capacity by 149, 200 bpd.
Toray Industries Inc. has completed a xylene isomerization
system at the Kawasaki, Japan, plant. The unit uses the Torays
Isolene process and brings the firms total paraxylene production
capacity to 90,000 tpy.
To see the headlines from 1962 to 1922,
visit HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
The granddaddy of reactorsmore than 100 ft long and weighing
600 tonswas fabricated by Chicago Bridge & Iron at its Birmingham,
Alabama, facility. Construction specialists of Fluor Corp., Ltd., will
install the high-pressure reactor as part of an expansion program
for Standard Oil Cos (Ohio) Toledo, Ohio refinery. This vessel is the
heaviest piece of equipment ever shipped by rail. Photo courtesy Fluor
Corp., October 1965.
Construction at Standard Oils Lima refinery includes a new cat cracker
with an updated regenerator. The project includes new demethanizer,
debutanizer and depropanizer columns that make-up the gasoline
recovery plant. Photo courtesy of Standard Oil Co., June 1949.
CB&I has worked in more than 100 countries around the world, on all
seven continents. We have the global experience and local
knowledge to safely deliver superior results in all kinds of
environments. From concept to completion, CB&I gets the job done.
On Time. On Budget.
On Any Continent.
www.CBI.com
Good night.
Rest easy, your operation is running
smoothly, efficiently, safely.
Thats because you manage your operation
successfully, without the worry of persistent
lubrication issues that divert attention away
from the core business. You turned to Total
Lubrication Management
SM
from Colfax. They gave
you the on-site team of specialists, the long-term
commitment, the customized program of products,
services and expertise, the sustainable, continuous
improvement to take one heavy load off your
shoulders. Dedicated to keep you Up and Running,
so that you have many more good nights. And
good days too.
Colfax Total Lubrication Management...
Up and Running
Colfax is a registered trademark and Total Lubrication is a service mark of Colfax Corporation. 2012 Colfax Corporation. All rights reserved.
HEINZ P. BLOCH, RELIABILITY/EQUIPMENT EDITOR
HPIN RELIABILITY
HB@HydrocarbonProcessing.com

I

15
The business manager for an asset management solutions
(AMS) firm in the Middle East faced a big task. He had been
asked to execute a major project for an oil and gas producer and
wanted to have his questions answered on remaining rotating
equipment life at existing client sites. The managers charge was
to analyze large oil and gas plants that had been operating for
far more than 25 years, although they were originally designed
for 20 to 25 years only.
The aim of his AMS firm was to secure the future of the
clients assets for another 20 years. The AMS manager had to
determine what the client needed to do to stay in business for
another 20 years without undue risk of production loss and
without jeopardizing the high level of safety the company had
achieved for its human and physical assets.
Before meeting with the manager and his staff, we had to set
the stage for a productive week of meetings. Once we agreed
that his firms charter was to quantify the remaining life of the
clients turbines, compressors, pump and other equipment, the
deliverables for a reliability consultant had to be delineated. The
consultant defined his work effort to explaining key parameters
and spelling out what the formula or approach would be for
calculating the remaining life of each rotating machine.
Plant data are the key ingredients. We believe that
the key ingredients of any useful endeavor when determining
the remaining life of machinery is hidden in the client plants
own past failure history. Where such history exists and the
root causes for the failures have been analyzed, authoritative
answers on remaining life are possible. Conversely, when these
data are lacking, applicable data from others would have to
be substituted.
Regarding stationary equipment and piping, corrosion data
should be available from coupons or from nondestructive test-
ing readings. If no such test data are available from a particular
facility, the AMS firm was advised to use third-party surveys
and look at corrosion rates experienced in comparable indus-
tries and under comparable or scaleable conditions. This effort
takes time and money.
Because our specialty is rotating machinery, we wanted to
look first at process pumps. In the HPI, these simple machines
suffer many thousands of unexplained repeat failures every
year. We outlined to the AMS to focus on the pumps, audit
the plants own failure history and past repair data first. To the
maximum extent possible, plant data and pump configurations
must be compared against upgrade measures taken by success-
ful best-of-class organizations. Advanced lube application
strategies are used by best-of-class facilities. These strategies
must enter into the comparison, as will the extension of oil-
replacement intervals made possible by better lubricants and
superior bearing housing protection measures.
Mechanical seal life must be assessed and compared against
best-available sealing technologies. This requires a liaison with
the most competent mechanical seal suppliers. It requires the
seal suppliers active cooperation and divulgence of what some
claim (without real good justification) to represent proprietary
information. For instance, the extent to which superior dual-
sealing technology is of value must be determined on a service-
by-service or even pump-by-pump basis.
In like fashion, the extent to which superior bearings (ceramic
hybrids) would lengthen pump life or avoid bearing failures
must be determined on a pump-by-pump basis. Lubricant appli-
cation and standby bearing preservation are especially important
in humid coastal and tropical environments, as well as in desert
climates. Oil-mist lubrication extends the life of general-purpose
machinery, and the AMS should consider it.
Piping and foundations affect remaining life. Then
there is the issue of piping for all machinery types. Just as resi-
dential sidewalks and the walls of houses move and settle, pipe
supports and equipment foundations will settle. The effect of
such settling on pipe connections and equipment nozzles can
be visualized and must certainly be considered. Examining the
grout support under base plates will be quite revealing.
Whenever steam turbines are used, blade stresses and water
quality at the client site must be compared to those in successful
long-running installations elsewhere.
1
This is a time-consuming
endeavor that requires an investigators time; mere guessing will
not suffice. Of course, if a comparable experience exists else-
where, the investigative effort may take less time.
In the case of geared units, remaining gear life must be exam-
ined by calculating tooth loading (stresses on tooth face) and
from temperature measurements. In all instances, synthetic
lubes from experienced oil formulators will greatly extend gear
life. The right oil additives are needed for life extensions. They
drive maintenance cost and affect gear life; oil cleanliness ranks
next on the investigators priority list. Certain warehouse spares
(gears, electric motors, etc.) should be upgraded, if important.
Dealing with asset management and life extension
Fluorosint balance
piston seal
Holder
Flow
Bleed tap
behind seal
A compressor abradable seal detail.
2
FIG. 1
HPIN RELIABILITY
16

I

Upgrading spares is likely to speed up equipment recommission-
ing after an unanticipated future shutdown.
Reciprocating compressor upgrades. Since 1980,
reciprocating compressors have benefitted from upgraded pis-
ton-rod coatings, improved rod attachments, effective onstream
monitoring, more efficient valves, superior cylinder lubricants,
improved volume control and a host of other add-ons or modi-
fications. They are mentioned here because they serve as a model
for questions raised and answers sought.
The key to knowing about these improvements lies in keep-
ing track of the materials and appurtenances that were originally
provided by the equipment manufacturer and to then ask what
would be included if such equipment were delivered today.
Once that question is answered, a cost-justification calculation
will indicate if upgrading is appropriate. Needless to say, if the
asset owners do not know the details of their machine, then the
answers are more difficult to generate. As usual, data are impor-
tant; without data, proper asset management will prove elusive.
Compressors: All of the above are important! For
compressors, one looks at all of the above discussed equipment.
Valve technology and piston velocity are important comparison-
worthy parameters on reciprocating compressors. On-stream
performance tracking and observation of prior sealing experi-
ence are important for centrifugal and axial compressors. This
performance tracking and a review of the clients present seal-
ing technology determine seal-system upgrade potential. Even
the compressor-internal seal materials must be examined in
detail (Fig. 1) and judgments made as to their failure potential.
Couplings and the work procedures associated with attaching
couplings to shafts should not be overlooked; neither should
shaft alignment quality and philosophy. They all tell a lot about
the remaining equipment life and failure risk.
Whether a facility ultimately receives guidance from an estab-
lished expert or whether an AMS puts its trust in someone else
with similar experience is of no consequence, so long as the
expert working for the AMS:
1) Authoritatively spells out recommended measures
2) Thoroughly explains recommended upgrade steps
3) Identifies recommended vendors that should do the
upgrading
4) Defines the deliverables that should be contractually
agreed on between upgrade the provider and the client. HP
LITERATURE CITED
1
Bloch, H. P. and M. P. Singh, Steam Turbines: Design, Applications and
Re-Rating, 2nd Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, New York, 2009.
2
Quance, S., Using plastic seals to improve compressor performance,
Turbomachinery International, January/February 1997.
HERMETIC-Pumpen GmbH
info.hp@hermetic-pumpen.com www.hermetic-pumpen.com
Todays Application:
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HERMETIC design features
Q
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Customized design adapted to your
process requirements
9

Customers technical specication
Q
Capacity: 120 m/h
9
Q
Head: 1400 m
9
Q
Pressure rating: PN 100
9
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Motor power: 370 kW
9
H E R M E T I C A L L Y S E A L E D C E N T R I F U G A L P U M P S
HERMETIC-Pump Type CAMTV 52/6+6
The author is Hydrocarbon Processings Reliability/Equipment Editor. A practic-
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plants worldwide on failure analysis, reliability improvement and maintenance cost-
avoidance topics.
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Selas Fluid
Subsidiary of The Linde Group
www.linde-engineering.com
sales@selasuid.com
Headquarters: Five Sentry Parkway East Blue Bell, PA 19422 USA Tel: 610-832-8797 Fax: 610-834-0473
Texas Ofce: 16225 Park Ten Place Suite 250 Houston, TX 77084 USA Tel: 281-717-9090 Fax: 281-717-9091
Linde has built a history of proven results with over 250
synthesis gas plants and 2,800 air separation plants
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Linde Engineering and its subsidiary, Selas Fluid, provide single source
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Synthesis Gas Plants:
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custom designed:
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Results
HPINTEGRATION STRATEGIES

I

19
kcrisafulli@arcweb.com
KEVIN CRISAFULLI, CONTRIBUTING EDITOR
In a traditional batch-blending process, the final product com-
position is created by combining different intermediate products
(held in storage tanks) in a blend tank. The objective is to create
final products that meet customer specifications. However, in
many process manufacturing applications, tankless, inline blend-
ing may provide a better solution, particularly in grassroots process
plants or for expansion projects in existing plants.
Inline blending involves continuous mixing of two or more
intermediate products using flowmeters and control valves, to
obtain a final product of strictly defined proportions. In theory,
inline blending could enable process plants to save money by
reducing the blend time, the need for excessive storage capacities
and mix tanks, maintenance manpower and costly quality give-
away. Although not as well-established as batch blending, inline
blending has also been around for years.
Blending systems. There are two basic types of inline blend-
ing systems: controlled-rate and flow-responsive systems. In con-
trolled-rate systems, the flowrate is set by a blend controller and
either manually or automatically controlled. The flowrate of the
feed streams is maintained as the desired ratio of the component
in the end product. Flow-responsive systems utilize the main feed
stream as a constant to which all other intermediate stocks are
blended at the desired ratios.
Product and process optimization. Blending involves
numerous issues. What finished products are presently in demand
by the market? What intermediate stocks and additives are required
to make those finished products, and are they available? And, of
course, which product will net the biggest profit? This represents
a challenging optimization problem; it requires close coordination
between marketing and operations groups.
Inline blending can help simplify this problem to a certain
degree. Rather than holding several intermediate products in stor-
age tanks where they are blended one at a time in a mixing tank,
analyzed, re-blended (as needed), touched up and reanalyzed prior
to delivery to the customer, inline blending allows the product to be
analyzed continuously as it is being blended (enabling corrections
to be made online as needed) and loaded directly to a truck, rail or
tanker ship for delivery to the customer.
To achieve this, an inline blending system is typically comprised of
two or more feed streams, each fitted with a strainer, flowmeter and
control valve. As the feed streams are combined, the turbulence cre-
ated is generally not enough to mix the components properly, often
requiring an inline mixer to be utilized in the process. Once the inter-
mediate products have been blended, an inline analyzer with a set
trim point (such as density or viscosity) ensures that the final product
meets minimum quality specifications. The analyzer and blend con-
troller monitor the flow, ratio and trim of each stream continuously.
Some inline blending unit suppliers also provide sampling features
that take samples at set intervals throughout the blending process.
By reducing the need for mixing tanks, inline final product
blending eliminates a time-consuming step to the process and can
help reduce capital costs for the tanks themselves and labor costs
associated with maintaining the tanks. Inline blending can also help
increase flexibility and enable products to be blended on demand,
rather than being stored onsite in anticipation of delivery.
Reduced quality giveaway. In addition to reducing the
time of the blend process and eliminating the need for separate
blend tanks, inline blending also greatly reduces the risk of quality
giveaway. As the intermediate products are combined at predeter-
mined ratios and flowrates, and continuously analyzed through-
out the process, production of a final product that over-conforms
to the specifications of the desired product is minimized.
Typically, when batch blending, operators are overly cautious
with their blends to ensure that their final product meets the
customers product specifications. This can result in costly quality
giveaway. When performed properly, inline blending allows the
plant to tighten its control on the blending process and to more
closely match the required specifications.
To account and compensate for stratification, tank heel or
other process disturbances that may cause stream starvation, a
trim strategy can be applied to help further ensure the product
quality. A trim strategy throughout the process reduces variance
in product quality, enhances product homogeneity and helps
produce products as close to the desired specifications as possible.
A trim strategy is a crucial aspect of the process, since it can help
eliminate the need for re-blending or touching up the product
after the fact. HP
The author has over 10 years experience in software and manufacturing
industries. He joined ARC in 2006 and holds a BS degree in marketing from Nichols
College.
Inline blending can help process plants
cut costs and reduce quality give-away
Component
tank farm
Pumps
Meters
Control valves
Blend header
Blended
product
Typical inline blending system. Source: Jiskoot Quality
Systems.
FIG. 1
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MaxiFan nozzles from BETE
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HPIN ASSOCIATIONS

I

21

Most folks dont know it, but the epi-
center for high-level downstream refin-
ing safety discussions during late October
was in the land where the Aggie roams
freely. That would, of course, be College
Station, Texas, where Texas A&Ms Mary
Kay OConnor Process Safety Center
hosted its annual international sympo-
sium on safety.
The keynote speaker for the event
was former Congressman Lee Hamilton
(D-IN), an expert voice on international
affairs respected by folks across the ideo-
logical spectrum for his common sense
approach to governance and true concern
for the betterment of the US. Mr. Hamil-
ton currently serves as the co-chair of the
US Department of Energys Blue Ribbon
Commission on Americas Nuclear Future.
The MC. The master of ceremonies for
the symposium and a man who could be
seen anywhere and everywhere through-
out the three day event, ever-so-busy and
yet ever-so-happy to stop and speak with
any individual (and there were many) who
wished to speak with him, was Dr. Sam
Mannan, the director of the universitys
process safety center. In a touching event
on the last day of the conference, one of
Dr. Mannans professor colleagues from
Poland gave a hastily scheduled speech
in which he extolled Dr. Mannans con-
tributions to the field of industrial safety
studies. A clearly touched Dr. Mannan
thanked his friend and colleague for the
recognition, and then Dr. Mannan was
unable to speak any further, because the
overwhelming wave of applause from the
audience simply became too great for any-
one to hear what he was saying.
PSM metrics. There were all sorts of
great presentations over the course of the
conference. One that held particular sway
with me was given by Dawn Wurst, the
safety manager for Flint Hills Resources
at its facility in St. Paul, Minnesota. She
offered an interesting take on how pro-
cess safety management (PSM) metrics
impact process safety culture. Her remarks
focused on the 320,000 bpd Pine Bend
refinery southeast of St. Paul. In 2007,
one of the refinerys polymerization units
was adjusting a chemical addition pump
located near a caustic treatment vessel
and an atmospheric tank when suddenly
the tank exploded, launched off its pad
and came crashing down in an open area
nearby. A ground fire followed that was
extinguished within one hour. Significant
equipment damage resulted, but fortu-
nately there were no human injuries.
As the leadership at the refinery
learned more about the factors that
caused the explosion, they became hungry
for more PSM-related information. Safety
management at the facility realized after
the tank explosion occurred that there
was a fundamental flaw in the existing
categories defined for PSM events. For
instance, the measurement system did not
distinguish between a low impact pressure
relief device activation and a major tank
explosion. Severity had not been consid-
ered in the categories.
With this in mind, Pine Bend added
another dimension to its PSM catego-
ries, converting them into a matrix that
incorporated three severity levels. The
full matrix was developed further with
detailed criteria for each category and
severity level. What differentiated Pine
Bends new matrix from that which is
recommended by CCPS and API criteria
is that CCPS and API advise only track-
ing events at the upper level of severity,
while Pine Bends system tracked the two
lower levels as well, investigating each
instance as a possible indicator leading
to a larger event.
The leadership of Pine Bend imple-
mented the three level matrix and started a
daily tracking of PSM events that was dis-
cussed every morning at the refinerys sum-
mary meeting. The count of days between
moderate and high (B and C) severity
events was included at the bottom of the
morning summary. The safety managers
also created PSM smart cards for use by
the entire refinery, explaining the basics of
PSM on a reference card. The reference
card was distributed to all refinery supervi-
sors and used in a series of safety talks.
Fast forward to today: Pine Bend has
been collecting this data for over four years
now, and it has provided the refinery with
invaluable process safety improvement
knowledge. In 2010, a step change in
significant (B or C) process safety event
frequency occurred. Though the count of
process safety A-level (the lowest) events
has grown each year since monitoring
began, B and C events have decreased.
With a specific measure in place regarding
days between B and C events, Pine Bend
was able to see how sustainable the event
performance could be. On November 10,
2010, Pine Bend celebrated 200 days since
the last B or C process safety event. The
organization celebrated with a steak din-
ner for all employees. HP
Former Congressman Lee Hamilton (D-IN)
was the keynote speaker at the Mary
Kay OConnor Process Safety Center
International Symposium.
Dr. Sam Mannan, director of the Mary Kay
OConnor Process Safety Center, was the
master of ceremonies throughout the event.
Making safety second nature
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HPIMPACT

I

23
A radically different
transport sector by 2050
The World Energy Council (WEC)
expects that transport fuel demand in
the next 40 years will come mainly from
developing countries such as China and
India, where demand will grow by 200%
to 300%. In contrast, the transport fuel
demand for the developed countries
will drop by up to 20%, mainly due to
increased efficiencies. The demand of the
developing countries is expected to sur-
pass that of the developed countries by
the year 2025.
The report also says that oil may still
fuel more than 80% of the global transport
sector for the next 40 years due to strong
demand growth from the heavy duty sector,
shipping and air traffic. By 2050, WEC
projects that global fuel demand in all
transport modes could increase by 30% to
82%, compared to 2010 levels. The dra-
matic increase was revealed in a study pre-
sented by the WEC at the World Petroleum
Congress in Doha, Qatar.
The study describes potential develop-
ments in global transport fuels and tech-
nology systems on the basis of two distinct
scenarios: Freeway and Tollway. The
Freeway scenario envisages a world where
pure market forces prevail to create a cli-
mate for open global competition and solu-
tions which are driven by lowest cost and
the private sector. The Tollway scenario
describes a more regulated world where
governments decide to intervene in markets
to promote early adoption of alternative
technology solutions and invest in public
transport infrastructure putting common
interests at the forefront.
It is evident that the transport sector is
about to go through a radical change, said
Karl Rose, director of policy and scenarios
at the World Energy Council. The light
duty vehicle sector in OECD countries will
be almost completely transformed in terms
of fuel mix and we will see a pronounced
shift of demand for transport fuels to the
developing countries. The effect of the pen-
etration of new technologies seems to be
less profound than many have predicted,
mainly due to the exceptional growth in
heavy transport demand.
Our study reveals a particularly strong
rise in demand for diesel, fuel oil and jet
fuel which together constitute the bulk
of transport market fuels, said Ayed Al-
Qahtani, a senior project manager for
WEC. By 2050, the demand for these
three fuels could increase by between 10%
and 68%; diesel alone will grow by between
46% and 200%, while jet fuel will grow
by 200% to 300%. This has potentially
significant implications for refiners and the
downstream sector as a whole, especially
in Europe which traditionally has a larger
focus on diesel fuels.
The consequences for the environment
are significant. In 2010, the CO
2
emissions
from the transport sector were about 23%
of global CO
2
emission levels and emis-
sions from cars were about 41% of total
transport emissions. With the higher lev-
els of transport demand in 2050, depend-
ing on the fuel mix, total CO
2
emissions
from the transportation sector are expected
to increase between 16% (Tollway) and
79% (Freeway), depending entirely on the
degree of governments intervention in
the transport markets and the success in
advancing low carbon fuel systems.
WEC concludes that the biggest chal-
lenge is for governments to provide sus-
tainable transport for nine billion people
in 2050, and to do it at the lowest possible
social cost (with minimum possible con-
gestion, pollution, and noise generated by
additional traffic and freight volumes).
China dominates the
nylon engineering
plastics market
Growing demand for durable goods,
and the production of those goods in
Asia and China, in particular, means that,
through 2016, Northeast Asia will con-
tinue to be the largest consumer of nylon
engineering resins, a specialty chemicals
group of engineering plastics used for pro-
duction of a broad range of applications
including component parts for automo-
biles, electronics and appliances. This is
according to a new global market study
issued by IHS. The study focuses on engi-
neering plastic markets and applications,
and covers historical developments and
future projections for supply, demand,
capacity and trade in the global nylon 6
and nylon 6,6 engineering thermoplastic
resin markets for 2006 to 2016.
In 2011, Northeast Asia led global
consumption of nylon 6 resin at nearly
45% of the market, while it consumed
slightly more than 30% of global demand
for nylon 6,6, with much of this regional
demand for both attributed to China.
According to the report, global demand for
these specialty resins is expected to grow at
an average rate of 4% per year for nylon 6,
and nearly 5% per year for nylon 6,6, dur-
ing the forecast period.
A great deal of the worlds production
of consumer durable goods has moved from
other regions to China, making China the
global workshop, and nylon components
are used in many of the durable goods pro-
duced, said Paul Blanchard, senior princi-
pal chemical analyst at IHS and lead author
of the report. While most nylon is used in
production of synthetic fibers and filaments,
nylons combination of mechanical strength,
heat performance and chemical resistance
make it an attractive replacement for metal
in many engineering plastic applications.
The market expansion for these specialty
plastics is driven in large part by the need
to reduce weight, emissions and the cost
of automobiles. Pushed by consumers and
governments to produce energy-efficient,
less polluting cars, auto manufacturers are
increasingly replacing metal with parts
made from compounded nylon resins.
According to Mr. Blanchard, this trend will
continue to expand demand for these engi-
neering resins going forward.
Heat resistance, in particular, is critical
if you consider that making vehicles smaller
requires more components to coexist and
operate in a smaller space under the hood,
with fewer design options to minimize
exposure to heat generated by the engine,
he said. Nylon is the material of choice for
high-heat situations because of its combi-
nation of performance and price.
According to the study, Chinas demand
dominance for these specialty resins isnt
just tied to its need to satisfy export
demand, but, increasingly, to also meet its
own growing domestic consumption of
durable goods.
24

I
HPIMPACT
China introduced very effective eco-
nomic incentives in 2009 to grow its
domestic consumer demand for durable
goods, a move which helped the country
during the recession, Mr. Blanchard said.
With regard to nylon, a collapse in Chi-
nas export market demand for finished
goods early in the recession was largely
offset by increased domestic demand for
automobiles, appliances and electronics as
well as higher demand for nylon fibers.
This domestic demand for products, he
added, coupled with a recovery of export
demand in 2010, resulted in growth in
demand for nylon and intermediates, increas-
ing Chinas reliance on imported materials
and tightening global supply balances.
As a result of increased demand and
tightening supply, nylon prices increased
globally. Only in the third quarter of 2011
have we seen prices ease as global demand
for chemicals softened due to the ongo-
ing economic crisis, said Mr. Blanchard.
The expansion of nylon capacity is depen-
dent upon the availability of intermediate
materials, and while new nylon capacity is
expected to be added, the price and avail-
ability of that capacity is still going to be
impacted by the supply of intermediates, at
least until the middle of the next decade.
New policies needed to
scale up renewable energy
Governments should consider the scal-
ing up of renewable energy as part of eco-
nomic development strategy, rather than
as an environmental strategy with the sec-
ondary benefits of job creation. This is one
of many recommendations from a report
exploring financing strategies for large scale
deployment of renewable energy projects.
The report was authored by the Clean
Energy Group, commissioned by the Inter-
national Energy AgencyRenewable Energy
Technology Deployment (IEARETD ).
IEARETD is a cooperation of nine coun-
tries under the umbrella of the IEA.
Making the switch to large-scale renew-
able energy systems will require investment
with magnitudes in the trillions of dollars.
The necessary transformation is on the
scale of the information technology revo-
lution of the past three decades.
Renewable energy investments are on a
growth trajectory, reflected by $243 billion
of global CAPEX in 2009. However, these
recent figures do not reflect international
consensus among many policymakers on
the future levels of investment required
to finance the large-scale deployment of
renewable energy technologies to address
climate change risks. Such commitments
have been made all the more difficult in the
current financial crisis.
However, the level of capital is available
with new, conventional investors, but only
on terms that are within their investment
parameters. Governments have an impor-
tant role in providing the right conditions.
Simply scaling up public subsidies is not a
viable solution.
The report advises that policies should
specifically reduce the technical and insti-
tutional policy risks associated with renew-
able energy technologies and, at the same
time, increase the profit potential of these
investments. An economic and infrastruc-
ture systems approach is required. Some
major recommendations for present day up
to 2015 include:
Build local markets for a countrys
renewable energy products.
Fill identified gaps in industry value
chains such as manufacturing support or
workforce development.
Institutionalize the functions to man-
age the economic development, finance
mechanisms and technology innovation.
Create investment incentives that will
attract investments from new pools, like
corporations.
Consider creation of green bonds.
Increase private and public research
and development in renewable energy tech-
nologies.
Combine feed-in tariffs (FITs),
national tax credit schemes and manda-
tory renewable procurement for utilities
into successful instruments.
Public procurement of renewable
energy and mandatory use of renewable
technologies in new buildings are possible
quick wins in policies.
Establish the emerging technol-
ogy renewable auction mechanism (ET-
RAM) that requires local utilities to pro-
cure renewable energy project outputs
from specific technology classes. This
would be a driver for innovative renewable
energy technologies to enter the market.
In the phase from 20162020, poli-
cies have to build on these experiences,
stimulating reinvestment and attract-
ing even more cautious investors. In the
period from 20202050, a fully formed
infrastructure investment portfolio will
continue along the new renewable energy
economy path, producing jobs, wealth and
environmental benefits, the report said.
Bioplastics demand
to exceed 1 million
metric tons in 2015
Global demand for biodegradable and
bio-based plastics will more than triple to
over 1 million metric tons in 2015, valued
at $2.9 billion. Gains will be fueled by a
number of factors, including consumer
preferences for environmentally sustain-
able materials, improved performance of
bioplastic resins relative to traditional plas-
tics, and the introduction of commodity
plastics produced from bio-based sources.
Ultimately, however, price considerations
will be the primary determinant of bio-
plastic market success, and it is expected
that rising petroleum costs will allow some
bioplastic resins to be able to achieve price
parity with conventional plastics by the end
of the decade. These and other trends are
in a new study from The Freedonia Group.
Biodegradable plastics accounted for
90% of the world bioplastics market in
2010. Excellent growth is forecast for the
two leading biodegradable plastics, starch-
based resins and polylactic acid (PLA),
both of which will more than double in
demand through 2015. The fastest gains
for biodegradable plastics, however, will
be seen for polyhydroxy-alkanoate (PHA)
resins, which are just entering the com-
mercial market.
Cloudy outlook
The North American energy industry
faces a generally stable operating environ-
ment although ongoing sovereign and eco-
nomic concerns are risks in 2012, accord-
ing to energy sector outlook reports from
credit-watch firm Fitch Ratings. Overall
market conditions for the US refining
industry are stable but remain vulnerable
to further global economic weakness.
Fitch anticipates that the dislocations in
Brent-WTI spread, which dominated 2011
refiner results, will continue to be important
but should decline in size as the resolution
of capacity takeaway issues out of the mid-
continent eases the bottleneck at Cushing,
Oklahoma. As a result, traditional driv-
ers of refining profitability should gain in
importance, including wider light-heavy
spreads, higher clean product yields (espe-
cially distillates) and cheap natural gas.
The refining industrys outlook for free
cash flow is good in 2012, driven by rea-
sonable operating cash flow and generally
low mandatory capital spending require-
ments. HP
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I

27
HP EDITORIAL
HPI 2012 FORECAST
www.GulfPub.com/2012HPI
2012: A year of change
When 2011 began, the expectation was for most global econo-
mies to continue a steady trajectory of growth. For the energy
industry, growth in most sectors was actually higher than expected
in 2010, leading to projections of a sustained recovery.
But the early part of 2011 was marred by constant worries over
political turmoil in the Middle East. By mid-2011, worries esca-
lated on the back of economic troubles in developed areas such
as the US and Europe. Stock markets tanked as reports showed
softening consumer spending, rising debt and stubbornly high
unemployment figures. Crude prices plunged about $20/bbl as
worries persisted about overall demand for commodities.
On a global market exchange rate basis, gross domestic product
(GDP) should grow by 3.5% in 2012, 3.6% in 2013 and 3.6% in
2014, according to the latest forecast from the American Chem-
istry Council (ACC). Figures were down from prior ACC projec-
tions, and all were below the 3.9% growth registered in 2010at
one point thought to be the beginning of a sharp recovery!
Sharply higher commodity prices and temporary supply chain
disruptions from the disaster in Japan have slowed growth, said
ACC chief economist Kevin Swift.
As such, the economic recovery that most downstream produc-
ers took for granted a year ago remains in doubt as the industry
enters 2012.
CONSTRUCTION
Since 2000, the global HPI has been expanding at a moderate
rate. Economic cycles and the aftermath of the 911 (September
11, 2001) events yielded small gains. However, beginning in
2006, the HPI saw a wave of new project announcements for
the global refining, petrochemical and (natural) gas processing
industries. Emerging demand and strong economic growth by
developing nations, especially in Asia-Pacific nations, became the
driving force for new energy consumption and initiated new HPI
processing capacity project activities.
In particular, numerous HPI companies, state-owned com-
panies and national governments announced new projects and
studies that potentially fill the new forecasted domestic and inter-
national demand for transportation fuels and hydrocarbon-based
consumer products. For some time, hydrocarbon-rich nations in
the Middle East announced expansion plans for transportation
fuels and petrochemical productsall gated as exports to meet
the growing energy and product demand by China.
Over the past decade, China emerged as, and continues to be,
the factory floor for the chemical and petrochemical industries.
Even with the importing of ethylene derivatives, Chinese manu-
facturers can produce finished polymer and petrochemical-based
consumer products and ship them to North America and Western
Europe much cheaper than domestic producers.
However, GDP is the best measure of economic health and
future consumption trends. Robust double-digit economic
expansion by China over the last decade has created a new
middle class and developed the thriving HPI and downstream
manufacturing centers in China. Other non- Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) nations,
such as India, have benefited from healthy GDP increases that
require more transportation fuels and petrochemical products to
support continued growth.
Some industry consultants have feared that there were too
many announced projects and that some would not come to frui-
tion, remaining an announcement or stalled in the engineering
stage. The 2008/09 recession proved to be a significant adjust-
ment in consuming markets. The depth of the global economic
downturn destroyed some consumer markets. Such changes
caused the rebalancing of supply/demand for HPI products; the
adjusted demand and available supply caused some HPI projects
to be delayed, if not cancelled, for a variety of reasons including
diminished demand, financing, social and geopolitical reasons,
changing environmental rules, lack of financing, and so forth.
A recent investigation of Hydrocarbon Processing Construc-
tion Boxscore Database report for the last decade uncovered a
unique development. The number of projects being completed
over the past five years was unusually low. Such inactivity was sup-
Table 1. Worldwide HPI construction projects
Jun-08 Jun-09 Jun-10 Jul-11
Petrochem/chem 1,676 1,837 1,889 1,246
Rening 1,564 1,692 1,751 1,427
Gas processing 1,127 1,196 1,266 939
Synfuels 87 98 108 78
All others 650 650 718 639
Total 5,104 5,473 5,732 4,329
Total projects by product sector: June 2008 to
July 2011.
FIG. 1
Petrochem/chem
Rening
Gas processing
Synfuels
All others
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
1,800
2,000
June-08 June-09 June-10 July-11
HPI 2012 FORECAST
28

I

ported by the boom of project announcements followed by the
bust in product demand and economic development for most
nations. (Editors note: Due to inactivity extending over several
years, a number of projects were removed from the July 2011
Construction Boxscore. About one-third of the projects entered
in the pre-July 2011 Construction Boxscore were considered
extremely inactive or cancelled. All survey regions had a number
of inactive projects. The Middle East, Asia-Pacific and Europe had
the most number of projects removed from the system.) The HPI
has gained much needed experience on qualified projects, as the
present economic conditions and changing demand patterns will
redirect the location of future HPI projects.
The Hydrocarbon Processing Construction Boxscore Data-
basea copyrighted industry report published online and available
at ConstructionBoxscore.comprovides construction project
information received directly from HPI operating companies,
licensors, engineering and construction (E&C) worldwide. The
July 2011 Construction Boxscore data reflected the correction
to the over announcement dilemma from the past six years. As
shown in Table 1 and Fig. 1, project activity still continues for
global HPI companies. New project activity includes the construc-
tion of grassroot facilities as well as the expansion of existing facili-
ties to meet new demand and benefit from present infrastructure
and distribution resources.
As shown in Table 1 and Figs. 1 and 2, refining and petrochemi-
cal projects are the core of new construction. Refined transportation
fuels and petrochemical products are clearly consumer goods. Natu-
ral gas processing and liquefied natural gas (LNG) are indirect in
that this hydrocarbon is a feedstock for petrochemical products/fer-
tilizer industries or is used extensively for electric power generation.
Many factors will influence project activity in 2012. The
hope of continued economic recovery has been overshadowed by
numerous eventscontinued instability in global stock markets,
economic weakness in Europe and the euro, turmoil in North
Africa and the Middle East, instability in the US market and
government debt and pull back by China to control inflation. In
short, there is substantive concern that may further stall economic
recovery by nations and regions.
Many factors influence the development of an HPI project.
Product demand and secure feedstock supplies are vital in any proj-
ect development. Financing is equally important; once the facility
is built, it must pay for itselfcapital, operating and maintenance
expenses. Table 2 shows the global nature of this industry. An HPI
project can take as long as 10 years from the conceptual design
until commissioning and on-specification products are produced
(Table 3 and Fig. 3). Even after construction completion, capital
expenses still continue; plant equipment wears out or fails under
normal operating conditions. Unexpected events (such as fires,
explosions, hurricanes, floods, etc.) or other major catastrophes
can compromise, if not, destroy key equipment, thus requiring full
replacement of major or entire operating units.
TOTAL SPENDING
HPI 2012 spending exceeds $222 billion. The 2012
outlook for the global HPI still struggles to regain pre-2008 levels.
According to the World Banks mid-year 2011 report, the recent
financial crisis is no longer a major driver hindering recovery of
developing nations. The global economy expanded 3.8% in 2010;
much of the expansion is attributed to developing nations such
as China and India. However, 2011 has been a continuing mix of
political, social and natural disasters that unfortunately are sup-
pressing economic expansion globally and locally. The social and
economical events in North Africa and the Middle East infuse
Table 3. Breakdown of 2011 HPI projects by activity
level and sector
ENG FEED Main Plan Study UC Total
Rening 631 76 25 228 34 433 1,427
Pchem 576 40 5 230 41 354 1,246
Gas Proc 460 37 5 148 14 275 939
Synfuels 20 16 1 20 7 14 78
All other 296 35 7 86 12 203 637
Total 1,983 204 43 712 108 1,279 4,329
Breakdown of all 2011 HPI projects by activity level. FIG. 3
1,983
46%
204
5%
43
1%
712
16%
108
2%
1,279
30%
Engineering
FEED
Maintenance
Planning
Study
Under construction
Table 2. Worldwide HPI construction projects
by region: June 2008 to July 2011
Jun-08 Jun-09 Jun-10 Jul-11
US 671 714 716 421
Canada 188 212 209 155
Latin America 458 530 607 469
Europe 1,153 1,261 1,283 956
Africa 192 215 231 179
Middle East 942 990 1,057 872
Asia-Pacic 1,425 1,551 1,629 1,277
Total 5,029 5,473 5,732 4,329
Breakdown of HPI projects by market sector
July 2011.
FIG. 2
Petrochemical
Rening
Gas processing
Synfuels
Other projects
1,246
29%
1,427
33%
939
22%
78
2%
639
14%

I

29
HPI 2012 FORECAST
fear into the futures market for crude oil supplies and likewise
artificially raised oil prices in the first half of 2011.
OECD nations are forecast to have a slower expansion over
2010 levels. Many government stimulus spending programs
ended in mid-2010. Issues of high unemployment and lack of
job creation in the present recovery stalled economic growth. In
the European Union (EU), fear of several nations defaulting on
government loans adds more chaos to this trading region. GDP
for this manufacturing block is forecast to decline from 2010
levels to 2.3%. The fragile finances of Greece, Italy and Spain
chill investments in Europe.
Japans economy collapsed under the weight of the March 11,
2011 tsunami and following nuclear accident. This nation spent
most of 2011 restarting production and energy provider services.
The March event shut down Japans manufacturing sector for
several months.
What is the global energy outlook? Energy drives eco-
nomic growth and sustains fiscal health; here are factors shaping
the energy industry in 2012:
The pace of global economic recovery will greatly influence
the types of energy used over the next few years. Actions by gov-
ernments on climate change and energy security are major factors
that will impact the HPI.
Energy demand will be driven by developing (non-OECD
nations) and they will account for 93% of the new energy
demand. China, the largest energy consuming nation, will be a
major force in shaping the global energy marketplace.
Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) will comprise the
majority of primary energy resources; rising penalties on carbon
emissions will encourage switching to low-carbon feedstocks in
addition to efforts to reduce energy consumption.
Unconventional oil will play an increasing role in the global
oil supply. About 10% of the worlds oil supply is met by uncon-
ventional oils and that number will increase. Canadian oil sands
and Venezuelan extra-heavy crude are dominate sources. However,
coal-to-liquids, gas-to-liquids and shale oils will play a role as
future energy resources.
Crude oil will remain a dominant part of the primary fuel
mix. Nuclear energy is facing immense scrutiny and challenges
for future new installations, and it is only 8% of the total energy
mix. Renewable energy including hydro, wind, solar, geothermal
and modern biomass, will increase their share of the energy mix.
But these energy forms struggle to be viable replacements for
hydrocarbon resources. More research is needed to reduce manu-
facturing cost. Government subsidies prevent renewables from
competing on their own within the marketplace for many reasons.
Current state. The global HPI struggles to find a steady-state
situation for demand. The 2008/09 recession was a significant
economic tsunami that hastened demand changes for energy and
petrochemical-based products. In 2010, there was significant talk,
if not fear, that a double dip recession was very possible, given the
economic news and political events. Yet, the global economy man-
ages to squeeze through the year with improved demand numbers
for crude oil. Again, the main driver for refined crude-oil based
products and transportation fuels are the developing economies
or the non-OECD nations that are exiting the downturn first.
In particular, China and India are the major forces for increased
demand for transportation fuels and products.
The fragile economic forecasts in late 2010 and H1 of 2011
stalled advances in HPI project development. (Editor note: HPs
2011 total spending numbers were revised for the slowdown in proj-
ect activity; new total spending forecasts are listed in the Appendix.
These changes are reflected in the 2012 forecast spending numbers.)
Changing demand for HPI products and fear of future envi-
ronmental rules on products and operating facilities are affecting
where new HPI facilities will be built, along with continued
operations of existing facilities. HPI facilities allocate their bud-
gets in three main categories: capital, maintenance and operating
expenses. HPI facilities are long-term investments that involve
expenses throughout their productive lives.
The costs for designing and constructing downstream HPI
facilities increased in H2 of 2010 and Q1 of 2011, as shown in
Fig. 4. It is a sharp rise as compared to previous years. This mea-
sure reflects cost inflation on a global basis for HPI projects. Sharp
increases in steel costs drove this recent surge in construction
expenses. Costs for all steel-using projects have been rising since
H2 2010. Equipment costs (reactors, heat exchangers, distillation
columns, etc.) are now more expensive, thus raising capital costs
for HPI facilities on new equipment and replacement units.
According to IHS mid-year report, construction labor costs
continue to rise due to the weak US dollar. Rising demand for
skilled tradesmen is elevating labor costs, especially for new proj-
ects in developing nations. A true skilled labor shortage will keep
labor costs on the rise. The industry is facing an increasing short-
age of engineers and skilled labor over the next decade. The roller-
coaster events of the energy industry have dissuaded young people
to enter engineering programs. As more senior technical engineers
and technicians retire, the HPI faces a massive gap in qualified
workers. This trend applies to construction craftsmen and plant
maintenance personnel too. Project management costs increased
5%. All factors keep rising HPI project total costs.
Looking forward in 2012, operating companies again will use
disciplined spending over HPI projects. Rising costs for labor, equip-
ment and raw materials require more attention. The best-of-class
companies view the entire value chain of their products and manu-
facturing centers and seek opportunities to control, if not reduce,
total costs on all sector budgets. Grassroots HPI facilities are billion-
dollar investments funded by financial groups. In the aftermath
of the recession, financial groups continue to minimize their risk
exposure and are more selective in financing major HPI projects.
Investment in HPI infrastructure is an ongoing event. These
facilities were originally designed for 30 years of service. However,
Downstream capital cost index: 2000-2012. FIG. 4
50
70
90
110
130
150
170
190
210
2012 2010 2008 2006 2004 2002 2000
Source: IHS CERA
I
n
d
e
x

(
2
0
0
0
=
1
0
0
)
HPI 2012 FORECAST
30

I

with proper maintenance programs, HPI facilities can have long
service lives. Modernization is also part of the planning for older
facilities. The extreme operating conditions, and normal wear and
tear on equipment, are factors in replacing old, major equipment
with possible capacity expansion opportunities.
In 2012, the HPIs capital, maintenance and operating budgets
are expected to exceed $222 billion. Capital spending is projected
to reach $56.3 billion; maintenance spending should reach $66
billion; and operating spending is estimated to exceed $99.9 bil-
lion. The HPI continues to be more cost conscious. Core focus
areas for projects include:
1. New grassroots HPI capacity will be constructed in devel-
oping (Non-OECD) nations or nations that are hydrocarbon-rich
with plans to be net exporters.
2. New demand for transportation fuels and petrochemical-
based products are concentrated in non-OECD nations. These
nations have evolving middle classes as well as increasing popula-
tions. North America and Europe have aging populations that do
not have the growing new demand for products.
3. Possible environment and safety rules will hinder invest-
ment in HPI facilities. Uncertainty has unleashed rationalizations
and mergers and acquisitions (M&A) in the HPI. All regions are
affected. The ability to compete in the international markets has
some major international companies selling assets in some regions
and/or completely abandoning the downstream completely.
4. This uncertainty in future markets and operating rules by
governments has delayed, if not cancelled, HPI projects.
5. Weakness in HPI markets is contributing disciplined
spending. Future markets are changing. There is more capacity
under development than can meet present demand. Such condi-
tions create more volatility to the economic cycles.
HPI companies will invest in technologies to support their
mission goals, such as to improve plant economics, increase energy
efficiency, increase yields of desired products, eliminate unwanted
byproducts or wastes and increases sustainability of the company.
Other goals include:
Energy efficiency as carbon rules will affect thermal/combus-
tion units of HPI facilities
Improve maintenance and monitoring programs to ensure
more unit availability time
New capacity to meet growing demand from developing
countries, especially China and India
Greater focus on new health, safety and environmental
(HSE) rules
Integrate process unit, plant and enterprise operations
Increase process efficiency for product yields while minimiz-
ing products and wastes
Improve security of plant site and process information.
Contract services. Approximately 50% to 60% of the capital
and maintenance budgets respectively are allocated for overhead,
profit, labor and services. With continued personnel reductions
and growing regulatory compliance requirements, HPI operating
companies are directing considerable resources on outsourced
services. Engineering companies, contractors, consulting firms
and suppliers are part of the new workforce in constructing,
maintaining and operating HPI worldwide.
CAPITAL SPENDING
Capital spending tops $56 billion. As shown in Table
5, the HPI will allocate approximately $56 billion for capi-
tal spending. This total includes $25 billion on global refin-
ing projects, $17 billion on petrochemical/chemical projects,
approximately $10 billion on the gas processing sector and $4
billion in the synfuels sector. About $28 billion of the capital
budget will be spent on equipment and material (Table 5); note
that project materials cost are estimated to increase in 2012,
following trends in 2011.
Changing product trends, political and economic instability
and currency issues have delayed, if not cancelled, HPI construc-
tion projects. Project spending is more cautious. HPI companies
are strengthening their balance sheets and seeking opportunities
to maximize market shares through strategic capital investments.
Such endeavors also include purchasing and revamping existing
facilities over construction of a grassroots facility. Caution is still
applied in major projects and capital spending.
The long lead time from engineering design to commission-
ing allows HPI companies to stage entry of new capacity onto the
market. The HPI has been working new capacity from the last
buildup, but product demand wanes as economic conditions in
developed countries continue to stall. Fear of excess capacity will
remain in 2012.
HPI companies operating in mature developed markets,
such as the US and Europe, will continue to find creep capacity
increases via debottlenecking projects and processing modifi-
cations. The need to maintain the reliability of existing assets
and increase energy efficiency are major goals in many revamp
projects. Other energy-conservation and environmental improve-
ments from innovative equipment and new processing technolo-
gies are also part of the investment strategy. The availability of
new and improved equipment and construction materials, process
control initiatives and environmental considerations continue to
drive capital spending in 2012. HP
Table 4. 2012 Worldwide HPI total spending for
equipment and materials
Budget, millions $ US OUS Worldwide
Capital 4,800 23,140 27,940
Maintenance 5,760 19,450 25,210
Operating 15,000 34,150 49,150
Total 25,560 76,740 102,300
Table 5. 2012 Worldwide HPI capital spending
Sector, millions $ US OUS Worldwide
Petrochemical/chemical 2,300 14,700 17,000
Rening 4,350 20,660 25,010
Gas Processing 2,900 7,400 10,300
Synfuels 4,000 4,000
Totals 9,550 46,760 56,310
Table 6. 2012 worldwide HPI maintenance spending
by sector
Sector, millions $ US OUS Worldwide
Petrochemical/chemical 7,450 23,800 31,250
Rening 6,720 20,890 27,610
Gas Processing 1,660 5,360 7,020
Total 15,830 50,050 65,880
HPINNOVATIONS

I

31
SELECTED BY HYDROCARBON PROCESSING EDITORS
Editorial@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
New diode laser caters
to range of applications
Servomex Groups SERVOTOUGH
LaserCompact 2900 (Fig. 1), a tuneable
diode laser (TDL), is designed to deliver
true continuous in-situ monitoring across
short distances, for a new range of indus-
tries and applications. The TDL is opti-
mized for measurement across pipes and
along short cells, with a response time of
less than two seconds.
Key uses for the LaserCompact diode
laser include chemical industry applica-
tions; monitoring for contaminants and
moisture in petrochemical processing; non-
contact analysis of corrosive, dusty, tarry or
sooty gases across pipes; and use in automo-
bile manufacture on engine test stands. The
TDL is able to detect a wide range of gases
and other hydrocarbons, and it also features
highly stable performance and minimal
interference from background gases.
With minimum sample conditioning
requirements, zero drift and no moving
parts or consumables, the LaserCompact
TDL delivers a low cost-of-ownership
through mi ni mal mai ntenance and
downtime. Additionally, since Servomexs
advanced TDL technol ogy del i vers
measurement through a highly focused
laser beam, the laser is able to measure
through very thin nozzles, reducing or even
eliminating the consumption of purge gas.
Certified to ATEX and IECEx standards, it
allows for safe operation in situations where
the process stream itself is flammable and
has been classified as a hazardous area.
Albemarle makes breakthrough
in FCC catalyst analysis
Catalyst researchers from Albemarle
Corp. and Utrecht University in the Neth-
erlands recently discovered a new method to
increase visualization of catalyst components
by the use of selective staining. The collab-
orations research shows that it is possible
to pinpoint the actual active sites in fluid
catalytic cracking (FCC) catalysts without
destroying the catalysts in the process.
The spectroscopic tools and staining
methods developed in this collaboration
allow researchers to study the accessibility
of active sites and to view 3D maps of the
active sites inside the actual catalysts. Until
now, research was limited to activity mea-
surements, model studies and analyses of
spent catalysts. Albemarle supplied catalyst
materials, catalytic performance and bulk
characterization data for the research.
Particle detector helps
maintain machinery life
The AMOT Metal Particle Detector
(MPD) (Fig. 2) alerts operators to perform
oil condition checks to determine machin-
ery health status. It is an online, continu-
ous-wear debris monitor that signals the
presence of metal particles in lubricating
oils. Compact and robust, the MPD has a
corrosion-resistant, stainless steel body with
no moving parts. It is installed in a side
stream of the lube oil/fluid for gas or diesel
engines and reciprocating or rotating com-
pressors, pumps, turbines, transmissions
and gearboxes. Its patented grid-sensing
technology detects all conductive materi-
als, including non-magnetic particles, in
non-conductive fluid lubrication systems.
Timely detection of metal particles
ensures reliable machine conditions and
maximizes asset availability by avoiding
unnecessary downtime. Metal particle
detection can also verify filter system per-
formance and failure, confirm system flush-
ing, detect high corrosion and abrasion
wear, identify improper machine repair,
eliminate sampling errors and confirm cor-
rective maintenance.
New GTL catalyst reduces costs
for small to medium-sized plants
Car bon Sci ences Inc. recent l y
announced a technology breakthrough for
its gas-to-liquids (GTL) process, which
produces liquid transportation fuels from
natural gas and carbon dioxide (CO
2
).
Byron Elton, CEO of Carbon Sciences,
commented, The days of cheap, easy oil
have passed, and the era of natural gas is
upon us...oil prices will remain strong and
natural gas prices are expected to remain
low, leading to a lucrative future for gas-to-
liquids technology. Forecasts show that total
recoverable global natural gas resources will
last over 250 years. Shell, Sasol and others
in our industry have proven the economics
of GTL technology that will free us from
crude oil by tapping into the vast reserves of
natural gas to power the needs of the world.
A typical GTL plant consists of three
core components: 1) synthesis gas (syngas)
generation, which converts natural gas into
syngas; 2) Fischer-Tropsch (FT) processing,
which converts syngas into hydrocarbons;
and 3) liquid fuels upgrading, which con-
verts hydrocarbons to liquid fuels such as
gasoline, diesel and jet fuel. It is generally
accepted in the industry that the syngas por-
tion of a GTL plant is the most expensive.
Carbon Sciences proprietary catalyst
technology is aimed at reducing the cost
As HP editors, we hear about new
products, patents, software, processes,
services, etc., that are true industry
innovationsa cut above the typical
product offerings. This section enables
us to highlight these significant
developments. For more information from
these companies, please go to our website
at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/rs
and select the reader service number.
The tuneable diode laser delivers
rapid in-situ monitoring across
short distances.
FIG. 1
The metal particle detector alerts
operators to the presence of
metal in lube oils.
FIG. 2
HPINNOVATIONS
32

of syngas production by eliminating the
expensive requirements for oxygen and
steam. Instead, the companys syngas tech-
nology uses freely available CO
2
to react
with natural gas. To provide a complete
GTL technology solution, Carbon Sci-
ences will integrate its proprietary syngas
technology with FT technology and liq-
uid-fuels upgrading technology licensed
from other companies to deliver an end-
to-end GTL plant design. This complete
solution will be available for licensing to
the natural gas industry for use in small to
medium-sized GTL plants. Carbon Sci-
ences will begin the commercial process
by offering pre-feasibility and feasibility
study services.
Mr. Elton concluded, While we
believe our unique syngas technology will
ultimately benefit world-scale GTL plants,
such as Shells Pearl GTL, our initial target
market is small to medium-sized gas fields.
This focus will allow us to address a market
ignored by the big players with billion-
dollar budgets.
Electromagnetic flowmeter
features EtherNet/IP
connectivity
Endress+Hausers Promag 53 electro-
magnetic flowmeter (Fig. 3) features Ether-
Net/IP connectivity for easy integration
with the Rockwell Automation PlantPAx
process automation system. This helps
users simplify their network architecture,
reduce deployment time and facilitate con-
nectivity from the instrumentation level to
the business systems level. The flowmeter
measures electrically conductive liquids (>
5 S/cm) and is ideally suited for applica-
tions in the food and beverage, water and
wastewater, and other process industries.
The Promag 53 flowmeter features
an integrated web server that allows
authorized users to remotely view flow
data, conduct diagnostics, configure the
flowmeter and perform process optimiza-
tion. Data can also be securely accessed
by higher-level software such as enterprise
resource planning (ERP) systems, process
historians, control-loop tuning programs,
and asset management systems. By using
EtherNet/IP, up to 10 variables can be
configured, including volume flow, cal-
culated mass flow and totalized flow for
remote access.
Traditionally, devices measuring and
controlling process variables rely on a pro-
cess instrumentation network to transfer
The electromagnetic flowmeter
features EtherNet/IP connectivity
for integration with process
automation.
FIG. 3
AdvAmine & AdvaSulf
your best tools
in sour gas treatment
AdvAmine
I HiLoadDEA
I MDEAmax
I energizedMDEA
AdvaSulf
I Claus
I Tail Gas Treatment, Clauspol
II,
Sulfreen, Sultimate
I Sulphur degassing, Aquisulf
Prosernat offers
a global range
of advanced technical solutions
for sour gas treatment
and sulphur recovery
Tour FRANKLIN - 100/101 TERRASSE BOIELDIEU
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Phone: + 33 1 47 67 20 00 - Fax: + 33 1 47 67 20 07
e-mail: sales@prosernat.com
http://www.prosernat.com
HPINNOVATIONS

I

33
data, while other devices within the plant
work on a completely different network.
By improving this complex, multi-tier
networking strategy with one standard
network architecture, namely EtherNet/
IP, users have better access to real-time
information. This improves the ability to
monitor overall performance, troubleshoot
out-of-margin conditions and minimize
downtime. In addition to EtherNet/IP
connectivity, the Promag 53 has built-in
connectivity to FOUNDATION fieldbus,
PROFIBUS, MODBUS and HART.
Promag 53 is designed to measure most
liquids with a minimum conductivity of 5
S/cm, and flowrates up to 1,250 gal/min.
A minimum conductivity of 20 S/cm is
required for measuring demineralized water.
The flowmeter operates in temperatures of
4F to 140F (20C to 60C) and pres-
sures up to 580 psi.
Gas-treating simulation tool
offers ammonia calculations
Optimized Gas Treating Inc. has released
Version 5.0 of ProTreat, its gas-treating
process-simulation tool, which includes
the option to add ammonia as a compo-
nent for which absorption and stripping
are calculated on the basis of mass transfer
rates. This addition enables users to model
sour water strippers and to determine the
impact of ammonia as a contaminant in
amine systems.
Another feature of ProTreat Version
5.0 is enhanced reporting of stream data
in order to provide phase-specific com-
positions; thermodynamic, physical and
transport properties for use in generating
heat exchanger curves; and for other engi-
neering tasks. Improved methane solubil-
ity predictions in methyldiethanolamine
(MDEA), based on recent university
research data, have also been incorporated.
The new ammonia package will be par-
ticularly useful for design, optimization
and troubleshooting in refinery and syngas
applications.
Bentley expands software
for Microsoft
Through its commitment to the Micro-
soft Azure Platform partner program, soft-
ware solutions company Bentley Systems
Inc. recently expanded its strategic rela-
tionship with Microsoft Corp. Bentley is
bringing a broad range of Azure-cloud-
based services for sustaining infrastructure
to architecture, engineering, construction
and operations (AECO) worldwide at an
accelerated pace.
Initial offerings on Azure will include
the new Bentley Transmittal Services
(BTS), enabling AECO organizations to
accurately and securely package, deliver,
receive and track transmittals through a
dashboard portal. These shared services
will benefit the users of both the Projec-
tWise collaboration platform and the
AssetWise platform for operations infor-
mation modeling by reducing risk, saving
time and providing greater visibility into
project status.
BTS includes a dashboard that pro-
vides notifications and links to a secure
transmittal portal where organizations
can see all the transmittals that pertain to
their projects. Users will have the option
to deploy the portal onsite or online and
connect with their existing ProjectWise
or AssetWise implementations. The same
dashboard serves as a transmittal registry,
recording all acknowledgments and track-
ing all status changes. BTS will include
creation, publishing, delivery, response,
tracking and status functionalities.
Bentley Transmittal Services is cur-
rently available onsite with AssetWise.
BTS for ProjectWise is available onsite
through Bentleys early adopter program
and will be commercially released in Q1
2012. In addition, BTS for the Microsoft
Azure platform will be available online
in 2012.
Invensys revamps SimSci-Esscor
ROMeo optimization software
Invensys Operations Management
recently released Version 6.0 of its SimSci-
Esscor ROMeo optimization software (Fig.
4). The most recent version incorporates
four new refinery process models that
simulate and optimize reforming, coking,
isomerization and visbreaking units.
The software also contains several new
capabilities, including the ability to openly
share information using the object link-
ing and embedding for process control
unified architecture standard (OPC-UA).
The OPC-UA standard allows the ROMeo
software to communicate with many of
the companys simulation and workforce-
enablement offerings, including its DYN-
SIM, PRO/II and ArchestrA Workflow
software, as well as any third-party prod-
uct that also uses the OPC-UA standard.
ROMeo facilitates equipment monitoring,
utilities optimization and material balance
in open- or closed-loop mode.
Harpreet Gulati, director of design and
optimization at Invensys, noted that the
software allows refiners to improve crude
selection, evaluate crude supply and reli-
ably predict refinery yields and qualities.
It also helps determine the potential for
improving yields of higher-value products.
Additionally, the integration of ROMeo
with Invensys Wonderware Intelligence
software assists plant personnel in mak-
ing decisions that reduce operating costs,
increase throughput and maximize profit.
ExxonMobil expands energy-
efficient industrial lube line
ExxonMobil Lubricants and Petroleum
Specialties Co., a division of ExxonMobil
Corp., has added two Mobil SHC high-
performance synthetic oils to its industrial
lubricants line. The upgraded Mobil SHC
600 Series high-performance synthetic cir-
culating and gear lubricants family is rec-
ommended for use in 1,800 applications by
more than 500 major equipment builders,
and is ideal for use in a wide range of indus-
trial applications. The Mobil SHC Gear
Series offers fully synthetic, industrial gear
oils qualified by major gear original equip-
ment manufacturers (OEMs) to meet the
latest requirements.
Developed through extensive research
and testing with leading OEMs, Mobil
SHC 600 lubricants and Mobil SHC Gear
Series are formulated to deliver energy-effi-
ciency savings of up to 3.6% compared to
conventional oils (when tested in a worm
gearbox under controlled conditions) and
to optimize the performance of equipment
operating in extreme conditions. In addi-
tion to the energy-efficiency benefits, the
new Mobil SHC lubricants offer a service
life of up to six times longer than compet-
ing mineral oil-based gear lubricants.
The optimization software
provides process models for the
refining, petrochemical and gas
processing industries.
FIG. 4
HPI MARKET DATA 2012
YOUR GUIDE TO PROFITABLE PLANNING
IN 2012 AND BEYOND
Order Online at GulfPub.com/2012HPI or Call +1 (713) 520-4426
Strategic Planning Market Analysis and Trends New Growth Opportunities
Produced by the staff of Hydrocarbon Processing,
HPI Market Data 2012 is the industrys most trusted
forecast of capital, maintenance and operating
expenditures for the petrochemical, refining and
natural gas/LNG industries. Order your copy and gain
actionable insight and analysis to drive your planning
and global activities towards increased profitability
and market share in 2012 and beyond.

I

35
HPIN CONSTRUCTION
HELEN MECHE, ASSOCIATE EDITOR
HM@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
North America
BioAmber and Mitsui & Co. have
partnered to build and operate a manufac-
turing facility in Sarnia, Ontario, Canada.
The initial phase of the facility is expected
to produce 17,000 metric tons of biosuc-
cinic acid, and commercial production is
anticipated in 2013. The partners intend
to expand capacity and produce 35,000
metric tons of succinic acid and 23,000
metric tons of 1,4 butanediol (BDO) on
the site. Bioamber and Mitsui also intend
to jointly build and operate two additional
facilities. These facilities, together with
Sarnia, will have a total cumulative capac-
ity of 165,000 tons of succinic acid and
123,000 tons of BDO. BioAmber will be
the majority shareholder in the plants.
Additionally, the partners plan to build
and operate a second plant in Thailand,
which is projected to come online in
2014. They are undertaking a feasibility
study for the Thailand plant with PTT
MCC Biochem Co. Ltd., a joint venture
established between Mitsubishi Chemical
Corp. and PTT Public Co., Ltd. BioAm-
ber and Mitsui & Co. also plan to build
and operate a third plant, located in either
North America or Brazil, that will be simi-
lar in size to the Thailand project.
SNC-Lavalin has a major contract
from an oil-sands mining producer to pro-
vide engineering, procurement and con-
struction (EPC) services for a froth-treat-
ment plant in the Fort McMurray region
of Canada. The contract value is in excess
of $650 million. The froth-treatment plant
will process 155,000 bpd of feedstock from
the bitumen extraction plant in the form
of bitumen froth.
The engineering phase is now under-
way and construction is scheduled to
begin in February 2012. Mechanical com-
pletion for the construction is expected in
September 2014.
GT Logistics, LLC (GTL) has began
installing rail lines at its OmniPort loca-
tion in Port Arthur, Texas. The OmniPort
is expected to open for business in January
2012, serving as a multimodal terminal for
crude oil and other products transported
via rail, ship, barge and truck.
The $95 million, 1,100-acre facility
neighbors refineries with over 1 million
bpd of capacity, and multiple chemical
and processing plants, and is located less
than one mile from over 4 million bbl of
petroleum product-storage capacity and
pipelines serving the region.
The rail terminal, served by Union
Pacific, will be able to receive unit train traf-
fic, with 300 acres of rail-car storage onsite
that will be capable of storing, switching
and transloading over 1,000 rail cars. The
rail terminal site also features a multibarge
receiving dock on Taylors Bayou; conve-
nient access to Highway 73 and Interstate
10; and connectivity to the regions exten-
sive network of pipelines. The initial phase
of the rail, drainage and road improvement
construction began earlier in the year and
will be completed by the end of 2011.
Cheniere Energy Partners, L.P. has
selected Bechtel to provide engineering, pro-
curement and construction (EPC) services
for two new liquefaction trains at the Sabine
Pass liquefied natural gas (LNG) terminal
in Cameron Parish, Louisiana. The project
builds on Bechtels previous work at Sabine
Pass, where the company designed, built and
expanded the LNG receiving facility.
Bechtel will design, construct and
commission the two liquefaction trains
using ConocoPhillips Optimized Cas-
cade technology. The liquefaction trains
will be built next to the existing facilities
at the Sabine Pass LNG terminal, which
include five tanks with storage capacity of
16.9 billion ft
3
equivalent, two docks that
can handle vessels up to 265,000 m
3
and
vaporizers with regasification capacity of
4.0 billion cfd. Construction is expected
to begin in 2012.
NRGreen Power and GE have plans
for a new recovered energy project that will
produce power without additional emis-
sions using the first global application of
GEs innovative ORegen system. The tech-
nology will be installed at Alliance Pipe-
lines Windfall Compressor Station near
Whitecourt, Alberta, Canada, to generate
electricity through the use of waste heat.
NRGreen Power Ltd. Partnership
works to develop clean energy by convert-
ing waste heat generated at compressor
stations along the Alliance Pipeline system
to produce emission-free electric power.
The company has four waste-heat recov-
ery units operational at Kerrobert, Lore-
burn, Estlin and Alameda, Saskatchewan.
While its Whitecourt Recovered Energy
Project (WREP) marks the companys
fifth waste-heat recovery installation, it is
the first to use GEs ORegen system. Con-
struction of the WREP will commence in
May 2012.
South America
MODEC, Inc., has commissioned a
UOP Separex membrane system for pro-
cessing natural gas on a new floating pro-
duction, storage and offloading (FPSO) ves-
sel. The FPSO is using the Honeywell UOP
Separex membrane system and adsorbents
to remove carbon dioxide and water from 5
million standard m
3
/day of natural gas from
the Lula oil field off the coast of Brazil.
The FPSO was commissioned in July
2011. A second FPSO, still in construc-
tion and also using UOP Separex technol-
ogy, is expected to be commissioned in
September 2012.
The Lula oil field is said to contain the
largest oil discovery in the Western Hemi-
sphere in the last 30 years and is believed
to contain 8.3 billion bbl of oil and natural
Trend analysis forecasting
Hydrocarbon Processing maintains an
extensive database of historical HPI proj-
ect information. The Boxscore Database is a
35-year compilation of projects by type, oper-
ating company, licensor, engineering/construc-
tor, location, etc. Many companies use the his-
torical data for trending or sales forecasting.
The historical information is available in
comma-delimited or Excel
and can be custom

sorted to suit your needs. The cost depends on
the size and complexity of the sort requested.
You can focus on a narrow request, such as
the history of a particular type of project, or
you can obtain the entire 35-year Boxscore
database or portions thereof. Simply send
a clear description of the data needed and
receive a prompt cost quotation.
Contact: Lee Nichols
P.O. Box 2608, Houston, Texas, 77252-2608
713-525-4626 Lee.Nichols@GulfPub.com
36

I
HPIN CONSTRUCTION
gas. The field is operated by Petrobras in
partnership with BG and Galp.
Honeywells UOP Separex technology
upgrades natural gas streams by remov-
ing carbon dioxide and water vapor. These
contaminants must be removed to meet
the quality standards specified by pipeline
transmission and distribution companies,
as well as end users of the natural gas.
Haldor Topse has signed an agreement
with Petrobras for the supply of critical
equipment and materials for two SNOX
plants. The plants will be installed at the
new RNEST grassroots refinery in Pernam-
buco, Brazil. The supply covers internals
for 80 wet-gas sulfuric-acid (WSA) con-
densers for condensation of sulfuric acid,
eight units for acid mist control and a com-
plete acid system.
In addition to treating the boiler flue
gases, the SNOX plants will also treat
Claus plant tail gases, amine gases con-
taining hydrogen sulfide and sour-water
stripper (SWS) gases containing ammonia.
These SNOX plants are designed for the
possible elimination of the Claus plants,
which then means that all the refinerys
sulfur compounds are converted into sul-
furic acid.
The two SNOX plants will be installed
in parallel and will each treat up to
650,000 Nm
3
/h of flue gas while produc-
ing up to 750 metric tpd of sulfuric acid.
In addition to producing sulfuric acid, the
SNOX plants will also export up to 100
ton/hour of high-pressure steam to the
refinery steam grid.
The contract for basic engineering
was signed with Petrobras earlier and
has already been executed. The supply of
equipment will take place during the com-
ing 16 months, and startup of the SNOX
plants is planned for 2013.
Europe
Jacobs Engineering Group Inc. has a
contract to provide detailed engineering,
procurement support and support services
during construction of a new ester produc-
tion plant at OXEA GmbHs existing man-
ufacturing facility in Oberhausen, Germany.
The Esterplant 2 project is part of
OXEAs strategy to expand global ester
production capacity by 40% to meet the
growing global demand for OXEAs esters.
These specialty chemical products are
replacing the traditional phthalate plasti-
cizers. The fast-track project is expected to
come onstream in 2012.
MAN Diesel & Turbo is installing a
CHP cogeneration unit at the Rheinberg
production plant of Solvin GmbH &
Co. KG, a joint enterprise of Solvay and
BASF. The first of MANs new 6-MW
gas turbines will be used commercially
for the plant, which manufactures chemi-
cal products including polyvinyl chloride
(PVC). The new CHP plant is designed
to supply 6 MW of electrical and 11 MW
of thermal power, thus enabling Solvin to
meet its own electricity requirements in
the future.
ThyssenKrupp EPC contractors have
supplied and commissioned a plant for
producing 3,500 tpd of urea solution in
Sluiskil, Netherlands, for Yara of Nor-
way. The plant, which took three years to
build, has now been handed over to the
customer. Yara invested 400 million in
its construction.
The plant meets the latest environ-
mental standards, as well as the best avail-
able technology standards. There are even
special collection systems that, should the
plant malfunction, ensure that no haz-
ardous substances escape into the envi-
ronment. What really makes the plant so
remarkable, though, is that some of the
urea it produces will not be used as fertilizer
but as an aqueous urea solution to treat die-
sel exhaust fumes. This technology, known
as AdBlue, reduces NO
x
emissions.
The technology was licensed by Stami-
carbon. ThyssenKrupp Uhde was respon-
sible for the engineering, equipment supply
and plant construction on a fixed-price,
turnkey basis.
Neste Oil is building a system for
recovering emissions released when load-
ing ships at the harbor of its Porvoo refin-
ery. The system, valued at approximately
23 million, will recover the majority of
the volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
released into the atmosphere when load-
ing gasoline.
The new system will reabsorb VOCs
into gasoline during loading with the help
of two absorption tanks and related equip-
ment at the harbor, after which the gasoline
used will be returned to the refinery for
re-use. A similar system is already in use
when loading tanker trucks at the Porvoo
refinerys distribution terminal.
Construction work on the VOC recov-
ery system began in October 2011 and the
facility is due to be commissioned in the
latter half of 2013.
Africa
Kenya Petroleum Refineries Ltd.
(KPRL) has implemented a new solution
from IBM to increase the productivity and
efficiency of the companys oil refinery
operations in East Africa. The agreement
was finalized by IBMs business partners
Computer Source Point Ltd. and Pow-
ertech IST Data. The new IBM solution
will allow KPRL to manage, measure and
track the life cycle of its oil-processing
equipment such as pipes, heat exchangers,
pumps, valves, boilers, furnaces, compres-
sors, tanks and turbines.
Niger Delta Petroleum Resources
Ltd. (NDPR), the fully owned subsid-
iary of Niger Delta Exploration & Pro-
duction Plc (NDEP), has been granted a
license to operate (LTO) the Ogbele mini
refinery. This license, granted by the fed-
eral government of Nigeria, is said to be
the first of its kind to be granted to an
independent, publicly owned Nigerian
company. It gives NDPR full authority to
operate its mini diesel refinery (topping
plant) at the Ogbele Field in old OML 54
(Rivers State).
The LTO will make NDPRs mini diesel
refinery the first independently owned and
fully operational diesel refinery in Nige-
ria. The refinery has an initial capacity of
1,000 bpd. It commenced production in
December 2010, using crude-oil feed from
NDPRs existing Ogbele flowstation.
Middle East
Tecnimont S.p.A., the main operating
company of Maire Tecnimont S.p.A., has
an engineering procurement, construction
and commissioning (EPCC) contract on
a lump-sum turnkey basis for a new fertil-
izers complex within the existing industrial
area in the Aswan Governorship in Upper
Egypt, from the Egyptian Chemical &
Fertilizers IndustriesKIMA.
The fertilizers complex will comprise
an 1,200-tpd-capacity ammonia-produc-
tion unit, implementing KBRs Purifier
technology; one 1,575-tpd-capacity urea-
melt production unit, implementing Sta-
micarbons Pool Reactor technology; one
1,575-tpd-capacity urea-granulation unit,
implementing Stamicarbons urea-gran-
ulation technology; and all the necessary
utilities and offsite facilities to support the
process units.
The overall project value is approxi-
mately $540 million and completion is
expected by the end of July 2014.
HPIN CONSTRUCTION

37
Toyo Engineering Corp. was awarded
an energy optimization project for one
of SABICs existing ammonia plant and
package boilers at the Al-Jubail Fertilizer
Co. (Al-Bayroni) in the eastern region of
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
The plant, which has a production
capacity of 1,300 metric tpd of ammonia,
has been in operation since 1983. Toyo will
reduce and optimize the energy consump-
tion in similar ammonia plants and package
boilers. Project implementation is sched-
uled to be completed in the second quar-
ter of 2013. Toyos scope of work includes
engineering, procurement, construction,
pre-commissioning and commissioning
assistance on a lump-sum turnkey basis.
Qatar National Facilities Services, a
Qatari-based company partly owned by
Fluor, has signed a five-year comprehensive
maintenance-services contract with RasGas
in the industrial city of Ras Laffan, Qatar.
The contract was awarded to provide main-
tenance services for the entire complex.
Fluor previously completed the RL3
Common Offplot project for RasGas in
2009. For that project, Fluor trained more
than 62,000 different workers from 40
different countries at the site, with peak
construction manpower reaching nearly
9,000 workers in January 2008.
Cellier Activity of ABB Frances Pro-
cess Automation Division has started up
a new lube-oil blending plant (LOBP) for
Petromin Corp. in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
Cellier Activity was responsible for the
detailed engineering and procurement,
mechanical and electrical site supervi-
sion, along with commissioning of the
core process equipment. The scope of
supply included both batch- and inline-
blending technologies. The new facility is
automated, and plant-wide activities are
managed by a Lubcel control system to
ensure process flexibility and safety.
With an annual capacity of 125,000
tons of lubricating oils per shift, the new
facility is able to produce a wide range
of automotive and industrial oils, and is
reportedly one of the largest LOBPs in the
Middle East.
North Refineries Co. (NRC) has
awarded Chiyoda Corp. a contract for
replacement of furnaces at the North
refinery in Baiji, Republic of Iraq.
The contract covers engineering, pro-
curement and delivery of three sets of fur-
naces. Equipment delivery will be com-
pleted in April 2013.
The North refinery in Baiji is said
to be one of the largest refineries in the
Republic of Iraq, constructed by Chiyoda
in 1983 with a capacity of 150,000 bpd.
At the end of February 2011, hydrotreater
furnaces at the North refinery were shut
down by bomb blasts. NRC requested
Chiyoda for planning assistance of short-
term emergency measures, and Chiyoda
was awarded the contract for the furnace-
replacement work as a permanent solution
through international tender.
Asia Pacific
Davy Process Technology Ltd., a
Johnson Matthey company, and The
Dow Chemical Co.s Oxygenated Sol-
vents Business, have announced that
Wison (Nanjing) Clean Energy Co.,
Ltd., has selected LP Oxo SELECTOR
10 technology for its new oxo alcohols
plant in Nanjing, China. With this
licence, Wison Energy will build a LP
Oxo plant with a capacity of 125 kiloton/
yr of 2-ethylhexanol and 125 kiloton/yr
of butanols.
Wison Energys Nanjing plant operates
a 600-kiloton/yr carbon-monoxide plant
and supplies carbon-monoxide, synthe-
sis gas, hydrogen and methanol to other
facilities located in the Nanjing Chemical
Industry Park.
Michelin Siam Co., Ltd., has awarded
Technip a lump-sum turnkey engineer-
ing, procurement and construction (EPC)
contract for a new elastomer composite
plant to be built in Southern Region
Industrial Estate, Songkhla Province,
Thailand.
The contract is in line with Tech-
nips strategy to expand its business base,
including its onshore segment. It covers
preliminary engineering, detailed engi-
neering, project management, procure-
ment, construction, pre-commissioning
and commissioning, and startup assis-
tance. The plant will produce rubber
composites.
Technips operating center in Bangkok,
Thailand, will execute the contract, which
is scheduled to be completed at the begin-
ning of 2013. HP
38

I
HPI CONSTRUCTION BOXSCORE UPDATE
Company City Project Ex Capacity Unit Cost Status Yr Cmpl Licensor Engineering Constructor
AFRICA
Egypt KIMA Aswan Ammonia 1200 tpd U 2014 KBR|Tecnimont Tecnimont
Morocco OCP Jorf Lasfar DAP (4) EX None E 2015 Jacobs Engineering SA Jacobs Engineering SA Jacobs Engineering SA
Nigeria NNPC Imo State, Egbema/ Refinery 100 bpd 2500 U 2016
Oguta Industrial Park
Senegal PCMC Dakar Refinery EX 100 bpd 1200 P 2013
Zambia Indeni Refining Co. Ndola Refinery RE 24 bpd 600 P
ASIA/PACIFIC
Australia QGC Curtis Island LNG 3.8 MMtpy U 2014 ConocoPhillips Ltd Bechtel SembCorp
Marine|Bechtel
China Sinopec Changling Crude Unit EX 160 bpd U 2013
India IOCL Gujarat Refinery 15 Mtpy 59.2 P 2022
India Shell Hazira/Total JV Hazira LNG Terminal EX 3.6 Mtpy 91 P 2013 BOS|Tecnimont
India Indian Oil Corp Ltd Paradip Refinery 15 MMtpy 1272 U 2012 Indian Oil FW Jacobs
India Essar Oil Ltd Vadinar Distiller, Crude RE 14 MMtpy 1620 C 2011 ABB Lummus ABB Lummus Essar
India Amerind Petroleum Pvt Ltd. Visakhapatnam Refinery 7.5 Mtpy 505 P 2014
Indonesia Pertamina/PT Chandra Asri/ Cilegon Refinery 300 bpd 7000 P 2014
Saudi Aramco JV
Thailand Michelin Siam Elastomer Songhkla Elastomers None E 2013 Technip Technip
Thailand BioAmber/Mitsu & Co. Undisclosed Biosuccinic Acid m-t S 2014
Vietnam Petrovietnam Nghi Son EZ Refinery 200 Mbpd 6200 P 2016 FW Technip
EUROPE
Azerbaijan Socar Baku Processing, Oil/Gas TO 300 bpd 1500 U 2020 Technip|FW|UOP
Norway StatoilHydro Mongstad VOC Recovery 36 Msm3/hr 18.7 U 2011 Aker Solutions Aker Solutions
Romania Rompetrol Rafinare Constanta, Petromidia Refinery Hydrogen 40 MNm3/h 99 E 2012 Technip Technip Rominserv
Russian Federation Bashneft Bashkortostan Hydrocracker None 551 U 2016
Russian Federation Moscow Oil Refinery Moscow Refinery EX 10 MMtpy 26.4 E 2020 Vnipineft
Russian Federation Novo Ufimskii NPZ Ufa Hydrotreat, Gas Oil EX 2 MMtpy 309.5 U 2012 Axens
Russian Federation Lukoil-Volgograd Neftepererabotk Volgograd Coker, Delayed RE None C 2011
Turkmenistan Turkmengas Undisclosed Refinery (3) None P
MIDDLE EAST
Iran Iranian Oil Rfg Qeshm Island Refinery, Heavy Ends 30 bpd P 2013
Kuwait Kuwait Petro Corp Kuwait Olefins None C 2011
Saudi Arabia Saudi Aramco Jazan Refinery 400 bpd 7000 U 2016 Axens|KBR|CLG Axens
Saudi Arabia Petromin Jeddah Blending, Lubes 125 tpd C 2011 ABB Cellier
Saudi Arabia Sadara Chemical Co. Ras Tanura Petrochemical Complex 400 Mbpd 20000 F 2015 Dow Jacobs |KBR ABB|KBR|Jacobs
Saudi Arabia Saudi Aramco\ConocoPhillips Yanbu Refinery 400 Mbpd 1300 E 2014 KBR Aramco Services Co|KBR
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HPI VIEWPOINT

I

41

The opportunities of abundance:
How shale gas changes the energy landscape
In 2005, the US EIA forecast that US demand for natural gas
would be met by importing greater volumes of the fuel in the form
of LNG. Specifically, net LNG imports were expected to rise to
10% of consumption in 2010 and to 20% in 2025.
Six years later, however, the data for 2010 indicate that net
LNG imports were less than 2% of US natural gas consumption,
while domestic production has far exceeded earlier forecasts.
These unanticipated changes are the result of new production of
natural gas from shale resources, a phenomenon that is changing
the energy landscape.
Today, the US has a growing supply of domestic natural gas
that can power the country for generations to come. According
to the EIA, the total natural gas resource base sits at 2,543 trillion
cubic feet (Tcf ), powered by new discoveries across the US. These
discoveries have fundamentally transformed the long-term sup-
ply outlook. Shale gas production makes up more than 20% of
US supply, an increase from 1% in 2000, and energy analysts at
ICF International predict that, in about 25 years, this figure will
grow to around 65% of total supply. In short, shale gas supplies
that were initially described as an unconventional resource will
become conventional in the near future.
The arrival of lower and more stable prices. The
increases in North American natural gas resources and produc-
tion have brought new stability to gas markets. In fact, record
production and low prices were sustained right through the worst
economic downturn since the Great Depression. The US reached
record levels of annual gross natural gas production in each of the
years from 2008 through 2010.
At the same time, natural gas prices (NYMEX front-month
contract) have not exceeded $6.10 per million Btu (MMBtu)
since January 2009, and in the first three quarters of 2011 prices
have averaged $4.21/MMBtu. EIAs long-term outlook antici-
pates that prices will stay below $7/MMBtu until at least 2035.
There has also been a clear break in the traditional linkage
between oil and natural gas prices. In mid-2008, as the price
of crude oil peaked at $140 per barrel (bbl), natural gas hit a
historic high of $14/MMBtu. After a drop in prices, oil jumped
to over $100/bbl and has remained above $75/bbl over the last
year (NYMEX front-month contract), while natural gas prices
stayed at much lower levels (under $4.50/MMBtu) than would
have been anticipated with a closer price linkage.
Gas opportunity in the power sector. The realization in
the US of abundant natural gas supplies coincides with a growing
interest in cleaner sources of energy and improved energy security
through the expanded use of domestic fuels; this opportunity is
particularly strong in the power sector. In US power generation,
natural gas is greatly under-utilized. Gas-powered plants cur-
rently make up the greatest portion of US generation capacity,
yet only about 25% is actually utilized.
Low-priced natural gas supplies, coupled with power plant
infrastructure already in place around the US, are already facili-
tating expanded power-sector use, which increased more than
25% between 2005 and 2010. Continuing to expand power-
sector use also has an immediate and significant benefit for the
environment. In fact, the Congressional Research Service (CRS)
found that, if the US doubled the use of natural gas combined-
cycle plant capacity, nearly 10% of the countrys CO
2
emissions
would be displacednot to mention reductions in pollutants
such as mercury, NO
X
and SO
X
.
Driving change. The transportation sector is also benefit-
ting from newfound natural gas abundance in the US. The
gas-producing companies that are part of ANGA have been
driving change in many of the same locations where natural gas
is produced. These companies are building fueling facilities for
natural gas vehicles (NGVs), buying and using NGVs, financ-
ing new technologies for NGVs and selling natural gas to other
NGV users.
The use of natural gas for fleet vehicles has been expanding
rapidly. In Los Angeles, California, the local metro system retired
its last diesel bus in January 2011 and now has 2,221 buses
(99.6%) of its fleet running on compressed natural gas (CNG).
The commercial use of NGV fleets is also rising, most notably
with companies like UPS and AT&T.
Natural gas is also competitive in the heavy-duty sector of
the transportation market, as these vehicles travel the most miles
and have significantly lower fuel economy and substantial fuel
Sara Banaszak, chief economist and vice
president of Americas Natural Gas Alliance
(ANGA), draws on her 15-year background
in natural gas and oil to help guide ANGAs
research and analysis and to develop and
promote policies that reflect the potential
of abundant new natural gas supplies. Her
knowledge of the energy industry ranges
across the upstream, downstream, international and domestic arenas,
and covers policy, regulatory and commercial issues. She has conducted
extensive analysis of global liquid natural gas (LNG) trade, analyzed the
economic impacts of US energy policies, modeled the dynamics of oil
refineries, and published research on oil demand in Asia.
Ms. Banaszak has served as a speaker, chair and organizing
committee member for major North American and international
conferences, including Gastech. She has also worked in consult-
ing, directing PFC Energys North American Gas Policy Service, and
previously with FACTS Global Energy. Other professional experience
includes research for the American Petroleum Institute and the East-
West Center, project management at the US Department of Energy,
and international energy modeling for the US Energy Information
Administration (EIA).
Additionally, Ms. Banaszak is an active member of several asso-
ciations, including the National Association of Business Economists
and the International Association for Energy Economics. She holds a
masters degree in applied economics from the University of Hawaii
and a bachelors degree in international relations from the University
of Pennsylvania.
HPI VIEWPOINT
42

I

needs. Fuel cost is a key driver in making natural gas competi-
tive for transportation. Natural gas costs, on average, one-third
less than conventional gasoline. Additionally, NGVs are proven
to have lower operating and maintenance costs, both of which
generate significant savings over the life of vehicles. Many gas-
powered fleets report 15%28% savings compared to those
running on diesel.
Shale gas is fueling economic success. The benefits
in the US from a move toward domestic natural gas will also
have an important impact on the economy, including lower
electricity prices, higher industrial production and higher house-
hold incomes. Using more of this domestically sourced fuel will
inevitably lead to increased employment for staff geologists,
engineers and drilling specialists, as well as an escalation in sup-
porting industries.
Shale gas already supports 600,000 jobs, and this number is
poised to grow significantly, exceeding 1.6 million jobs by 2035.
Growth in Americas steel and chemical industries is a great exam-
ple of how the US benefits from the shale boom. The steel industry
is seeing increased orders for specialty pipes, while production of
ethylene and ethylene-based products is expanding in the US.
Moving forward. It is clear that the energy dynamic in the
US has changed over the last few years. Importing natural gas was
an accepted truth, but todays reality is that the US has enough
natural gas to meet growing demand, allowing the country to
focus on domestic uses and export possibilities.
The production of shale gas will continue to reverberate
throughout global energy markets as planned US imports are
displaced and as production of shale gas is extended internation-
ally. In the US, the production of shale gas will continue to help
the country move away from foreign fuels, saving precious dol-
lars in the process and addressing some pressing environmental
challenges. It is a monumental opportunity that our industry is
excited to tackle. HP
Cautious optimism for growth
in the natural gas market
The natural gas industry is more optimistic now than it has
been in perhaps decades, as the fuel is on its way to capturing
a growing and significantly larger share of the US energy mar-
ketplace. With the advantages of a large resource base, relatively
reasonable costs, and environmental pressures on competing fuels,
such optimism is justified; however, the industrys hopes are not
guaranteed to be fulfilled.
While the resource base itself is less and less in doubt, the extent
to which production costs will continue to decline remains uncer-
tain, and regulatory and environmental costs are far from resolved.
The demand side faces even more uncertainty, with market growth
more dependent than ever on the overall health of the economy
and on the increasingly contentious politics of power generation.
Natural gas share of energy consumption in the US has varied
within the 20%30% range since the early 1970s, down from just
over 30% in the late 1960s when natural gas prices were heavily
regulated at low levels, heavy industry was running strong, and
supply was not an issue. Successive recessions in 19731974 and
19811982 hit the industrial gas market hard, with the result
being that, by 1986, natural gas market share in US energy con-
sumption had fallen to less than 22%, and the overall US gas
market had dropped to just over 16 trillion cubic feet (Tcf )the
lowest market share for gas since 1953.
Recovery was initially headed by the industrial sector during
the 1990s gas bubble, as a strong economy and cheap natural
gas drove a rebound of approximately 8 billion cubic feet per day
(Bcfd) in industrial consumption, while power consumption
grew by 45 Bcfd over the same period. Gas share of US energy
consumption fell again through the mid-2000s, however, as high,
volatile gas prices discouraged industrial consumption, while gas-
fired power generation continued to show gains. In recent years,
gas share has increased slowly, climbing back to 25% in 2010 and
2011. This growth is a result of stabilization in the industrial mar-
ket and continued growth in gas-fired power generation, which
is in part due to the displacement of traditional coal markets in
the eastern US.
Is the gas industry indeed poised for a new era of growth as
it captures larger shares of the industrial and power-generation
markets? Again, supply is not an issue for a decade or more,
at least. Wood Mackenzie estimates that production in nine
active shale plays (Marcellus, Haynesville, Barnett, Eagle Ford,
Fayetteville, Woodford, Horn River, Montney and Duvernay)
alone is capable of growing by more than 20 Bcfd on net from
20112020greater than expected US demand growthat
Henry Hub prices of between $4.00 per million British thermal
Edward Kelly, the vice president of
North American gas and power at Wood
Mackenzie, is a recognized expert analyst
of the North American natural gas and
power industries. He has focused expertise
in the natural gas midstream, energy mar-
kets, regulatory issues and energy business
strategies. Mr. Kelly leads major consulting
engagements for Wood Mackenzies Americas Gas and Power
consulting group, contributes to the research product, and inte-
grates insights from Wood Mackenzies World Oil, North American
Gas and Power, and Global LNG practices for the benefit of Wood
Mackenzie clients.
In the course of his career, Mr. Kelly has advised many North
American and international energy companies on business strategy
for the North American energy market, and on the effects of global
energy market forces on the North American energy industry and
marketplace. His advisory experience also includes numerous state
governmental and regulatory bodies, as well as utilities, producers,
and gas pipeline and storage companies.
Prior to joining Wood Mackenzie, Mr. Kelly was director of
research for the North American natural gas unit of Cambridge
Energy Research Associates. Previously, he worked as an analyst
for Panhandle Energy (now Spectra Energy) and Tennessee Gas
Transmission. Mr. Kelly holds a BA degree in economics from the
University of Chicago and an MBA degree in finance from the Uni-
versity of Texas at Austin.

I

43
HPI VIEWPOINT
unit (MMBtu) and $5.50/MMBtu. This forecast holds in spite
of an expected doubling of pipeline gas exports to Mexico and
nearly 2.5 Bcfd of LNG exports.
Of course, there are other shales under development (Utica,
Niobrara) as well, and several plays waiting in the wings should
prices rise. As a result, no pure exploration success is required to
satisfy the needs of the North American gas market, even for the
next 20 years. We already have a good idea where the gas we may
need is located, and we know it can be produced at less than $6/
MMBtu, even accounting for some increase in costs associated
with tightening environmental standards.
On the demand side, the near-term picture is less clear. A
weak economy and growing generation from renewable sources
are dampening the underlying need for gas generation, while
an increase in gas prices would cause gas to lose market share to
coal for a time. However, politics are coming into play again,
with US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations
expected to result in the retirement of between 50 GW and 60
GW of US coal-fired power facilities within the next 57 years.
If the economy resumes a steady pace of growth, the gas market
should begin to shift from a dependence on pushing supplies at
low cost into traditional coal markets, toward supplying grow-
ing power-generation needs while some existing coal plants
are retired. Exports and continued coal displacement are likely
to remain features of the gas market at prices still attractive to
US consumers.
Of course, the opportunities for growth are more varied. Pet-
rochemical producers, fertilizer manufacturers, steel producers
and other industrials are already making or considering invest-
ments to take advantage of low gas prices, and Wood Macken-
zie expects industrial consumption to rebound, exceeding the
20-Bcfd level again (up from over 18 Bcfd currently) within
57 years. The wide spread between natural gas and oilwhich
is likely to remain wide for the foreseeable futureis attracting
ongoing investments in CNG and LNG vehicles and refueling
infrastructures as well, although it will be many years before these
make a material difference in the overall marketplace.
In short, if steady economic growth resumes, the gas industry
is poised to supply an increasing share of the nations energy
needs once again. Will the industry ever get back to a 30% share,
as seen in the late 1960s? Power consumption efficiencies, renew-
able energy generation, and a slower pace of economic growth
create headwinds, so the 30% level will probably not be reached
until 2025 or 2030. However, the gas market at that time, fore-
cast at nearly 90 Bcfd, could be one-third larger than it is today
not a bad opportunity for those in the business. HP
LNGs future: Branching out
The liquefied natural gas (LNG) industry is mature and
poised to branch out in many new directions in the coming
decades as it continues to grow in capacity. One forecast takes
todays 325 million metric tons per year (metric MMtpy) of
installed or under-construction liquefaction capacity to approxi-
mately 500 metric MMtpy by 2030. Traditional onshore base-
load facilities, particularly in Australia and Africa, will account
for the largest part of the 175-metric MMtpy growth during
that period.
Nontraditional sizes and locations. While most of the
capacity increase will be driven by traditional baseload plants,
expect to see substantial growth in LNG facilities in nontradi-
tional locations and sizes, as well. Arguably, the most interest-
ing future location is offshore. The wide field of floating LNG
(FLNG) players seen five years ago has narrowed substantially
and is now led by Shells Prelude facility, which is pushing the
current boundaries of technology and is positioned to become
the worlds first operating FLNG later this decade. The industry
is watching closely. Once the concept and its many challenges are
proven, expect a rush to be second and a concerted push to find
ways to make the next generation of FLNGs more economical.
Also expect a new breed of mid-scale (0.52.0 metric MMtpy)
liquefaction facilities to come into their own and help monetize
the large number of smaller gas fields, particularly offshore and in
remote onshore locations. Unlike baseload LNG facilities, where
innovation is driven by the need for higher efficiency and larger
train sizes, many mid-scale liquefaction processes and their asso-
ciated pretreatment processes will focus on operational simplicity
and minimization of capital expenditures (CAPEX).
At the smallest end of the capacity range will be the small-scale
(peak-shaver) to micro-scale (vehicle-fuel) liquefaction facilities
that will pop up wherever they can best take advantage of local
gas availability and LNG markets. In particular, processes aimed
at the vehicle fuel market will increasingly be offered in catalog
sizes of prepackaged equipment. The lowest CAPEX and shortest
construction schedules will rule this market.
Dont forget regas. While less glamorous than liquefac-
tion facilities, import/regasification terminals will also see steady
growth. Historically, worldwide regas capacity has been about 23
times that of worldwide liquefaction capacity. We can expect to
see 4570 billion cubic feet per day (Bcfd) of new regas capacity
by 2030. As with liquefaction, most of the growth in regas will be
in traditional, baseload-sized terminals.
While liquefaction facilities face the challenge of being located
where the gas is (i.e., increasingly remote or otherwise challeng-
ing locations), regas terminals face a rather different challenge of
Susan Tucker Walther, Mustangs LNG
engineering manager, is an accomplished
engineer with more than 25 years of
diverse industry and engineering experi-
ence. A registered professional engineer in
Texas, she earned her chemical engineer-
ing degree with honors from Texas A&M
University and began her career at Shells
chemical/refinery complex in Deer Park, Texas. She has spent the
majority of her career in engineering and constructiondesigning
refineries, chemical facilities, LNG regasification terminals and LNG
liquefaction facilitiesand has led projects in all phases of design
and execution. She joined Mustang Engineering in 2007 and has
focused exclusively on LNG-related projects in her current role. Mrs.
Walther is the author of several publications related to the LNG
industry and has spoken at several conferences, including Gastech
2011 in Amsterdam.
HPI VIEWPOINT
44

I

being located where the demand is. By definition, this tends to
be at or near heavily populated, congested ports. With a lack of
available land near shore and a strong not-in-my-backyard men-
tality in many locations, there is already a successful and growing
market for floating storage and regasification units (FSRUs). The
full-sized FSRU field is dominated by a few proven players.
There is another change in the air surrounding many
onshore regas terminals. Open-rack vaporizers, a long-time
industry standard, are under increased scrutiny for their real
or perceived impact on water temperatures and marine life.
Submerged combustion vaporizers or other vaporizers using a
fired heat source are far from ideal substitutes, due to their fuel
consumption and corresponding air emissions. As such, expect
increased interest in utilizing other vaporization heat sources
such as waste heat and ambient air, or utilizing the cold duty
from LNG vaporization to improve the performance of adjacent
processes including electrical power generation, air separation,
ethane/propane recovery and seawater desalinization.
In many regions of the world, LNG import terminals will be
closely associated with new power-generation projects to help
meet the demand for reliable power. Some terminals will also
distribute LNG locally, via truck or train, for vehicle fuel or other
domestic uses.
A paradigm shift in shipping. For years, LNG carrier
designs have moved in primarily one direction: bigger. From
145,000 m
3
a decade ago, the newest carriers now transport up
to 260,000 m
3
of LNG. While this is a good solution for the
large baseload LNG routes, it presents a significant challenge to
tomorrows small- to mid-scale liquefaction and regas facilities,
where the economics cannot support the full-sized LNG stor-
age tanks, jetties and deep draft required for infrequent visits by
full-sized carriers.
Watch for LNG mini-carriers and articulated bargescur-
rently used in only a few locations such as Scandinaviato step
up and fill what is now something of a void. These carriers will
be best used over relatively small distances to move cargoes in
the 5,00030,000 m
3
range from small-scale liquefaction sites to
small-scale regas or LNG-to-power facilities. The onshore storage
size and cost on both ends of this supply chain are reduced, along
with the jetty and water depth requirements.
Stay focused on safety. To date, the LNG industry has
an outstanding safety record. We cannot become complacent!
Nearly all of these described changes involve taking LNG into
more remote areas with typically smaller, less LNG-experienced
operators and owners. The trends toward mid-, small- and
micro-scale LNG will result in an increased number of facili-
ties, albeit smaller than todays baseload plants and terminals.
As an industry, we have to remain diligent to ensure that our
designs, equipment, procedures and systems are safe and envi-
ronmentally sound.
LNGs future is solid and growing, and it will move in excit-
ing new directions during the next few years. There will be many
ways to be a part of the growth, so get innovativeand, above
all, stay safe. HP
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LNG/GAS PROCESSING DEVELOPMENTS SPECIALREPORT

I

45
Overcome challenges
in treating shale gases
Manipulating process plant parameters helps meet pipeline specifications
R. H. WEILAND and N. A. HATCHER, Optimized Gas Treating Inc., Houston, Texas
S
hale represents an astonishingly large, new source of natural
gas and natural gas liquids (NGLs). However, a common
misconception seems to be that, for the most part, shale
gases are sweet and do not need to be treated.
Although not highly sour in the traditional sense of having
high H
2
S content, and with considerable variation from play to
play and even from well to well within the same play, shale gas
often contains tens or hundreds of parts per million of H
2
S, with
wide variability in CO
2
. Gas in the Barnett shale play of North
Texas, for example, contains several hundred parts per million by
volume (ppmv) of H
2
S and several percentages of CO
2
far from
pipeline quality.
In other shales, such as Haynesville and the Eagleville field of
the Eagle Ford play, H
2
S is known to be present. In other cases,
such as the Antrim and New Albany plays, underlying sour
Devonian formations may communicate with and contaminate
the shale formations.
1
Some plays in Western Canada have low
CO
2
but enough H
2
S to require treating. Thus, after removing
the NGLs, there are many situations in which the shale gas may
still need to be treated to pipeline specifications, at least for
sulfur content.
Difficulties posed by shale gases. The challenge in
treating such gases is the very low H
2
S-to-CO
2
ratio and the
desire to meet, but not exceed, pipeline specifications on CO
2

content. In terms of cost and effectiveness, the solvent of choice
for H
2
S removal and CO
2
slip is N-methyldiethanolamine
(MDEA) used in a traditional gas treating plant. But how does
one go about taking the H
2
S content from, for example, 100
ppmv down to 4 ppm without taking out excessive CO
2
at the
same time? Another related issue is what to do with the acid gas
from the amine unit, since it will likely be of substandard quality
for a Claus plant.
This article uses specific examples to show, quantitatively,
how various process plant parameters affect selectivity and, in
particular, the ability to treat a variety of shale gases to pipeline
specifications. Solvent selection, strength, temperature and cir-
culation rate, as well as the type and quantity of internals used
in the contactor, are some of the process parameters and design
variables considered.
Problem-solving with trays. A new tactic is to use multi-
pass trays even when, hydraulically, a single-pass tray is more
than adequate to handle the flows. The key is to understand
that trays operating in the froth vs. spray regimes have radically
different mass-transfer performance characteristics. A critical
element in the underlying analysis is the availability of a real-
mass and heat-transfer rate-based simulation capability, because
the selectivity issue is intimately tied to the separation taking
place from a mass-transfer rate perspective. Ideal stages are
incapable of dealing with this properly because, no matter how
embellished by efficiencies and residence times, an ideal or equi-
librium stage is completely oblivious to the effect of hydraulics
on mass transfer.
Rather than devoting column space to discussing what a mass-
transfer rate model is and how it works, we will instead present a
set of case studies and simply refer interested readers to a previ-
ous Hydrocarbon Processing article
2
for model details. However,
it will be important in what follows to understand this fact: H
2
S
absorption is a process controlled by resistance to mass transfer in
the gas phase, whereas CO
2
absorption is liquid-phase-resistance
controlled. Therefore, whatever can be done to lower gas-phase
resistance and increase liquid-phase resistance will improve H
2
S
pickup and increase CO
2
slip.
The reaction between CO
2
and MDEA is so slow that reac-
tion kinetics play a very minor role in determining CO
2
absorp-
tion rates. Carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide absorption are
controlled strictly by the mass-transfer characteristics of the spe-
cific trays or packing under the hydraulic conditions being used.
TRAYS OPERATING AT LOW LIQUID RATES
During 2007 and 2008, several plants were found to be pro-
ducing gases with unbelievably low concentrations of H
2
S and
astonishingly high CO
2
slip values. These values were far outside
the range suggested by any simulator, whether mass transfer rate-
based or ideal-stage. In each case, the absorber contained trays.
More importantly, the weir liquid load (volumetric flow rate of
solvent per unit length of weir) was always quite small.
3
Later,
performance data was found for six more plants also operating
at low weir liquid loads and, as Fig. 1 shows, the data from all
nine plants show remarkable quantitative consistency with, and
support for, the spray-regime explanation.
4
Froth vs. spray regime. The experimental data from which
the fundamental mass-transfer coefficient correlations are drawn
in a mass transfer rate-based model all corresponded to trays
operating in the froth regime, in which the biphase on the trays
is a frothy liquid containing a dispersed gas. However, the trays
46

I

in these nine low-weir-load instances were all operating in the
spray regime, with some operating with essentially pure sprays
(left side of Fig. 1) and others with mostly froths but with a
modicum of spray (right side).
In froths, the liquid is continuous and the gas is dispersed
as large and small gas bubbles and jets; in sprays, the liquid is
dispersed as droplets (about 1 mm in diameter in aqueous sys-
tems) bouncing across the tray and finding their way into the
downcomer through a continuous gas phase.
Hydraulically, the flows are radically different, and so is the
mass transfer. The spray regime has much higher liquid-phase
resistance (to mass transfer) because, internally, the liquid drops
are almost stagnant. The lack of mixing produces lower CO
2

absorption rates (remember: CO
2
absorption is liquid-phase
controlled)i.e., increased CO
2
slip.
On the other hand, gas-side mass transfer is much improved
because of the highly turbulent flow of gas around the drops
hence, better H
2
S absorption. This scenario is completely con-
sistent with what was seen in the performances of all nine plants.
Thus, to improve H
2
S removal and to slip more CO
2
, trays
should be operated in the spray regime if possible.
Spray regime challenges. It is unfortunate that, in the
distillation community, tray operation in the spray regime has a
bad rap. However, the poor reputation is the fault of many tray
designers who repeatedly fail to use a seal pan to ensure that
downcomer bottoms are positively, hydrostatically sealed (vs.
dynamically sealed).
A good seal prevents gas from blowing up the downcomers
(rather than through the tray deck), causing massive entrain-
ment of liquid and an undeserved bad reputation. In fact, in the
spray regime, trays having positively sealed downcomers actually
have higher jet flood capacity than conventionally operated trays.
Attempting to seal downcomers dynamically, at very low liquid
rates, is an invitation to failure.
The gas-treating benefit of the spray regime was the subject
of a 1981 patented tray design.
5, 6
However, the patented design
failed to gain popularity, perhaps because of the limited area of
application 30 years ago. Nonetheless, the spray-regime opera-
tion of trays has promising application in shale gas treating today.
TREATING A GAS FROM THE BARNETT SHALE
The gas plant in question is one of three units in Texas
between Dallas and Houston intended to process gas from fields
in the Barnett shale. As built, this particular plant was intended
to treat 330 million standard cubic feet (MMscfd) of gas con-
taining 750 ppm H
2
S and 2.5% CO
2
at 960 pounds per square
inch absolute (psia) to pipeline qualityi.e., 4 ppmv H
2
S and
< 2% CO
2
.
The absorber was designed with 12 single-pass valve trays
using an equilibrium-stage simulator and assumed tray effi-
ciencies. From startup in mid-2009, the plant has consistently
failed to produce on-specification gas at more than 60% of the
nameplate production capacity, even with reboiler and circula-
tion pumps running at full capacity. The generic MDEA solvent
was gradually spiked with a stripping promoter, allowing it to
treat 240 MMscfd, or 73% of capacity. However, the internals
were inadequate to move beyond this limit, and a revamp of the
towerperhaps even a new and taller columnwas required.
Literally hundreds of cases were run using a mass transfer rate-
based amine simulator to determine the right course of action.
Focusing on the absorber, the tray count was varied from 12 to
26, and solvent rates, amine strength, gas temperature and solvent
temperature were varied. Consideration was given to tray type and
design, the use of structured packing and even a combination of
packing and trays in the same column to achieve the nameplate
rate with on-specification gas. The results were somewhat surpris-
ing and very educational.
Simulation results. Traditional thinking would suggest that,
if a plant is not meeting treating specification, a higher solvent
circulation rate and a more aggressively reboiled regenerator
should improve treating. However, in the present case, the oil
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
12 14 16 18 20 22 24
C
O
2

i
n

t
r
e
a
t
e
d

g
a
s
,

m
o
l
%

H
2
S

l
e
a
k
,

p
p
m
v

Number of absorber trays
H
2
S
CO
2

Adding trays does not meet the treating specification with
MDEA at design rates.
FIG. 2
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
12 14 16 18 20 22 24
C
O
2

i
n

t
r
e
a
t
e
d

g
a
s
,

m
o
l
%
H
2
S

l
e
a
k
,

p
p
m
v
Number of absorber trays
H
2
S
CO
2

The use of a stripping promoter meets treat but removes
too much CO
2
.
FIG. 3
S
p
r
a
y
-
r
e
g
i
m
e

c
o
r
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r

Weir load
New Mexico
Iowa
Alberta
North Texas
North Texas
North Texas
North Texas
India
Base
British
Columbia
The correction factor for spray-regime operation varies
with weir liquid load.
FIG. 1

I

47
flow to the regenerator reboiler and the circulation rate through
the unit were already at equipment limits. Furthermore, the
solvent was already at 50 wt% MDEA and contained a stripping
promoter, so only a small increase was possible by raising the
MDEA strength by 5 wt% or 10 wt%certainly not enough
to increase performance significantly.
One of the most influential parameters was simulated to be the
raw gas temperature. (Solvent temperature had a much smaller
effect because the gas-to-liquid ratio was high in this plant.)
However, significantly reducing the gas temperature would have
required a large gas heat exchanger, and any achievable lower
temperature was found to be insufficient to allow treating at the
design rate. Thus, the focus shifted to the tower internals.
Using the right tray design. The preference was to use
generic MDEA rather than a specialty amine. Fig. 2 shows that,
with generic MDEA, adding trays will indeed lower the H
2
S
leak into the treated gas, but not nearly enough to meet the H
2
S
specification. Note that the weir load in this case is 65 gallons
per minute per foot (gpm/ft), requiring application of a small
correction for a small amount of spray.
However, the problem with the absorber is that, the more
trays there are, the more CO
2
is removed. Already twice as much
CO
2
as necessary is being removed from the gas. Solvent capacity
is being used to remove the wrong component (CO
2
) instead of
the noncompliant component (H
2
S). No matter how many trays
are used in this absorber, generic MDEA will not allow the gas
specification to be met at design rates.
Using a stripping additive would permit the originally
intended gas rate to be processed to pipeline specifications, as Fig.
3 shows. However, mass transfer rate-based simulation shows that
at least 20 absorber trays would be needed, and even if 20 trays
could be shoehorned into the existing shell, twice the necessary
amount of CO
2
would be removed. It turns out that a moder-
ate crimp structured packing could be used effectively in this
particular column, achieving less than 1 ppmv H
2
S and 1.95%
CO
2
in a 35-ft bed, but only with an amine solvent containing
a stripping promoter. With generic MDEA, simulation showed
that 67 ppmv H
2
S was the best that could be achieved, albeit
with 1.92.0% CO
2
.
Hydraulically speaking, one-pass trays are perfectly adequate
for handling the gas and liquid flows in the absorber. However,
if two-pass trays were installed, the 65-gpm/ft weir load would
drop to about 40 gpm/ft, and a significant benefit to both H
2
S
removal and CO
2
slip would result. Furthermore, rich-solution
loadings are quite modest, so the solvent has more capacity than
is being used. This situation suggests that, if the solvent rate were
reduced to below the plant limit, even lower weir load and better
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Contrary to urban legend, entrainment
rates and tray capacity do not have
to be negatively affected by the sprays
that accompany low weir liquid loads.
48

I

H
2
S removal and CO
2
slip would result. Fig. 4 shows simulated
treating results for a 20-tray absorber containing two-pass trays
as a function of solvent rate.
This absorber is simulated to handle the full-design gas flow
(330 MMscfd) using only generic MDEA at just 70% of the
nameplate solvent rate. The keys are using mass transfer rate-
based simulation, and knowing how tower internal details (e.g.,
tray passes) affect the absorption process. This kind of technical
sophistication allows a simulation model to be converted into a
virtual plant. An absorber that was completely unable to meet
design criteriano matter how many trays or how much packing
it containshas been transformed into a success.
As a backup plan, the danger of a small margin for error in
meeting the H
2
S specification can be mitigated by using a spe-
cialty amine to achieve < 0.5 ppmv quite easily. Shale gas can
be very challenging to treat. However, mass transfer rate-based
simulation and appropriately specified and designed tower inter-
nals can make shale gas treating no harder than treating any other
gas. Without both ingredients, though, treating shale gas can be
a guessing game.
TREATING SHALE GAS FROM BRITISH COLUMBIA
This particular example has 26 ppmv H
2
S and about 1.1%
CO
2
, so the gas needs to be treated for H
2
S while allowing as
much CO
2
slip as possible, since CO
2
is already below pipeline
specifications. Due to the very small amount of acid gas needing
to be removed, the absorber has only 12 trays, and plant data
indicate that the rich solvent is lightly loaded. The treated gas
is below 4 ppmv (no measurement is available), and the unit is
slipping about 80% of the CO
2
. The weir load is about 30 gpm/
ft, so the amount of spray is a significant fraction of the total
biphase on the tray. Simulation with no adjustment for low-weir-
load (spray-regime) operation suggests a CO
2
slip of 54% with 1
ppmv of H
2
S slip.
However, when proper account is taken of the hydraulic oper-
ating region in which the trays are operating (spray regime), the
simulated CO
2
slip is 78% vs. 80% measured. The H
2
S treat
is 1.3 ppmv, well below the 4-ppmv specification. Obviously,
the tray hydraulic operating region has a profound effect on
treating. In particular, selectivity is a very strong function of a
trays hydraulic operating region. The simulations are truly out-
of-the-box predictions because no input was used beyond tray
construction details and basic plant flows. Nothing was tweaked
to force a match to performance data.
OPTIONS
With the wrong modeling tools, shale gas treating units can
be very challenging to simulate and, therefore, challenging to
build with any reasonable assurance of performance. The dif-
ficulty lies in the very low H
2
S content of shale gases, which
leads to low liquid-to-gas flowrate ratios in amine contactors. A
critical and essential element in reliable tower design for shale
gas treating is a solid mass transfer rate-based simulator, because
tray hydraulics profoundly affect not just pressure drop; they
also impact mass transfer and the very separation process itself.
Ideal stage calculations are oblivious to what is actually in the
column, let alone the mode of operation.
Under conditions that are common in shale gas treating, trays
will often have to be operated in the spray regime, where care
must be taken on the part of tray designers and design engineers
to ensure that downcomers remain positively sealed against
massive bypassing of gas. However, even when trays operate
with froths, there is great potential advantage to be gained from
contriving methods to force operation into the spray region,
and the more spray-like the biphase, the greater the potential
advantage in terms of enhanced selectivity.
Contrary to urban legend, entrainment rates and tray capac-
ity do not have to be negatively affected by the sprays that
accompany low weir liquid loads. However, tray designers must
be attentive to the need for positive downcomer seals, preferably
through the use of recessed seal pans beneath the downcomers.
Multi-pass trays are an under-appreciated but powerful weapon
that can be brought to bear in amine unit design to meet the
unique treating challenges offered by shale gases and other gases
requiring small liquid flows to treat large volumes. HP
LITERATURE CITED
1
Hunter, J. C., The New Albany Shale from an Antrim Shale Operators
Perspective, RPSEA/GTI Gas Shale Forum, Des Plains, Illinois, June 4,
2009.
2
Weiland, R. H. and N. A. Hatcher, What are the benefits from mass transfer
rate-based simulation? Hydrocarbon Processing, July 2011.
3
Weiland, R. H., Tray Operating Regimes and Selectivity, Laurence Reid Gas
Conditioning Conference, Norman, Oklahoma, February 2225, 2009.
4
Weiland, R. H., N. A. Hatcher and J. L. Nava, Designing Trays for Selective
Treating, SOGAT 2010, Abu Dhabi, UAE, March 2831, 2010.
5
Resetarits, M., Personal communication, 2008.
6
Sigmund, P. W. and K. F. Butwell, US Patent 4,278,621, July 14, 1981.
Nate Hatcher joined Optimized Gas Treating Inc. as vice presi-
dent of Technology Development in 2009. He is responsible for
making improvements and adding functionality to the ProTreat
gas treating process simulator. Mr. Hatcher has spent most of his
16-year career involved with sour-gas treating and sulfur recovery,
first in design and startup and later in plant troubleshooting, technical support and
process simulation development. He is a member of the Amine Best Practices Group
and serves on the Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning Conference advisory board. Mr.
Hatcher received a BS degree in chemical engineering from the University of Kansas
and is a registered professional engineer in the state of Kansas.
Ralph Weiland founded Optimized Gas Treating Inc. in 1992
and has been active in Canada, Australia and the US in basic and
applied research in gas treating since 1965. He developed the first
mass transfer rate-based model for amine columns for Dow Chemi-
cal and is responsible for the development of the Windows-based
ProTreat process simulation package. Dr. Weiland also spent 10 years in tray research
and development with Koch-Glitsch LP, Dallas, Texas. He earned BASc and MASc
degrees and a PhD degree in chemical engineering from the University of Toronto.
C
O
2

i
n

t
r
e
a
t
e
d

g
a
s
,

m
o
l
%
1.80
1.85
1.90
1.95
2.00
2.05
2.10
2
3
4
5
6
7
200 250 300 350
H
2
S
,

p
p
m
v
Circulation rate, gpm
H
2
S
CO
2

Processing 330 MMscfd at reduced circulation rate using
20 two-pass trays with 50 wt% generic MDEA.
FIG. 4

I

49
Innovative APC boosts
LNG train production
APC application yields significant operability, economic benefits
A. TAYLOR, Apex Optimisation, Adelaide, Australia; and
S. JAMALUDIN, Woodside, Karratha, Australia
T
he appropriate use of advanced process control (APC)
specifically, multivariable predictive control (MPC)has
been well established in the hydrocarbon processing indus-
try over multiple decades, and it is widely considered an essential
contributor to production maximization on liquefied natural gas
(LNG) trains. If correctly applied, APC software delivers more
efficient operation of existing hardware assets and essentially pro-
vides a cruise control for the control room operator.
The Woodside-operated Karratha Gas Plant (KGP) has been
progressive in the application of APC across all major process
units, generating sustained benefits. Although the site is a mature
APC user, there is a continual focus on innovation and design
evolution to further improve APC benefits.
This article describes the implementation of APC on an LNG
liquefaction train. Several generic APC project aspects are investi-
gated, such as the use of a dynamic simulator and automated step
testing to aid development. Also, details of the projects significant
operability and economic benefitsincluding a 4,000% return
on investmentare discussed with commentary on whether this
success has been sustained beyond the honeymoon period.
PROJECT OVERVIEW
Woodside engaged Apex Optimisation to assist with a revamp
of the existing APC on LNG train 4 (LNG4) and the implemen-
tation of a new APC on LNG train 5 (LNG5). The project was
a collaborative effort, with both parties heavily involved in the
design, implementation, commissioning and post-audit of the
new APCs. The implementation kicked off in March 2010 after
a functional design specification phase. The revamped LNG4
APC and the new LNG5 APC were commissioned in May 2010
and September 2010, respectively. A successful site acceptance
test signaled handover to site support engineers in October 2010.
Challenges to development. The execution of the project
was challenging due to a range of factors:
The design evolution significantly pushed the previous proj-
ects boundaries. Additional compressor power-management han-
dles were included, the site electrical power-generation spinning
reserve and fuel gas system capacity limits were added (these global
constraints are relevant to both trains), and a more sophisticated
approach to optimizer functionality was adopted. Hence, the scope
of the modeling and custom functionality required was substan-
tially different from that of the previous LNG4 APC application.
The new applications are relatively large, with each having
over 20 manipulated variables (MVs) managing more than 60
controlled variables (CVs) and some complex interactions (i.e.,
relatively high model density).
Parts of the process are highly nonlinear in their behavior,
and this can limit the applicability of linear APC technologies.
Improved performance was needed during lower production
conditions (e.g., turndown or hot summer temperatures), and
this required some innovative use of transforms, gain scheduling
and automatic logic to manage variable usage. Dynamic simula-
tion was leveraged to develop the gain scheduling relationships.
As the existing LNG4 APC had been unused for over a year,
there was limited operator expertise with APC on the LNG4/
LNG5 distributed control system (DCS) panel. This situation
required careful management of the reintroduction of APC and
operator training.
The LNG5 train was relatively young, with a limited oper-
ating history. Furthermore, its operation was very different from
that of LNG4, despite the equipment design being essentially
identical. Mechanical changes to the LNG5 train during the
execution phase of the APC project significantly changed the train
operation and reset the LNG5 APC design needs. The project
engineers had to remain flexible to adapt to the changing basis
while maintaining the project schedule.
Interfacing to some of the compressor packages required
an exotic approach. In particular, one key compressor handle
was hosted on a separate DCS network on the other side of the
control room. This context required careful software design and
operator training to ensure that the final mechanism was robust
and intuitive to both DCS operators.
Automatic step testing was adopted in order to reduce the
duration of the step-testing phase; this had not been previously
attempted onsite.
An aggressive schedule was required to commission two large
applications within seven months, which kept the intensity high
throughout the duration of the project. Fig. 1 shows a schematic
illustrating the process design for the two liquefaction trains.
These challenges were overcome through teamwork among
the participants. Close operator involvement was critical to
project success, as this fostered ownership of the project and
ensured that each process control improvement implemented was
intuitive for the operators and appropriate for the widest range
of process conditions.
50

I

One of the major APC benefits delivered is improved consis-
tency in how the process is managed. To realize this benefit via
sustained APC usage, consistency in how the APC is operated is
paramount. Therefore, thorough operator training is essential to
the project process. Fig. 2 shows Woodside DCS operators at work
in the control room.
USE OF DYNAMIC SIMULATORS
TO ASSIST MODEL DEVELOPMENT
In recent years, the use of a dynamic simulator (i.e., an operator
training simulator, or OTS) has been promoted by advocates as a
more efficient way of developing APC. The ability to speed up real
time, avoid real-life plant reliability and load disturbance impacts,
reduce engineering support requirements, and potentially com-
plete the APC development well before the plant is commissioned
makes the OTS very appealing to cost- and schedule-focused cus-
tomers. These factors prompted Woodside to investigate the use
of an existing OTS to assist with the conceptual design and initial
(seed) model for the automated step-test phase.
While the OTS is typically fit for the purpose of investigat-
ing an APC optimization strategy and controller structure, is it
appropriate for APC model development? One can build an OTS
to varying levels of fidelity (with cost implications), and the main
objectives are typically:
1
Enabling thorough DCS and emergency shutdown system
checkout and verification before construction
Providing useful operator training on the process with the
target system interface
Providing a useful what if? tool for engineering analysis
of process changes.
Ascertaining OTS fidelity. To achieve these objectives, the
OTS requires a level of fidelity that is well practiced and accepted
by OTS developers. However, a standard OTS may not have the
fidelity required for complete APC model development; what is
required is a function of both the APC modeling needs (the APC
design) and the nature of the process included in the APC scope.
Even if it is identified as an OTS objective up front, the distant
APC topic may struggle to justify a costly increase in the OTS
fidelity among more traditional construction project needs.
The question then becomes, How can it be known if the
OTS has the required fidelity? This question is not an easy one
to answer unless an operating plant can be used as a datum, or
unless the process is extremely well understood from a modeling
perspective and the required fidelity exists.
In our LNG liquefaction APC example, the OTS system was
developed alongside the construction project, with traditional objec-
tives in mind and well before APC was considered. The development
of the OTS was given heavy focus (including post-commissioning
improvements to OTS accuracy in selected areas), with high accep-
tance of the simulators value. When using the OTS for the APC
model development, we found that the thermodynamics-related
models were reasonably accurate at base-case production rates. How-
ever, there were discrepancies around many of the P-related models
(especially those associated with complex devices such as hydraulic
turbines with multiple flow elements) and turndown-related models
(such as those associated with flow regime changes experienced inside
the spiral-wound cryogenic heat exchanger). Given the exotic nature
of the cases where accuracy was lacking and the relative importance of
these items to the traditional OTS objectives, this is not a surprising
outcome from a traditional OTS used outside of its original purpose.
The value of the OTS in our LNG APC case was essentially
limited to the actions listed below:
Formulating the optimization strategy and controller structure
Being able to interrogate turndown cases, which are relevant
for hot-weather operation, without suffering production losses on
the plant or needing to contemplate a second step test in more dif-
ficult summer conditionsthus, providing valuable data on relative
gain changes, which was used in the gain scheduling logic
Providing useful, initial models for the automatic stepping
tool. As the new APC design was different in both DCS control basis
and scope, the previous model could not meet this need in all areas.
Benefits of simulation. A dynamic simulator of typical
fidelity (OTS or desktop engineering tool) can be useful in verify-
ing an APC design concept in terms of control and optimization
strategies. This need is more relevant for complex processes where
the pre-APC operation does not exploit all the available degrees
of freedom and some methodology needs to be developed. The
APC model accuracy required for accurate model development
and full APC benefits would be much higher than that required
for strategy verification.
A complete OTS-based APC model was developed as part of
the functional design phase to support the automated step test.
After the final model was verified post-commissioning, a com-
parison was performed to assess the accuracy of the OTS-based
model. The results in several key areas are presented in Table 1.
FC
TC
PC
FC
PC
S
c
r
u
b

c
o
l
u
m
n

N
2

r
e
j
e
c
t
i
o
n

LPG
FG
M
C
H
E

B

HMR
C
3
M
C
H
E

A

LMR
Rich gas
FG to
comp
GTs
HMR
LMR
LNG to
storage
Process design for LNG4 and LNG5. FIG. 1
Woodside DCS operators at work. FIG. 2

I

51
In summary, the knowledge gained from using an OTS for
APC model developments (as distinct to APC design and optimi-
zation strategy) reinforces the following guidelines:
Understand the relevant accuracy of the OTS well. There are
obvious implications for developing APC on young or difficult OTS
processes prior to plant commissioning. In some instances, the OTS
has relevant accuracy inherently (e.g., the C
3
splitter example, where
the distillation models are the key aspect
2
). In other areas, the impor-
tant APC needs are not necessarily aligned with key OTS objectives.
Understand the value of using the OTS in APC development;
i.e., is it prohibitive to step test on the real plant for operational or
economic reasons?
Do not underestimate the value of working on the real
plant and interacting with operators for developing an opera-
tions understanding (as distinct to a process understanding) and
cultivating APC understanding.
Always be prepared for some model error when commis-
sioning the APC on the real plant, and allocate sufficient time to
resolve any problems.
USE OF AUTOMATED STEP-TEST TECHNIQUES
Automated step-test techniques have been promoted in recent
years as a way of providing a rich data set in a short period of time,
thereby reducing project cost. Also, simultaneous testing of mul-
tiple MVs could improve the accuracy of the gain ratios that are
important to the performance of the application.
This LNG liquefaction APC project was the first incidence
in which the site had used this technique as the primary step-test
approach, after successful testing on the liquid petroleum gas (LPG)
fractionation unit suggested it would be a time-saving option.
Despite the best endeavors of the project team, the LNG train
experience was somewhat different, with the net result being neutral
relative to a traditional, manual step test.
The reality was that this particular LNG liquefaction process was
not well-suited to this technique, for the two reasons listed below:
1. The daily variation due to ambient temperature swings is six
times the maximum MV step size allowed for the test. The automated
tool works purely on process feedback, whereas anyone operating the
plant knows what moves have to be made before the sun comes up.
The manual test is superior in this case, as the tester can plan moves
using all information available, not just APC variables. Thus, when
using the tool as intended, the moves required to control the process
swamped the random steps required for model identification.
2. Also, the extent of the load disturbances encountered during
a normal day demands both the need for minimal optimizer action
and the inclusion of extra steps in addition to the automated steps.
For other processes where this is not the case, and manual step-
test costs are greater, this approach may offer a tangible reduction
in the step-test duration.
Test automation results. Based on our cumulative experi-
ence with a range of automated step-test techniques, our conclu-
sions from test automation are set out below:
Using the available APC model as a true model identification
seed model (as opposed to simply a model used by the APC to
manage the process during the test) may considerably speed up
the model development process. A further enhancement would be
the ability to assign confidence to sub-models to assist the initial
model identification.
With some processes, it is not viable to switch off the opti-
mizer action for long periods, much less for the duration of a step
test. In our LNG example, the superseded DCS controls provided
a high level of optimization that had to be matched during the step
test. The automated test must accommodate this need with some
sort of mild optimization.
It may be useful to automatically change step direction if a
full step size is not feasible due to potential limit violations. If par-
tial moves are applied, additional steps may be required to achieve
the same data quality.
As there can be a need to make extra moves on a real plant, it
may be desirable to include all moves made during the step test
not just those made by the automated toolin the model identi-
fication approach, as a means of reducing the total test duration.
Real-time model identification can be very useful, but one
should not rely only on automated model identification to signal that
testing is complete. In one instance, this approach produced some false
negatives, which would have prolonged the test further if additional
identification was not undertaken using traditional approachesi.e.,
manual data grooming, careful slicing, and finite impulse response
(FIR) generation over multiple times to steady state (TSS).
Engineers should not be required to work more intensely
than a manual step test in order to manage the automated test-
ing. Keeping in mind that the traditional approach offers some
additional value:
1. Time for detailed discussions with operators at the panel is
very effective from both a public relations and training
perspective.
2. Time to observe the plant behavior and experience the
challenge for the APC provides useful insight into how the
APC should act and sets helpful expectations for the model
identification. Unfortunately, this valuable experience is
generally negated by automated testing tools, which step
multiple MVs simultaneously as the CV responses can no
longer be seen by the eye.
3. Time to consider DCS control servo response and make
repairs early can greatly improve the final result.
It is widely regarded that most efficiency tools added to a well-
proven methodology are no replacement for sound engineering
judgment. Generalizations about efficiency improvements will be
tested by the more challenging APC projects. One needs to have
confidence in significant efficiency gains to warrant deviation
from the trusted methodology, especially when the payback on
these projects is already substantial.
CUSTOMIZATION OF APC APPLICATIONS
Woodside has nearly 15 years of experience with APC applica-
tions in the relatively demanding environment of an integrated
TABLE 1. Accuracy assessment results for final
OTS-based APC model
Proportion of final
models closely
resembling OTS-
Plant area based models Comments
Scrub column 94% Good form and gain from
OTS models
Liquefaction 31% OTS gains were regularly less
than half of plant test gains
(10% at times)
Hydraulic turbines 0% OTS gains were sometimes
inaccurate by two orders of
magnitude
52

I

production facility. The context is demanding in the sense that
personnel turnover is high at the remote site, and the costs of poor
performance are severe. Accordingly, effort is required to maintain
appropriate skill levels at the site.
This experience has proven the value of appropriate APC
customization to improve availability and robustness. Indeed, the
inability of the previous APC application to accommodate the full
range of operations was one of the main reasons for its demise. A
few examples of how the generic APC software was augmented
are discussed below.
Gain scheduling for turndown. Analysis of previous
APC performance and OTS scenarios confirmed significant gain
changes at reduced production rates. These changes demanded
custom logic to manage gain scheduling, according to produc-
tion rate ranges using discrete gain multipliers. (Continuous
formula-based gain scheduling was not preferred due to the risk of
producing ill-conditioned matrices.) The logic also provided some
automatic shedding of specific MVs and CVs during turndown
to accommodate the unique operating context.
Model adaptation for hydraulic turbines. The power
extraction from the hydraulic turbines is akin to climbing to the
summit of a hill, with constraints applying a ceiling on how high
one can climb. The model gains are very much a function of the
status of the surrounding DCS controls, and if the alternative
flow path opens up (the Joule Thompson [JT] valve), the wicket
gate is moved in the opposite direction to maximize power extrac-
tion (i.e., one is on the opposite side of the hill and needs to walk
in the other direction to climb it).
In the past, this scenario had constituted a challenge for the
APC that was avoided by instructing the operators to ensure that
the JT valve was shut before giving the wicket gate control to the
APC. However, it was still possible to suffer load disturbances,
which bounced the process onto the opposite side of the gain
inflexion point. The results were not positive.
With the addition of simple logic to flip the gain sign and drop/
activate specific constraints, the new APC has improved robustness
by allowing the operators to give the hydraulic turbine control to
the APC, regardless of the DCS control state. The APC will honor
the correct constraints with appropriate wicket gate moves, and will
walk the process over to the correct side of the hill when feasible.
Product price-driven optimization. Another feature of
the new APC design is the ability to specify product prices and
use them to dictate the subtleties of the optimization toward either
maximizing LNG production or LPG extraction. This arrange-
ment is different from simply specifying maximum LNG or maxi-
mum LPG, as each of the relevant MVs has differing effects on
the yield of each product. It is useful to provide some shades of
gray in terms of the optimization options.
Aside from a purely economics-driven optimization, the APC
has maximum LNG and maximum LPG modes to assist logistics
needs without sacrificing valuable production (e.g., tank-top
scenarios that affect only one product).
PROJECT RESULTS
The overall results of the project were exceptional, given the
challenges faced. Results included:
Excellent operator acceptance of all the developments imple-
mented during the project (i.e., DCS control improvements,
instrument repairs and APC commissioning), with APC uptimes
consistently greater than 97%. Operator feedback shows that the
new APC makes objectives easier to achieve.
A tangible contribution to improved reliability as a result of
the APC maintaining the process within constraints on a minute-
by-minute basis. In particular, the APC manages some difficult
operating envelope constraints associated with the large axial
compressors employed in the liquefaction process. Prior to the
APC, manual management of this relatively tight feasible space,
coupled with the production changes driven by diurnal swings,
left the DCS operators under continual pressure.
With APC, one year
post-commissioning
Without APC
With APC, post-commissioning
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
,

%

Technical maximum capacity, %
Frequency plot of % of technical maximum
capacity, pre- and post-APC
Comparison of production vs. technical maximum capacity. FIG. 5
MR helper power
C
3
helper power
Refrigerant compressor power balance, post-APC
0
5
10
15
20
25
4/13/11 4/15/11 4/17/11 4/19/11 4/21/11 4/23/11 4/25/11 4/27/11
Date
M
e
g
a
w
a
t
t
s
Power consumption of the primary compressors post-APC
commissioning.
FIG. 4
MR helper power
C
3
helper power
25
20
15
10
M
e
g
a
w
a
t
t
s
5
0
3/24/09 3/29/09 4/3/09 4/8/09
Date
4/13/09 4/18/09
Refrigerant compressor power balance, pre-APC
Power consumption of the primary compressors pre-APC. FIG. 3

I

53
The production increase achieved with the same process
equipment represents a decrease in specific energy consumption
and a relative reduction in carbon footprint for this important
clean energy-producing process.
The project was completed on schedule and within budget,
despite an evolving design datum being prevalent throughout
the execution.
The APC benefits delivered a significant boost to the
bottom line for North West Shelf Joint Venture Partners, with
a 3%5% increase in LNG4/LNG5 production (depending
upon ambient conditions) and a 4.7% increase in LPG pro-
duction verified. This production increase delivered an overall
project payback of less than two weeks, or a return on invest-
ment of 4,000%.
At the 2011 Process And Control Engineering (PACE)
Zenith Awards, the project won the Oil & Gas category and the
Project of the Year Award ahead of 50 competing projects.
The LNG production benefits are best illustrated by the
reduction in compressor power giveaway, which is an inherent
characteristic of the process design. That is, production is either
limited by the helper motor power on the mixed refrigerant
(MR) compressor or the propane (C
3
) compressor. The amount
of spare compressor power not applied to the process represents a
production loss. Fig. 3 shows power consumption of the primary
compressors before the APC.
Following the commissioning of the new APC, the higher
average power consumption was a significant contributor to the
increased production capacity. Fig. 4 shows power consumption
of the primary compressors after APC commissioning.
It is important to note that the project benefits have been
sustained one year later, with no deterioration in performance or
in operator satisfaction detected. Fig. 5 shows a comparison of
production vs. technical maximum capacity. This project dem-
onstrates how the appropriate use of APC technology can provide
a tangible and sustained improvement in plant profitability and
operability in a cost-effective manner. HP
LITERATURE CITED
1
Stephenson, G. and L. Wang, Dynamic simulation of liquefied natural gas
processes, Hydrocarbon Processing, July 2010.
2
Alsop, N. and J. M. Ferrer, Avoiding plant tests with dynamic simulation,
Hydrocarbon Processing, June 2008.
Andrew Taylor is a principal consultant with Apex Optimisa-
tion, based in Australia. His responsibilities include all aspects of
APC application design, implementation and maintenance. In
his 20 years of experience, he has contributed to over 100 APC
applications. Previously, he was employed as a consultant with
Honeywell in South Africa and the UK and with Mobil in Australia. Mr. Taylor holds a
BE degree in engineering science from the University of Auckland and is a chartered
professional member of Engineers Australia.
Saifullah Jamaludin is a senior process control engineer at
Woodside Energy Ltd. and has 12 years of experience in the LNG
industry. He was previously employed by Petronas in Malaysia. Mr.
Jamaludin has published numerous papers for technical journals
and international industrial conferences. He contributed to the
development of the first LNG train automatic cool-down advanced controller, and
has led the design and implementation of multiple APC applications. He holds a BS
degree in chemical engineering from the University of Edinburgh.

I

55
Apply new enhanced tubes to
optimize heat transfer in LNG trains
New developments for heat exchangers
reduce capital and plot size of key equipment
B. PLOIX, Technip France, Paris, France; and T. LANG, Wieland-Werke AG, Ulm, Germany
A
pplications for extruded low-
finned (LF) and externally and
internally enhanced tubes are
widespread in multiple industries, ranging
from the air-conditioning and refrigera-
tion, heating, automotive and power indus-
tries, as well as the hydrocarbon processing
industry (HPI). A few selected examples
are shown here:
Enhanced boiling and condensation
tubes for packaged chillers
Inner grooved tubes for coil heat
exchangers in the air-conditioning and
refrigeration industry
Enhanced tubes for the hydrocarbon
processing industry
Enhanced tubes for power steering oil
cooling in the automotive industry.
For the HPI, distinct enhanced tubes
for boiling and condensing, as well as sin-
gle-phase heat transfer services have been derived from standard
LF tubes (Fig. 1).
1
The enhanced tubes are typically manufac-
tured from plain tube-based material by an extrusion cold-rolling
process. The fins on the outside, and on the inside are integrally
connected to the tube wall.
A wide range of proven references for both LF and enhanced
tubes exists in the HPI from decades of refining, petrochemi-
cal, chemical and gas processing applications.
24
Standard tube
materials are copper-nickel carbon and low-temperature carbon
steels. Now solutions are also available in low-alloy carbon steel,
as well as stainless steel (SS) and titanium (Ti). These technolo-
gies resolve both capacity and plot-space limitations for existing
plants and provide compact or most efficient solutions for new
plant design. Very attractive applications are identified in lique-
fied natural gas (LNG) and ethylene plant due to the drastic
recent increased plant capacity (Figs. 2 and 3).
ENHANCED HEAT TRANSFER TECHNOLOGIES
The thermal advantage of the externally and internally
enhanced tubes vs. a plain tube, in a shell-side propane boiling
application is between a factor 2 and 3 of the boiling heat transfer
coefficient. Together with an improved tube-side performance
ranging between a factor 1.6 to 2.4, depending on single- and
two-phase flow conditions, the overall heat transfer benefit leads
to substantial overall benefits. At the same time, the tube-side
pressure drop increases. However, it typically does not exceed the
heat transfer improvement, allowing for enhanced shell-and-tube
heat exchangers within allowable pressure drop limits.
The key benefit of the externally and internally enhanced tube
is the capability of a superior operation for an external boiling
application at low-temperature approachesdown to 2C and
Enhanced internal and external LF tubes. FIG. 1
L
N
G

p
l
a
n
t

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y
,

m
i
l
l
i
o
n

t
p
y
Camel
1960
Source: Technip
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Skikda
Yemen
Qatar mega
trains
N
ig
e
r
ia
T
r

1
N
i
g
e
r
i
a

T
r

4
Evolution of LNG plant capacity (Technip references). FIG. 2
56

I

below where standard plain or LF tubes are no longer efficient. In
various schemes and applications, the benefits can be:
Size reduction
Reduced number of heat exchangers per unit
Capacity increase or energy consumption reduction result-
ing from improved efficiency.
A new enhanced condensing tube is available for industrial
reboiler applications such as thermosiphon and kettle heat
exchangers. Special attention is given both to the thermal and
mechanical design, along with an improved kettle design, such as:
7
Proper fluid distribution at inlet and outlet
Verification of liquid entrainment especially for suction line
to compressor
State of the art thermal design tools from Heat Transfer Research
Inc. (HTRI), as well as other advanced heat transfer are used as con-
venient thermal design tools for enhanced heat transfer solutions.
8
In a similar way to the enhancement of reboilers, enhanced
heat transfer solutions have been developed for horizontal con-
densers, with shell-side condensation of pure streams and tube-
side cooling water. A typical solution is with an enhanced tube
having an external LF structure in combination with an internal
helical fin structure.
Both enhanced heat transfer technologies have been made
available and qualified through local testing for horizontal shell-
and-tube type reboilers and condensers. During two joint indus-
try and academia research projects, JOULE III and AHEAD,
funded by the EU, fundamental research and qualification have
been conducted.
5,6
Key activities have been the development
and characterization of enhanced shell-side nucleate boiling
structures, especially at low-temperature approaches, as well as
tube-side enhancement structures for both single-phase gas and
liquid and two-phase condensate heat transfer. The different steps
from lab-scale testing to industrial appli-
cation stretched over a period of almost
one decade. The pre-requirement for the
time being in these applications is for clean
refrigerant and process fluids.
For base-load LNG plants, the enhanced
heat exchanger technologies are highly
attractive within the propane pre-cooling
cycle. The major application for enhanced
boiling tubes is for the main propane refrig-
erant chilling train with cooling/condensa-
tion of natural gas (NG) or mixed refrig-
erant (MR) on the tube side and propane
refrigerant boiling on the shell side. The
primary application of the enhanced con-
densation tube is for the propane refrigerant
condenser with shell-side propane refriger-
ant condensing and tube-side cooling water.
For ethylene plants, enhanced heat
exchanger solutions are available for the
majority of reboiler and condenser heat
exchangers in the cold section such as the
C
2
and C
3
fractionation and splitting ser-
vices as well as the refrigerant units (as sum-
marized in Table 1).
ECONOMIC STUDIES
Several studies have been done based on
recent projects (FEED and EPC) allowing
the technical and economic qualification of
enhanced heat exchangers both in ethylene
and LNG plants.
Ethylene. In ethylene plants, there are
many heat exchangers, with very large heat
transfer surface area representing around
20% of the total equipment cost of a plant.
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
E
t
h
y
l
e
n
e

p
l
a
n
t

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y
,

t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d

t
p
y
60s 70s 80s
Years
90s 2000 2010
Iran
Yansab KSA 10th complex
Ras
Laffan
Qatar
Evolution of ethylene plants capacity (Technip references.) FIG. 3
Propane
precooling cycle
MR liquefaction
cycle
Air or water cooled
C
3
ref. condenser
NG feed LNG
Main heat
exchanger
HP MR LP MR
C
3
/NG
chilling
train
C
3
C
3
/MR chilling
train
C
3
/MR liquefaction section. FIG. 5
1-4 5
Chillers
Deethanizer
Demethanizer Caustic
tower
Quench
tower
Cold box
expander
Furnaces
Cracked gas compressor
Hydrogenation
reactor
Tail gas
Ethylene
C
2
splitter
C
3
+
Feed
TLEs
Recycle ethane
Dryer
Ethylene back-end hydrogenation process scheme based on ethane feedstock. FIG. 4
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58

I

In parallel to the technical qualification of enhanced tubes in
ethylene plants, a study was conducted to evaluate the economic
interest of such solutions compared to the plain and LF tube
solutions considering identical process conditions. This study
concerns the C
2
H
4
back-end (BE) hydroprocessing scheme of a
typical ethylene plant, as shown in Figs. 4 and 5. The economic
interest of enhanced boiling and condensation tubes is demon-
strated using the key exchangers listed in Table 1.
All design being conducted with maximal usage of the allow-
able tube-side pressure drop focus on two main goals:
Heat transfer surface area reduction
Shell number reduction.
For shell-side boiling services, Figs. 6 and 7 show the relative
comparison of plain, LF and enhanced boiling tube design with
the plain tube as reference. In conclusion, the average heat transfer
surface area reduction is about 60%, and the average cost reduction
is about 20% per equipment.
For shell-side condensing services, Figs. 8 and 9 show the
relative comparison of plain, LF and enhanced condensing tube
design with the plain tube as reference. The average heat transfer
surface area reduction is about 75%, and the equipment cost aver-
age reduction is about 65% per equipment.
Additional savings come from:
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Deethanizer
condenser
C
2
splitter
condenser
Depropanizer
condenser
C
2
splitter
reboiler
Ethane
vaporizer
C
2
refrigerant
condenser
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

a
r
e
a

p
e
r

e
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
Plain Low n. Enhanced condensing tube
Relative heat transfer area for items equipped with
enhanced boiling tubes.
FIG. 6
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

c
o
s
t

p
e
r

e
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
Deethanizer
condenser
C
2
splitter
condenser
Depropanizer
condenser
C
2
splitter
reboiler
Ethane
vaporizer
C
2
refrigerant
condenser
Relative cost for items equipped with enhanced boiling
tubes.
FIG. 7
C
3
splitter
condenser
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Propylene refrigerant
condenser
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

a
r
e
a

p
e
r

e
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
Relative heat transfer area for items equipped with
enhanced condensing tubes.
FIG. 8
C
3
splitter
condenser
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Propylene refrigerant
condenser
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

a
r
e
a

p
e
r

e
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
Relative cost for items equipped with enhanced
condensing tubes.
FIG. 9
TABLE 1. Overview on enhanced heat transfer
technologies in LNG and ethylene plants
Plant type Service
LNG Propane refrigerant chiller (pre-cooling cycle for NG and MR)
Propane refrigerant condenser (pre-cooling cycle)
Ethylene Deethanizer condenser
C
2
splitter condenser
Depropanizer condenser
C
2
splitter reboiler
Ethane vaporizer
C
2
refrigerant condenser
C
3
splitter condenser
Propylene/propane condenser
Heat duty 45 MW
Shell design NKN, 1-pass, bundle OD = 1,500 mm, -in.
enhanced condensing tube, tube count: 3,745
Shellside uid Propane ref., boiling, T
sat
= 21.8C
Tubeside uid Mixed ref., condensing,
T
in/out
= 1.9/-18.5C
Plain
LF, 30 fpi
New tube
27.5
19
10.9
157
124
79
Tube length, m
Weight of shell (dry), tons
LP/MR propane refrigerant chiller. Comparison of plain, LF
and enhanced boiling tube.
FIG. 10
In-5II0 5ensor 6onvenIence
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eoIe dnd dsseIs, onIy Ihe besI eg0ImenI wIII do. MFLFk
0LF0's new oxygen soI0IIon combInes Ihe convenIence
dnd edse of 0se of dn In-IIne sensor wIIh Ihe erformdnce of d
owerf0I gds dndIyzer. WIIh Ihe 6Fro 500, oxygen
meds0remenI Is sImIer dnd more reIIdbIe Ihdn ever before.
Ldser IechnoIogy for InIerference-free
meds0remenI
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manl ond mc|a occu|ola dolo is olwoys gcing
lc ba cl inla|asl lc lha chamicol indusl|y. ll il
olsc hos o signiliconlly lcwa| ccsl cl cwna|ship
ccmpo|ad wilh clha| syslams, il mokas il o va|y
oll|ocliva p|cpcsilicn.
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laop lc|wo|d in cxygan sansc|s. Pockad wilh
slola-cl-lha-o|l lachnclcgy il clla|s axcaplicnol
maosu|ing pa|lc|monca ond aosy inslollolicn,
ond |aqui|as lillla c| nc moinlanonca.
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signiliconl imp|cvamanl cva| axl|ocliva onolysis
syslams. li|slly, nc sompla axl|oclicn c| ccndi-
licning is nacasso|y. Saccndly, lhay o|a immuna
lc inla|la|anca l|cm mcislu|a, dusl c| bock-
g|cund gosas. And lhi|dly, d|ill is axl|amaly lcw.
New TDL
(Tunable Diode Laser)
Oxygen Sensor
from METTLER TOLEDO
he besI of boIh worIds
HEIIlER I0lE00 hos ccmbinad I0l lachncl-
cgy wilh cu| axpa|lisa in indusl|iol opplicolicn
onolylicol insl|umanl dasign, lc c|aola o p|cba
lhol daliva|s lha ccnvanianca cl on in-lina sansc|
ond lha laval cl maosu|amanl ccnlidanca cl o
lcp-lina onolyza|.
0lha| I0l gos sclulicns o|a cl o c|css-slock
dasign, maoning lhol lha |acaiva| musl ba
pcsilicnad di|aclly cppcsila lha losa| scu|ca.
Ihis cousas inslollolicn dillicullias ond |aqui|as
|agulo|, l|cublascma |aolignmanl. Iha 0P|c 500
incc|pc|olas o p|cba lhol |allacls lha losa| baom
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I

59
Process optimization, considering the low temperature
approach capabilities of externally and internally enhanced tubes and
Piping and structure reduction due to plot plan reduction,
which are not included in this study.
LNG. The performance of enhanced boiling and condensing
tubes is demonstrated in two representative cases both for a pro-
pane-refrigerant chiller and condenser in comparison to standard
plain and LF tubes, as shown in Figs. 10 and 11. The cases are
taken from a recent LNG project. In both cases, substantial size
and weight reduction can be achieved by using externally and
internally enhanced tubes. Especially for the large equipment
units, the benefit becomes evident when considering the whole
supply chain ranging from fabrication and transportation, as well
as plant aspects covering installation, operation and maintenance.
A detailed techno-economic study of the two chilling trains
for NG and MR showed very attractive savings in capital expense
(CAPEX) and plot space, as well as capabilities for efficiency
improvements or, vice versa, an attractive opportunity for capacity
increase, as summarized in Table 2.
Both solutions with LF and internally and externally
enhanced boiling tubes have been analyzed for the two chilling
trains: propane/MR chilling train and propane/NG chilling
train. Each train is operating at four propane levels. For the
externally and internally enhanced boiling tube, a reduction of
the cold approach to 2K is feasible and considered an improved
LNG plant design. Other items have been considered for the
CAPEX and include heat exchanger, piping, steel structure, pip-
ing and exchanger foundation.
For the standard cold approach of 3K, the externally and inter-
nally enhanced tube allows for a CAPEX reduction of 20% and
25% reduced plot space vs. a standard solution using LF tubes.
Considering a reduced cold approach of 2K, the compression
power is reduced by approximately 2.2% translating into approx-
imately 1% additional LNG capacity. The additional annual
income, depending on the LNG price, is far superior compared
to the total cost of the chilling train. Note that the case with the
enhanced tube and 2K cold approach is with 13% plot space
reduction, is still more compact with the same CAPEX and is not
more expensive compared to the LF case
with a 3K cold approach.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
Polypropylene plant. The first ref-
erence of the enhanced boiling tube dates
from 2000 for a horizontal thermosiphon,
C
3
splitter reboiler as part of the capacity
expansion of the Lyondell-Basell polypropyl-
ene plant in Knapsack, Germany (Fig. 12).
8

The use of an enhanced boiling tube allowed
an upgrade from 4 MW to 5 MW despite
a substantial reduction of the LMTD.
The cooling water return from the tubular
polymerization reactor was able to be used
for heating, thus avoiding the use of stream.
LNG plant. In 2003, the enhanced boil-
ing tube was applied for the first time in
an LNG plant as part of the Qatargas
debottlenecking project. The objective was
to expand the capacity of the existing three trains from 2 million
tpy (MMtpy) to 3 MMtpy per train. A new kettle-type chiller
Ethane
Reux
From C
2
fractionator
-37C, 6.5 bar
Ethylene
-28 C,
20.4 bar
29.5 C,
20.7 bar
-22 C
Kettle
reboiler/
condenser
C
2
splitter
-6.1 C
Compressor
Kettle-type reboiler/condenser with enhanced boiling tubes in heat pump driven C
2

splitter. Borealis Polymers ethylene plant in Porvoo, Finland.
FIG. 13
Heat duty 61 MW
Shell design NKN, 1-pass, shell ID = 2,280 mm, -in.
enhanced condensing tube, tube count: 6,467
Shellside uid Propane ref., boiling, T
sat
= 36C
Tubeside uid Closed cycle cooling water,
T
in/out
= 22.0/-31.2C
Plain
LF, 30 fpi
New tube
17
9
6.5
157
96
76
Tube length, m
Weight of shell (dry), tons
Propane refrigerant condenser. Comparison of plain, LF and
enhanced condensing tube.
FIG. 11
Installation of horizontal thermosiphon reboiler equipped
with enhanced boiling tubes in a C
3
splitter of a
Lyondell-Basell polypropylene plant in Knapsack, Germany.
FIG. 12
60

I

GAS PROCESSING DEVELOPMENTS
equipped with enhanced boiling tubes, with tube OD of
5
8 in.,
was successfully installed in each of the three trains.
Test runs following the startup of Train 2 in 2003, Train 3 in
2004 and Train 1 in 2005 confirmed the thermal and hydraulic
tube performance. For Train 3, the performance was verified again
in 2007, confirming stable performance. In addition, a very low
cold approach temperature of 1.4 K between tube-side condensing
MR and shell-side boiling propane is confirmed demonstrating
the superior performance of the enhanced boiling tube. Qatargas
is very satisfied with the overall performance of these chillers. In
a joint venture, there are six trains at Ras Laffan, Qatar, with an
annual LNG capacity of 7.8 MMtpy per train. All trains are in
operation at full capacity.
Ethylene plant. Following the first successful application in
the polypropylene plant in 2000, further applications followed
with various expansion projects and new grassroots projects.
Borealis Polymers in Finland, used enhanced boiling tubes in a
C
2
splitter reboiler/condenser in a heat pump scheme for an eth-
ylene expansion project in 2002. The stable operation has been
reviewed and confirmed in 2007, as shown in Fig. 13. Further
applications with the enhanced boiling tube followed within
the depropanizer and deethanizer condensers, both for the 10th
olefin complex for JAM Petrochemical in Iran, and in Yansab,
Saudi Arabia. HP
LITERATURE CITED
Complete literature cited available online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
TABLE 2. Comparision of LNG chilling train with
externally and internally enhanced LF tubes
Externally Internally
Temperature approach enhanced LF enhanced LF
CAPEX 20%** 0%**
Additional annual 0 16.25 (LNG price = $250/ton)*
income, $MM/yr 0 26 (LNG price = $440/ton)*
0 35.8 (.9 LNG price = $550/ton)*
Plot length reduction,% 26** 16
* Equivalent LNG price in $/MM Btu = 5, 8 and 11
** Indicates values are compared to the LF (3k) case
Brigitte Ploix is the manager of Heat Transfer Group, Process and Technology Divi-
sion, Technip France, Paris, France. She has over 17 years of experience in the thermal
design of all nonfired types of exchangers for oil refining and offshore oil production,
as well as for the petrochemical, LNG and gas processing industries. Previously, M.
Ploix worked as the lead discipline engineer for major international projects and joint
ventures. She is a member of the TECHNIP WIELAND Steering Committee, French
Association of Oil Industry Engineers and Technicians. Ms. Ploix has been a member of
the HTRI Technical Committee since 2008; served as vice chair since 2011; served on
the Communication CommitteeFrance since 2003 and chair from 20052006. She
is a member of the HTRI Plate-Fin Exchanger Task Force. Ms. Ploix is a graduate engi-
neer from the Institut National des Sciences Appliques de Lyon (INSA,), Lyon, France.
Thomas Lang is the manager of business development for the Process Industry,
Product Division High Performance Tubes of Wieland-Werke AG, Ulm, Germany. He has
worked Wieland-Werke AG for 19 years. Mr. Lang is responsible for technical marketing
and business development for enhanced heat transfer tubes and heat transfer engineer-
ing services for the process industry. His experience includes a wide range of enhanced
heat transfer application primarily for shell and tube heat exchangers for the oil and gas
industry, refining, petrochemical and chemical as well as power industry. Mr. Lang is a
member of the HTRI technical committee since 2008 and a member of the HTRI commu-
nication committee Germany since 2002. He holds a diploma in mechanical engineering
from the University of Stuttgart and an MSc degree from the University of Boulder.
L.A. Turbine Europe
saleseurope@laturbine.com
Rue de la Ferme 71- Hall 4
4430 Ans, Belgium
Phone: +32 (0) 4 247 30 11

I

61
Select optimal schemes
for gas processing plants
Careful process evaluation helps meet
product requirements and environmental standards
M. MALEKI and M. KHORSAND MOVAGHAR,
Energy Industries Engineering and Design Co., Tehran, Iran
G
as processing plants are an essen-
tial part of the energy industry
and provide one of the cleanest-
burning fuels and a valuable chemical feed-
stock. The importance and complexity of
gas processing plants have increased over
the years due to their use as a feedstock
source and their integration with petro-
chemical plants.
Important factors that drive the pro-
cess selection and design of gas process-
ing plants are environmental and safety
regulations, capital and operating costs,
and process efficiency. Therefore, selecting
an optimized process scheme during the
project feasibility study is vital to ensure
that the project is technically feasible, cost-
effective and profitable.
PROCESS SCHEME SELECTION
The process selection study usually
begins with a design basis to specify the
general configuration of the plant and its
outline requirements. These requirements
consist of:
Feed characteristics, especially H
2
S,
CO
2
and mercaptan concentrations
Product specifications, including
maximum concentrations of sulfur and
CO
2
in the products.
The criteria to be optimized for the pro-
cess scheme selection include:
Environmental and safety compli-
ance with local regulations for effluents
from incinerators, flare stacks, wastewater
treatment, etc.
Flexibility and performance
Cost
Energy consumption.
The maximum H
2
S concentration
allowed in the sales gas is 45 parts per
million by volume (ppmv); therefore,
gas treating of the feed gas using amine
is necessary. The amine unit is designed
for total H
2
S removal and total or partial
CO
2
removal. This article will investigate
the reason for partial CO
2
removal, which
is no longer required due to the recent
advances in sulfur recovery technology
used in gas processing plants, including
South Pars gas plants.
Partial CO
2
removal scheme. Over
a span of 20 years, the process design of
each gas processing plant has been modi-
fied to some extent. The main reasons for
the changes are more stringent environ-
mental regulations for newer projects and
higher ethane purities required for petro-
chemical plants.
The original scheme designed to meet
the product specifications from a sour
feed containing high concentrations of
H
2
S, CO
2
and mercaptans is depicted in
Fig. 1.
The gas processing facility has a feed gas
treating unit (GTU) using amine for total
H
2
S removal and partial CO
2
removal.
The facility also includes utilities, offsites
and necessary infrastructure. The functions
of the main process units can be summa-
rized as follows:
Feed reception and gas/liquid separa-
tion
Total H
2
S removal and partial CO
2

removal from gas
Dehydration using molecular sieve
technology
Reception
facilities
Dehydration
unit
Ethane
recovery unit
Sales gas
compressor
Ethane
treatment
with DEA
and drying
NGL
fractionation
Gas condensate
stabilization
Sales gas
Claus unit
Sulfur
C
3
treatment
and drying
C
4
treatment
and drying
Ethane
C
3
liquid
C
4
liquid
Stabilized condensate
Incinerator
Flue gas
Gas treating
unit (with
MDEA)
Original scheme for sour gas treating plant. FIG. 1
62

I

Ethane recovery for production of
sales gas and gaseous ethane
NGL separation for production of
liquid C
3
, C
4
and gas condensate
Sales gas export compression
Sulfur recovery
Ethane treatment for CO
2
removal
and drying.
Restrictions affect design. New
environmental standards have influenced
product specifications and have led to
changes in the gas plant design. The main
changes that have altered the design are:
Improved sulfur recovery efficiency
in the sulfur recovery unit (SRU), result-
ing in less sulfur being burned in the
incinerator
Lower CO
2
content requirement in
the ethane product
Lower sulfur content requirement in
propane and butane products.
This article investigates the best pro-
cess scheme for the new conditions and
compares total CO
2
and H
2
S removal for
the GTU vs. partial CO
2
removal. It also
examines the impact of this change on
other units in the plant.
Gas treating unit. The GTU uses
ami ne f or H
2
S and CO
2
removal .
Although we assume that readers are famil-
iar with amines, it is important to note
that three types of amines are already used
in most gas refineries, as summarized in
Table 1.
1, 2
When the GTU is designed for total
H
2
S and CO
2
removal, normally the
CO
2
can be reduced to less than 5 ppmv.
However, because of design limitations,
guaranteed figures using generic dietha-
nolamine (DEA) generally provide maxi-
mum CO
2
concentrations of 100 ppmv
in the treated gas.
Changes in the sulfur recovery unit.
The acid gases (H
2
S and CO
2
) removed
in the amine unit are sent to the SRU.
The SRU is based on the modified Claus
process for recovering elemental sulfur
from acid gas. The chemistry of reac-
tions involved in the Claus process may
be described in a simplified form with
the following two equations: the first is
a simple combustion of one-third of the
hydrogen sulfide; the second is the reac-
tion of SO
2
produced with the remaining
two-thirds of H
2
S, according to the fol-
lowing reactions:
3
H
2
S + 3/2 O
2
t SO
2
+ H
2
O 519
kJ/mole (124 kcal/mole)
2 H
2
S + SO
2
t 3/n Sn + 2 H
2
O 143
kJ/mole (34 kcal/mole)
Feed gas composition. The acid gas
from the GTU regenerator column consists
of H
2
S and CO
2
that is fed to the Claus
unit. The Claus process efficiency is largely
dependent on the H
2
S/CO
2
ratio, and it is
difficult to maintain at a high value when
the H
2
S content in the acid gas drops below
36%40%. This difficulty is due to the fol-
lowing factors:
CO
2
is an inert gas that dilutes the
process gas and, consequently, reduces the
conversion efficiency by lowering the par-
tial pressure of reactants. Furthermore, in
the reaction furnace (where the thermal
Claus reaction takes place), the conversion
efficiency is limited due to resulting low
flame temperature.
The low H
2
S content may present
challenges to sustaining the flame in the
reaction furnace, where only one-third of
the acid gas should be burned to achieve
the stoichiometric H
2
S-to-SO
2
ratio of 2
required by the Claus reaction.
Carbon dioxide may react with a sul-
fur species to form carbonyl sulfide (COS)
and carbon disulfide (CS
2
) or a dissociate,
which may result in reduction of the overall
sulfur recovery, unless adequate precautions
are taken for the design of the reaction fur-
nace and the catalytic converters.
Due to the above reasons, limitations
in the Claus process on the maximum
CO
2
content require a ratio of 60:40 for
CO
2
:H
2
S for the acid gas from the GTU.
Lower H
2
S concentrations can be accepted
using special measures (such as enriched air
and fuel gas co-firing), but at the expense of
lower conversion efficiencies. However, to
minimize the Claus unit size and maximize
efficiency, an acid gas enrichment using
TABLE 1. Amine technology process capabilities
Amine Features Regeneration duty
Diethanolamine: DEA is for complete H
2
S and CO
2
removal. High
(DEA)
2
HN(CH
2
CH
2
OH)
2
Yields low degradation products and corrosion rates.
MDEA: CH
3
N(C
2
H
4
OH)
2
Used selectively for deep H
2
S removal, with only Low
moderate CO
2
removal.
Yields significantly low degradation products and
corrosion rates.
Activated MDEA Used for complete CO
2
removal; H
2
S removal also Low
(aMDEA) occurs due to enhanced reaction kinetics.
High-performance solvent with reduced energy
requirements, high acid loadings, minimal corrosivity
and negligible degradation products.
Reception
facilities
Gas treating
unit (with
MDEA)
Acid gas
enrichment
Dehydration
unit
Ethane
recovery unit
Sales gas
compressor
Tail gas
treatment
NGL
fractionation
Gas condensate
stabilization
Sales gas
Ethane
C
3
liquid
C
4
liquid
Claus unit
Sulfur
Incinerator
Flue gas
Ethane
treatment
with DEA
and drying
Regeneration
gas treatment
with DEA
C
3
treatment
and drying
C
4
treatment
and drying
Sour gas treating plant with partial CO
2
removal. FIG. 2

I

63
selective amine is generally used to produce
enriched acid gas suitable for conven-
tional Claus SRUs.
4
Another option is to use an amine
absorption process, which is suitable for
H
2
S concentrations within the range of
1%30 vol%.
5
They offer less complex
designs and the same sulfur quality as
the Claus process, but have the disadvan-
tage of providing lower sulfur recovery of
96%97%.
Sulfur recovery efficiency. Typical sul-
fur recovery efficiencies for Claus plants
are 90%96% for a two-stage reactor
and 95%98% for a three-stage reactor.
However, new environmental regulations
limit sulfur recovery efficiencies to 98.5%
99.9%. This limitation has led to the devel-
opment of a large number of tail gas units
based on different concepts to remove the
last remaining sulfur species.
6
Changes in ethane quality. Due to
partial CO
2
removal in the current design,
the ethane productwhich is separated
from the treated gas in the ethane-recov-
ery sectioncontains CO
2
. Therefore, it
becomes necessary to add an ethane decar-
bonation unit (EDU) to reduce the CO
2
level to the specified maximum of 50 parts
per million by weight (ppmw) prior to
export. DEA is used to remove CO
2
from
ethane in the EDU before it is dehydrated
using molecular sieve beds.
In the case of total CO
2
removal in
the GTU, the ethane cut from the ethane
recovery section will contain very little to
virtually no CO
2
. In fact, ethane will con-
tain around 500 ppmw if CO
2
is lowered to
100 ppmv in the GTU using DEA, which
can be removed by molecular sieve beds.
Also, there is no need for a separate drying
unit if molecular sieve beds are used, which
provides an advantage in terms of cost, ease
of operation and maintenance. Therefore,
in the case of total CO
2
removal, even the
molecular sieve bed is just a CO
2
guard.
Changes in LPG product quality. The
environmental specification for the total
sulfur content in LPG products (C
3
and
C
4
) has been lowered from 80 ppmw to 10
ppmw; this was the case for LPG products
from South Pars gas plants.
Sulfur species in LPG are essentially
mercaptans, which are removed by direct
oxidation with air in the presence of a pro-
prietary catalyst, using a caustic soda-wash
process. The LPG product is then dried
before export.
A molecular sieve sulfur guard is
installed after the LPG dryers. The molec-
ular sieve beds are regenerated using sales
gas that is then sent to the fuel gas system.
The regeneration gas must be CO
2
-free,
as requested by the LPG guard bed ven-
dor. Therefore, if partial removal of CO
2

is considered for the GTU design, then
another DEA absorber must be installed
for total CO
2
removal from the regenera-
tion gas. However, if the CO
2
is totally
removed in the GTU, then molecular
sieve guard beds can be used instead of a
DEA absorber.
Evaluation of existing GTU. The
CO
2
specifications for sales gas fed to a
consumer network should be less than 2
mol%the maximum limit to prevent
general corrosion and pitting in pipelines.
This limit will be achieved if the CO
2
con-
tent in the treated gas from the GTU is less
than 1 mol%. In fact, the latter quantity
was obtained by back calculation using the
ratio of 60:40 for CO
2
:H
2
S in the acid
gas to the SRU and a sulfur recovery of
97.5%. Therefore, partial CO
2
removal
in the GTU was dictated by the process
requirements in the SRU.
In more recent projects, environmental
regulations allow for fewer SO
2
emissions
from the SRU incinerator, which requires
an increase in the conversion of sulfur
recovery from 97.5% to 99.5%. Thus,
to achieve higher overall sulfur recovery,
acid gas enrichment and tail gas treatment
units must be used. The acid gas enrich-
ment unit consists of selective H
2
S removal
from the acid gas in the presence of CO
2

(i.e., partial CO
2
removal from the acid
gas). This is accomplished by including an
amine unit using a generic MDEA solvent
that selectively absorbs H
2
S. The offgas
leaving the top of the amine absorber
is sent to the incinerator to convert the
residual H
2
S to less harmful SO
2
, while the
sour gas reaching the required H
2
S:CO
2

ratio from the amine regeneration unit is
sent as feed to the Claus reactor.
Therefore, by making a gas enrichment
unit part of the sulfur gas recovery unit,
it is no longer a requirement to specify an
outlet CO
2
of 1 mol% in the treated gas
from the GTU. Based on these results,
two alternatives exist for the gas process-
ing plant scheme:
TABLE 2. Effect of CO
2
removal on heating value of two sales gases
Heating value (Kcal/Nm
3
) Heating value (Kcal/Nm
3
)
with CO
2
(max. 2 mol%) without CO
2
% change
Gas A 8,228.05 8,396.48 2.04
Gas B 8,548.01 8,635.24 1.01
Reception
facilities
Acid gas
enrichment
Dehydration
unit
Ethane
recovery unit
Sales gas
compressor
Tail gas
treatment
Ethane
treatment
with mole
sieve beds
NGL
fractionation
Gas condensate
stabilization
Sales gas
Regeneration gas
C
3
treatment
and drying
C
4
treatment
and drying
Ethane
C
3
liquid
C
4
liquid
Claus unit
Sulfur
Incinerator
Flue gas
Gas treating
unit (with
DEA or aMDEA)
Sour gas treating plant with total CO
2
removal. FIG. 3
64

1. Partial CO
2
removal in the GTU
similar to the old scheme, regardless of the
changes in the SRU, as shown in Fig. 2.
2. Total CO
2
removal in the GTUan
optimized gas processing plant scheme based
on changes in the SRU, as depicted in Fig. 3.
Effects of total CO
2
removal on sales
gas quality. The sales gas from gas process-
ing plants can contain a maximum of 2
mol% of CO
2
, as stated in the previous
section. Carbon dioxide is an inert gas that
only uses energy to be heated to the flame
temperature, without any heat input con-
tribution to the combustion. Therefore, its
presence at a relatively high amount in the
sales gas is a waste of energy.
In addition to the above, environmen-
tal agencies of many countries continue
to implement more stringent emissions
standards requiring companies to report
their greenhouse gas emissions. Thus, many
customers buying sales gas want CO
2
lev-
els in the gas to be minimized. Also, the
CO
2
present in the sales gas is distributed
through many users, although it can be
recovered for industrial use when totally
captured at the gas plant source.
These negative aspects of CO
2
presence
in the sales gas are some of the disadvan-
tages that can be easily prevented by total
CO
2
removal in the GTU, which can be
achieved using DEA or activated MDEA
(aMDEA) in the GTU. When the GTU is
designed for both H
2
S and CO
2
removal
(down to 3 ppmv and 100 ppmv, respec-
tively) in the treated gas using DEA, the
CO
2
content in the sales gas ranges from
100 ppmv200 ppmv.
Effects of CO
2
removal on sales gas
heating value. When modifying the sales
gas composition by total CO
2
removal, it
is important to check the heating value to
ensure that the changes are not significant
enough to require burner change in the
consuming furnaces. Two sales gases were
studied for this purpose; the results are
presented in Table 2. As the table shows,
the effect of total CO
2
removal on sales gas
heating value and its possible consequences
on burner designas well as adverse effects
on the operation of existing burnersis
insignificant.
Effects of total CO
2
removal on the
dehydration unit. If CO
2
is present in the
feed gas to the dehydration unit after the
GTU, it might be partially co-adsorbed
by the molecular sieve beds, resulting in
a reduced active area for water adsorp-
tion and a longer time for bed regenera-
tion. Therefore, it could be expected that,
in the case of total CO
2
removal, the bed
adsorption capacity will be increased while
the bed regeneration time and energy con-
sumption are decreased. This is an item
that needs further investigation by opera-
tors and vendors.
Overall optimized scheme. Fig. 3
shows the optimized scheme for total CO
2

removal, where the ethane treatment with
molecular sieve beds should only be con-
sidered if the treated gas from the GTU
will provide an ethane product with a CO
2

content higher than 50 ppmw.
SOLUTION
Before selecting a scheme for a gas pro-
cessing plant, it is necessary to construct
a clear and complete picture of the entire
facility. The requirements of each unit
within the plant must be understood before
they are integrated into the whole scheme.
The process scheme selection is car-
ried out during the conceptual stage of a
project and should take into account new
technology developments for each unit in
the plant. Such an approach will deliver an
optimized process for the plant that is cost
effective, energy efficient, and meets local
environmental and safety regulations. HP
LITERATURE CITED
Complete literature cited available online at
HydrocarbonProcessing.com.

Mohammad Reza Khorsand
Movaghar has worked in the pro-
cess department at Energy Industries
Engineering and Design Co. since
2008. He holds a BS degree in petro-
chemical engineering and a PhD in chemical engineering
from Tehran Polytechnic University. Dr. Khorsand also
received an MS degree from the University of Science
and Technology in Tehran. He served as a process engi-
neer on detailed design projects for gas train units
including acid gas removal, dehydration and ethane
recoveryat South Pars gas plant phases 20 and 21. He
has over five years of experience as a process engineer
and process simulator on several oil and gas projects.
Mohammad Maleki is the pro-
cess, utility and HSE (health, safety
and environment) department man-
ager at Energy Industries Engineering
and Design Co. He was the consor-
tium process and HSE manager of South Pars front-end
engineering and design phases 17 and 18. Mr. Maleki
received a BS degree in chemical engineering from the
University of Texas at Austin. He has over 30 years of
experience as a process and HSE manager, project engi-
neering manager and principal process engineer on
several oil, gas and petrochemical projects.
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I

65
Improve process control
for natural gas heat exchangers
Dynamic simulation model identifies how to
optimize plant controllability and safety
H-M. LAI, Jacobs Canada Inc., Calgary, Alberta, Canada
D
ynamic simulation is becoming
an important tool for engineering
design and plant operation.
1,2
In
this case history, a first-principle dynamic
model of a natural gas/steam heat exchanger
system is built using a commercially avail-
able dynamic simulator. Four scenarios for
operability and safety are investigated to
demonstrate how a process and associated
control system will respond to various dis-
turbances as a function of time.
Case history. Preheating of natural gas
(NG) is frequently used to prevent hydrate
formation due to the Joule-Thompson
effect of the NG let-down stations. The
typical NG heater system consists of a
shell-tube heat exchanger, a condensate
receiver and a steam trap, as shown in Fig.
1. The steam control arrangement is also
shown in Fig. 1. This system includes:
One temperature control valve on the
steam inlet line
One level control valve on the con-
densate outlet line
One pressure control valve on the
vapor outlet line.
As a part of the plant design, a steady-
state simulation of the system is done
to check the heat-and-material balances
and equipment sizing. Table 1 lists the
process conditions and major equipment
sizing data.
Scenario 1: Process upsets. In this
scenario, the impacts of both inlet NG
temperature changes from 0C to 10C
and NG demand changes from 100,000
kg/h to 140,000 kg/h have been analyzed.
The simulator logic unit operationthe
transfer function blockis used to simu-
late sine wave changes of NG demand and
inlet temperature.
Fig. 2 shows the process response to an
inlet temperature change of the NG from
0C to 10C. As shown in Fig. 2, when
the NG inlet temperature rises from 0C
to 10C as a result of falling heat load,
the steam pressure in the heat exchanger
will drop about 200 kPa. Fig. 3 shows
the process response to a change in NG
LP steam
NG
NGOutA
SToHA
260ME22001A
260MC22002A
ToDrumA
NGToH
FCV
JTIC
JTV
JPIC
JLIC
VOutA
LiqOutA
PLiqA
POutA 260MG22002A
VapA
PumpE
LiqA
Val-A
NGExitA
TT
PT
LT
NGValA
Simplified process scheme for the NG steam heater. FIG. 1
Process responses to NG inlet temperature changes: 0C to 10C. FIG. 2
66

I

flow from 100,000 kg/h to 140,000 kg/h.
Note: The steam pressure also drops over
250 kPa, while the NG demand declines
from 140,000 kg/h to 100,000 kg/h. These
dynamic simulation results confirm that
steam pressure in the condensate receiver
cannot be maintained at stable ranges dur-
ing process upsets. If a steam trap is used,
then the steam control scheme will lead to
reduced condensate flow from the steam
heater system, and it will form the so-called
stall behavior.
Scenario 2: Stall behavior. This sce-
nario discusses condensate removal from
the heat exchanger. As mentioned before,
the temperature control valve on the steam
line maintains the NG outlet temperature
by opening or closing to adjust the steam
flowrate, thereby varying the steam space
pressure. When the steam pressure in the
heat exchanger is equal to, or less than, the
total backpressure imposed on the steam
trap, then the reduction or cessation of
condensate flow from the heat exchanger
occurs. The condensate will back up in
the drain line and will flood back into the
exchanger. This condition can damage the
control valve and may cause corrosion of
the exchanger. This symptom is called the
stall behavior.
Based on current heat exchanger sizing
data, the dynamic heat model for this steam
heater system was built using dynamics and
spreadsheet tools. These conditions were
assumed for the model:
NG gas inlet temperature rising to
10C
TABLE 1. System design data and
operating conditions
Steam inlet pressure, kPaa 442
Steam inlet temperature, C 147
Steam flowrate, kg/h 6,500
Natural gas inlet pressure, kPaa 8,372
Natural gas inlet temperature, C 010
Natural gas flowrate, kg/h 140,000
Natural gas density @ OP, kg/m
3
75.6
Ratio of specific heat 1.20
Steam exchanger type CEN
Total surface area, m
2
50
Overall U, W/m
2
C 800
Tube inside diameter, In 0.834
Condensate receiver size 1m ID x 3m T/T
Process responses to NG demand changes. FIG. 3
Simulated results of stall behavior for the steam heater. FIG. 4
LP steam
NG NGOutA
MIX-100
SToHA
260ME22001A
260MC22002A
ToDrumA
NGToH FCV
TEE-100
JTIC
JValve
JPIC
JLIC
VOutA
LiqOutA
PLiqA
POutA
260MG22002A
VapA
LiqA
Val-A
NGExitA NGValA
BPOut Bypass
PumpE
TT
PT
LT
Alternative control scheme for the NG steam heater. FIG. 5

I

67
Low-pressure (LP) steam pressure of
442 kPa and steam-trap backpressure of
338 kPa
NG consumption of 132,000 kg/h.
Fig. 4 illustrates the simulated stall
behavior. Due to the 10% over design
margin, the heat exchanger has more
heating area than required. So, the oper-
ating steam pressure will be much lower
than needed.
When the condensate is waterlogged in
the heat exchanger, the surface area avail-
able to condense steam is reduced. The heat
flow drops, and NG outgoing temperature
begins to fall. While the temperature sen-
sor detects this change, the controller will
open the steam control valve. This raises
the pressure in the steam space to above the
trap-back pressure and causes condensate
to pass through the trap. The condensate
level falls, and the NG temperature climbs.
When the sensor detects this, the controller
closes the control valve. The steam pressure
falls, and then flooding begins again. The
result is a continual cycling of opening and
closing the steam control valve.
The side effects of stall include damag-
ing the control valve and water hammer
along with corroding and leaking heat
exchangers. These operating conditions
will increase maintenance incidents and
reduce the service life of the steam heater
and associated equipment.
Scenario 3: Alternative control
scheme. There are different ways to
prevent stall.
3
Normally, we could use an
alternative means to remove condensate
from the exchangers by installing a pump-
ing trap, instead of using steam traps if the
pressure in steam space may be less than
the backpressure. We could also size the
heat exchangers and steam traps properly
to ensure that the pressure in steam space
is stable and always higher than the back-
pressure under all operating conditions.
Or we should reduce the backpressure of
condensate discharge lines. In reality, this
cant always be done.
For the present NG steam heater, the
most cost-effective solution is to use an
alternative control schemea bypass con-
trol. This control approach bypasses a par-
tial NG stream around the exchanger and
blends it with a fraction that has passed
through, as shown in Fig. 5. The temper-
ature control valve is relocated from the
original steam line to the NG bypass line.
System dynamic responses to the pro-
cess upsets over NG demand and inlet
temperature are illustrated in Figs. 6 and
7. The results show that the maximum
change of steam pressure is much less,
lower than 30 kPa. The stall behavior will
not happen, as the pressure in the steam
space is always greater than steam trap
backpressure. Compared with the regular
Process responses to NG inlet temperature changes: 0C to 15C. FIG. 6
Process responses to NG demand changes. FIG. 7
Tube rupture profiles for 4M6 PSV with 6 in. inlet/10 in. outlet piping. FIG. 8
68

I

steam control, the simple bypass control
greatly improves the operating perfor-
mance of the steam heater.
Scenario 4: Tube rupture contin-
gency. Pressure-relief systems are a critical
part of any process design. Proper design of
these systems is required by regulation and
industrial codes. Due to the large operating
pressure difference between the exchanger
tube and shell sides (flange rating 900 lb at
tube side vs. 150 lb at shell steam side), the
case of complete tube rupture is a valid case
in the steam heat exchanger.
Although the simulator cannot pre-
dict the instantaneous pressure wave at
the rupture site, it does provide important
insights on the dynamic system behavior
under the tube-rupture conditions. Nor-
mal operating data and pressure safety
valve (PSV) sizing results by the conven-
tional method are listed in Tables 1 and 2.
These parameters were set to generate the
initial values of the dynamic model for the
tube-rupture case:
UA value was set for the steam heat
exchanger
Condensate receiver was set to real
sizes to simulate steam/liquid accumulation
and liquid level variations
Normal valve with a customized
spreadsheet was used for constant NG rup-
ture flow into the steam condensate system.
In general practice, to protect overpres-
sure of steam system from the high pressure
of NG, a check valve should be installed on
the upstream steam line, and a PSV shall be
provided on the top of the vapor line in the
condensate receiver.
The dynamic simulation with two dif-
ferent PSV sizes was verified, Figs. 8 and
9 summarize the results. Some highlights
of the dynamic simulated results are dis-
cussed here:
Pressure in the condensate receiver
begins to build up immediately following
the tube-rupture event. After about 3 sec-
onds, the receiver pressure reaches the set
pressure; then the PSV starts to relieve.
PSV would work fine if the nor-
mal PSV of 4M6 sized by a conventional
method is installed on the top of shell
side in the steam heater. However if this
PSV is relocated to the top of the conden-
sate receiver, a 40% overpressure in the
receiver would occur, as shown in Fig. 8.
The major reason is that, under the upset
conditions of the tube rupture, the NG has
a strong stripping effect (due to vapor/liq-
uid equilibrium) that carries the steam out
of the condensate phase. This causes the
PSV peak relief load (30,530 kg/h) from
the condensate receiver to be about 23%
higher than the tube-rupture flow (24,920
kg/h) estimated by API 521 method.
As evaluated in Fig. 9, if installing a
PSV on the top of the condensate receiver,
a larger sized 4P6 PSV and associated larger
inlet/outlet piping should be installed.
This example shows that, when upset
conditions occur, equilibrium conditions
in vessels are changing, and the safety sys-
tem design must be adjusted to account for
those changes.
Options. This case study illustrates how
critical it is to consider vapor/liquid equi-
librium changes and interaction of process
with controls in the system design, and
how dynamic simulation can improve plant
performance, controllability and safety in
design and operation. HP
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks to Alan Childs, manager of the pro-
cess department, for the valuable discussions, review
and comments.
LITERATURE CITED
1
Dissinger, G. R., Studying simulation,
Hydrocarbon Engineering, May 2008.
2
James, G. and J. Reeves, Dynamic Simulation
Across Project and Facility Lifecycles, 6th World
Congress of Chemical Engineering, Melbourne,
Australia, Sept. 2327, 2001.
3
www.spiraxsarco.com/Resources, Practical
Methods of Preventing Stall.
Tube rupture profiles for 4P6 PSV with 8 in. inlet/12 in. outlet piping. FIG. 9
Hai-Ming Lai is a principal process engineer in Jacobs
Canada Inc., Calgary, Alberta, with over 26 years of expe-
rience in process research and development, design,
and engineering of oil and gas, refining/upgrading, and
petrochemical projects. His specialties include simulation
studies, conceptual and front-end engineering design.
He holds a PhD in chemical engineering from Beijing
University of Chemical Technology (BUCT), P.R. of China.,
and is a registered professional engineer in Alberta, Can-
ada. Prior to joining Jacobs, Dr. Lai worked for Aspen
Technology, Calgary, Canada, and Research Institute of
Chemical Technology in BUCT, Beijing, P. R. of China.
TABLE 2. PSV sizing results for tube rupture
Steady-state Dynamic
PSV installed location Shell side Top of receiver
Relief load, kg/h 24,920 30,530
PSV type Conventional Conventional
PSV sizes 4M6 4P6
PSV set pressure, kPaa 1,548 1,548
PSV full open pressure, kPaa 1,703 1,703
PSV closing pressure, kPaa 1,393 1,393
Inlet piping size, in. 6 8
Inlet loss % of set pressure 1.0 0.9
Outlet piping size, in. 10 12
Outlet loss % of set pressure 7.7 5.0
ROTATING EQUIPMENT

I

69
A
ir and inert gases are often com-
pressed in a variety of processes
and facilities. These processes and
applications include wastewater treatment
plants, oil refineries, the petrochemical
processing industry and power generation
plants. Compression equipment is also
installed where a carrier gas such as air is
needed for conveying powders. In general,
these applications require gas pressures that
are too low for what we typically call a com-
pressor and too high for what is usually han-
dled by blowers. Of course, these services
could always be satisfied with independent
or free-standing machines, but promising
hybrid machines are now available.
New developments. Recently, a par-
ticular hybrid machine that combines both
blower and compressor technologies has
joined the list of available options (Fig. 1).
It is called a lobe blower compressor. This
blower compressor draws on both tech-
nologies and bridges an important gap. Fol-
lowing extensive field tests under harshest
operating conditions and after over three
years of successful operation in various
fields of endeavor, these hybrid packages
are now finding much wider markets.
Lobe blower compressors cover
wide performance range. Low-
pressure (LP) applications often use the
roots-principle of isochoric (constant
volume) compression in a rotary lobe
arrangement. In contrast, screw compres-
sors that follow internal volume reduction
principles become the preferred choice
because of their relatively high-energy effi-
ciency in the elevated pressure ranges. The
latest hybrid design package (Fig. 2) goes
beyond the standard rotary lobe blower
and screw compressor designs. Both
blower and screw compressor have been
optimized and upgraded in this hybrid
that combines the essential concepts of
lobe blowers and compressors.
One well-known hybrid manufacturer
relies on more than 100 years of experi-
ence designing and producing rotary lobe
blowers. The same company has produced
thousands of process screw compressors in
the decades since 1943. The performance
envelope of its single-input hybrid gas
mover opens new possibilities for produc-
ing either positive pressure or vacuum.
High-energy efficiency with
lower LCCs. The goals for process
machinery are summarized in lowest life-
cycle cost (LCC). The concept aims for
and takes into account highest energy effi-
ciency, infrequent maintenance, and low
risk of unscheduled downtime. A com-
plete package, low noise levels without
the need for additional soundproofing,
space saving, operating ease and a wide
operating range are desirable attributes of
these machines.
Over a 10-year operating period, energy
costs equate to 90% of the total LCCs of
a compressor. The actual equipment costs
play a secondary role (Fig. 3). With this
in mind, one such hybrid gas mover was
recently developed with the focus on
increased energy efficiency and reduced
greenhouse gas emissions. Compared
with some stand-alone rotary lobe blower
and screw compressor technologies, this
innovative hybrid was reported to reduce
energy consumption by up to 15%.
The screw (also known as rotary-lobe)
compressor stage benefits from rotor pro-
Consider lobe blowers
combined with compressors
New blower meets low-pressure applications cost-effectively
H. P. BLOCH, P.E., HP Staff
A new hybrid design incorporates
rotary lobe blower and screw
compressor principles (Source:
Aerzen USA, Kulpsville,
Pennsylvania, US).
FIG. 1
5% Maintenance 90% Energy
5% Initial cost
Average operating costs of an
air mover over 10 years- Largely
composed of energy, initial cost,
maintenance: 90% Energy (white),
5% maintenance (blue) and 5%
initial cost (red).
FIG. 3
Package design incorporating a
rotary lobescrew compressor
hybrid.
FIG. 2
ROTATING EQUIPMENT
70

file innovations and a low-loss inlet cone.
Together, these innovations produce
important efficiency gains. Optimal air
flow within the acoustic enclosure pack-
age directs cool air to the intake side and
increases compression efficiency. The
equipment package incorporates special
silencer insulation. High-volume flow
models were tested to have control ranges
from 25% to 100%.
Innovation was also noted in other
ways. New sealing solutions are used at
the drive shaft and at the rotor chamber
to minimize seal wear. Rolling element
bearing configurations were selected and
designed to extend bearing L-10 life to
over 60,000 operating hours at a differen-
tial pressure of 1,000 mbar (approximately
15 psi). Oil change intervals of 16,000
operating hours are now entirely feasible.
As has been customary for sensitive
services in the past, a hybrid should rou-
tinely feature a purely reactive discharge
silencer. Since absorption material breaks
down over time, knowledgeable hybrid
manufacturers will not use these mate-
rials so as not to contaminate a down-
stream process system. This is important
in pneumatic conveying systems for bulk
materials in the food industry. Reactive
discharge silencers will avoid accumula-
tion of broken-down absorption material
in the fine diffuser systems of wastewater
treatment plants, which is helpful from a
maintenance avoidance point of view. In
essence, preventing clogging saves the cost
of cleaning and possibly reducing plant
operating capacity.
How new hybrids expand flow
and pressure range capabilities.
By design, conventional rotary lobe blow-
ers are limited to a differential pressure
of 1 bar (~15 psi). When it comes to
higher pressures, other types of compres-
sors are used. These are often designed
for significantly higher pressures and at
higher initial investment. As was already
mentioned, hybrids bridge the gap. One
very recently developed hybrid is called a
rotary lobe compressor. It incorporates a
differential pressure capability increased to
now 1.5 bar (22 psi). Vacuum operation
is feasible in the extended range from 500
mbar (1 5 in. Hg) to 700 mbar (21
in. Hg). The discharge temperature limit
of this modern rotary lobe blower-com-
pressor combination has been increased
from previously 160C (320F) to now
180C (356F).
One typical line of hybrid rotary lobe
compressors covers a flow range from 110
m/h to 4,100 m/h (65 cfm to 2,400
cfm) with 12 machine sizes. Its controls
are based on modular design concepts
that can be tailored to each individual
application. These controls incorporate
a frequency converter and power supply
panel ready to be plugged into existing
power supplies and plant piping. In mod-
ern hybrid controls, all measured operat-
ing data are retrievable and parameters
adjustable from user-friendly keypads. HP
Heinz P. Bloch is a consulting
engineer residing in Westminster,
Colorado (HPB@GulfPub.com). He
has held machinery-oriented staff
and line positions with Exxon affili-
ates in the US, Italy, Spain, England, The Netherlands
and Japan in a career spanning several decades prior
to retirement as Exxon Chemicals regional machinery
specialist for the USA. Mr. Bloch is the author of 18
comprehensive texts and close to 500 other publica-
tions on machinery reliability improvement. He advises
process plants worldwide on equipment uptime exten-
sion and maintenance cost-reduction opportunities. He
is an ASME Life Fellow and maintains registration as a
professional engineer in Texas and New Jersey.
+1 (713) 520-4426 l Software@GulfPub.com
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afpm.org

I

73
F
rom published literature, there is a wide range of pitfalls
into which control engineers frequently stumble.
13
As these
pitfalls were documented, more were discovered. In this
article, we will focus on a very specific area of control design. The
following rules investigate how substantial deterioration in process
performance is possible in proportional, integral and differential
(PID) control systems.
Rule 1. Use the derivative-on-error algorithm. The
PID algorithm in its conventional analog form is usually written as:

M = K
c
E +
1
T
i
E dt +T
d
dE
dt
Despite this or, more often, its equivalent in Laplace form,

being used in most distributive control systems (DCSs) vendors
documentation it strictly applies only to analog control. A close
digital equivalent is:

M = K
c
(E
n
E
n1
) +
ts
T
i
E
n
+
T
d
ts
E
n
2E
n1
+ E
n2
( )
The problem with this algorithm is that when the setpoint

(SP) is changed, assuming the process was previously at steady
state, the derivative action causes an immediate step change in
output, given as:

M =
K
c
T
d
ts
SP
This is followed, at the next scan interval, by the same change in
the opposite direction. Known as the derivative spike, it can read-
ily move the manipulated variable (MV) full scale. T
d
might typi-
cally have a value of around 1 minute, and ts will be about 1 second.
Even with quite a modest value for K
c
, M can exceed 100%.
Fortunately, most DCS vendors have modified the algorithm to:

M = K
c
(E
n
E
n1
) +
ts
T
i
E
n
+
T
d
ts
PV
n
2PV
n1
+ PV
n2
( )
Known as the derivative-on-PV algorithm, the derivative

action no longer responds to changes in SP. However, the response
to changes in process variable (PV), caused by process distur-
bances (or load changes), is unaffected. Some DCS vendors
have retained the derivative-on-error version as an optionunfor-
tunately, often as the default version. A poorly trained engineer
might think that, since it bears the closest resemblance to the
conventional analog version, it should be the one to apply. This
seriously limits the use of derivative action in those situations
where it would be particularly beneficial (See Rule 7).
Rule 2. Use the proportional-on-error algorithm.
Using this algorithm is almost entirely to blame for hiding oppor-
tunities to substantially improve the performance of controllers
responding to process disturbances. The alternative proportional-
on-PV offered as an option in most DCS is described as:

M = K
c
(PV
n
PV
n1
) +
ts
T
i
E
n
+
T
d
ts
PV
n
2PV
n1
+ PV
n2
( )
At first glance, this might appear to have a serious disadvan-

tage. When the SP is changed, the more conventional propor-
tional-on-error algorithm generates a proportional kick equal
to K
c
SPdoing much to ensure that the SP is approached
rapidly. The proportional-on-PV version does not do this, relying
entirely on the much slower integral action. Many engineers reject
this algorithm solely because of this perceived problem. How-
ever, they overlook the fact that the controller can be re-tuned
to compensate for the loss of the proportional kick. As shown in
Fig. 1, with effective tuning, its response to SP changes would be
virtually indistinguishable, by the process operator, from that of
the algorithm it replaces.
Its benefit becomes clear when the performance of the two
algorithms, both tuned for SP changes, is compared for load
Are you losing money
when tuning controllers?
Here are 10 rules, if followed, that will result in poor process performance
M. J. KING, Whitehouse Consulting, Isle of Wight, UK
P
V
Time
SP
Proportional-on-error
Proportional-on-PV
Response to a SP change. FIG. 1
74

I

changes. With the same tuning, provided the SP remains constant,
the two algorithms perform identically. The much faster tuning
necessary to make the proportional-on-PV algorithm perform well
for SP changes causes it to respond much faster to load changes.
Fig. 2 shows that both the duration of the disturbance and the
maximum deviation from SP are typically halved. Were the PV to
be related to product composition, the volume of off-spec produc-
tion would be reduced by more than 75%.
Of course, it would be possible to achieve the same improve-
ment by applying the tuning developed for the proportional-on-
PV algorithm to the proportional-on-error version. However,
it would then cause a major process upset whenever the SP is
changed. This perhaps explains why the algorithm is not fully
appreciated. Many engineers select the more conventional propor-
tional-on-error algorithm and tune it for SP changes. Its response
to load changes will then appear reasonable but will disguise the
fact that the response can be substantially improved.
Rule 3. Use the interactive algorithm. There is an alter-
native derivation of the PID controller. It starts with a conven-
tional PI controller, but adds the derivative action by replacing
the E term with a projected error defined as:

E = E +T
d
dE
dt
This results in a slightly different algorithm:

M = K
c
1+
T
d
T
i
E +
1
T
i
E. dt
+T
d
dE
dt
Comparison with the so-called ideal form described earlier

shows that the integral and derivative actions are unchanged but
the proportional action depends not only on K
c
but also now on T
i

and T
d
thus earning the algorithm its interactive name. Some
DCS use this version, either as the only choice or as an option. It
exists primarily because it closely matches the action of pneumatic
analog controllers and their early electronic replacements.
Using it these days presents no problem provided the tuning
method chosen is specifically designed for the changed algorithm.
Indeed, provided that in the ideal algorithm T
d
is less than 0.25
T
i
, it is possible to calculate equivalent tuning for the interactive
version so that the performance of the two algorithms is identi-
cal. And if the derivative is not used, then both algorithms are the
same in any case.
The problem arises because DCS vendors rarely retain the
algorithm in its pure form. It is common to include a derivative
filter (usually given the nomenclature as a or ) or a derivative
gain limit (which is the reciprocal of a). This value may be fixed
within the system or configurable by the engineer. It usually
makes impossible adapting a tuning method designed for the ideal
algorithm for use with the interactive form.
Rule 4. Apply Ziegler-Nichols tuning. Amazingly,
Ziegler-Nichols is still by far the most popularly taught tuning
method. It was developed 70 years ago.
4
Few appreciate that it
assumes the now rare interactive version of the PID algorithm.
Even fewer know that it was developed for load changes and so,
if applied to the normal proportional-on-error algorithm, will
result in far too an aggressive response to a change in SP. And,
even if these issues are resolved, its main objective is to deliver the
quarter decay ratio, where the height of the second PV overshoot
is one quarter of the height of the first. Few now accept that any
amount of second overshoot is the sign of a well-tuned control-
ler. The more cynical control engineer might think inclusion of
the method in papers and textbooks is to establish a benchmark
by which even a poorly performing alternative would look good.
Another commonly reproduced method is that developed
by Cohen-Coon.
5
It too uses the quarter decay ratio and was
developed using analog control almost certainly equivalent to the
interactive algorithm. If anything, its performance is somewhat
inferior to Ziegler-Nichols.
Rule 5. Ignore the MV. Effective controller tuning is often
a compromise between a fast return to SP and avoiding excessive
changes to the MV. Many tuning methods use a penalty func-
tion, such as the integral over time of absolute error (ITAE), as a
measure of control performance:

ITAE = E t . dt
0
Minimizing such functions results in the fastest possible return

to SP but, if the deadtime-to-lag ratio is small, this will result in
excessive adjustments to the MV. As the deadtime-to-lag ratio
approaches zero, such methods recommend a controller gain
approaching infinity. One such method is that developed by
Smith, Murrill and others.
6,7
Defining the MV overshoot as the
percentage by which the peak change in MV exceeds the neces-
sary steadystate change, we can supplement this type of tuning
criterion by minimizing the penalty function subject to a limit on
MV overshoot. Typically, a 15% limit results in what most would
accept as a well-tuned controller. However, the limit may be
increased if large changes in MV do no harm and similarly reduced
if the aim is to minimize MV movement. Indeed the latter, in the
case of surge vessel level control, is the overriding consideration,
and large deviations from level SP should be the norm.
One of the few published methods that permits the engineer
to specify the compromise between fast return to SP and MV
movement is internal model control (IMC) tuning. Several com-
panies have adopted this method as standard. However, it does
have a number of disadvantages. The method is derived using
direct synthesis, which develops a control algorithm that will
respond to an SP change according to a defined trajectory. This
is usually specified as an approach to SP with a user-specified lag
of . The resulting tuning equations vary greatly. For example, it
can be applied to both self-regulating and integrating processes,
using either the ideal or interactive algorithm. The synthesis
usually includes terms that are not part of the PID algorithm
and, so, some approximation is necessary or the terms simply
P
V
Time
SP
Proportional-on-error
Proportional-on-PV
Response to a load change. FIG. 2

I

75
ignored. Different developers reach different conclusions. But a
common example for the ideal PID algorithm applied to a self-
regulating process is:

K
c
=
1
K
p
+
2
+
T
i
= +
2
T
d
=

2 +
While the method permits the user to decide how aggressive the
control should be, the value of has to be determined by the trial-
and-error method. While some texts provide some guidance, there
is no predictable relationship between its value and MV overshoot.
Under a different set of process dynamics, the relationship changes.
It is possible to develop formulae for the best choice of . For
example, choosing a value given by 0.31 + 0.88 will give an MV
overshoot of 15%, but only for the proportional-on-error form of
the ideal controller applied to a self-regulating process. We would
need to develop such formulae not only for different controllers
and for integrating processes but also for different MV overshoot
limits. While perhaps possible, the most damning limitation of this
tuning method is that no one has yet published the formulae for
the preferred algorithmwhere both proportional and derivative
actions are based on PV rather than error.
Rule 6. Ignore the scan interval. The industry has now
begun replacing first generation DCSs with their more modern
counterparts. Engineers have been surprised to find in some cases
that this has apparently increased the level of measurement noise.
This can arise because of the faster scanning that may be available
in the new system. Fig. 3 shows how the total valve travel gener-
ated by a PID controller varies as scan interval changes. The curve
starts at a ts/ ratio of 1/120equivalent to a controller with a
scan interval of 1 second on a process with a lag of 2 minutes.
Defining the total valve travel under these conditions as 100%,
we can see that, for a PID controller, reducing the scan interval
from 2 seconds to 1 would increase valve travel by a factor of 4.
All DCS include the ability to filter a measurement and most
use the first order exponential type. The digital version of this
filter is often defined as:
Y
n
= PY
n1
+(1P)X
n
where
P =exp(ts /
f
)
Changing the scan interval of a controller in a system in which
the engineer defines P directly will result in a different filter lag.
Even the most modern of controller tuning methods still assumes
analog control. While this is of little concern when the scan inter-
val is small compared to the process dynamics, it can cause prob-
lems otherwise. For example, compressor-surge protection systems
are applied to a process where the deadtime is effectively close
to zero and the lag only a few seconds. Tuning such controllers
without taking account of scan interval will drastically affect
performance. It goes some way to explain why package vendors
(usually mistakenly) insist that compressor controls can only be
implemented in special purpose control systems that have a much
shorter scan interval.
Rule 7. Avoid using derivative action. Depending
on the textbook a control engineer might read, if the process
has a large deadtime, the derivative action is either beneficial or
becomes less effective. In fact, it offers an advantage on processes
with either little or a large deadtimedepending on the dis-
turbance source. Fig. 4 shows the impact on ITAE of removing
deadtime from a well-tuned controller, and retuning the PI con-
troller as well as possible. It shows that for SP changes, removing
derivative action causes controller performance to deteriorate
more on processes that have a larger deadtime-to-lag ratio. For
load changes, the opposite is true. But, for both cases, the effect
of removing it is always adverse, and, in any case, most controllers
have to deal with both disturbance types.
In practice, the derivative action is only used by a minority
of controllers. There are several reasons for this. First, it has a
reputation for causing problems if there is measurement noise.
Certainly, it will grossly amplify noise, but modern DCSs do
offer a wide range of filtering techniques that can readily reduce
noise to a point where derivative action is viable. Second, it adds
another tuning parameter. Adding derivative action requires the
proportional and integral tuning to be readjusted. Fig. 5 shows
that the addition of derivative action is beneficial because it per-
mits a larger controller gain. If the engineer has already spent
hours tuning a PI controller by the trial-and-error method, there
will be an understandable reluctance to abandon this tuning and
start afresh with a three-dimensional search.
Rule 8. Use filters to improve PV trending. Most con-
trol engineers use filters to make the PV trend look good. Gone
are the days when we have to concern ourselves with the amount
of ink used in drawing such trends. A better criterion is to exam-
ine the movement of the final actuator, usually a control valve.
This will depend not only on the amplitude of the measurement
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0 1 2 3 4
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

i
n

I
T
A
E
,

%

Load change
SP change
/
Impact in ITAE of removing derivative action. FIG. 4
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
M
)
,

%
ts/
PI
PID
Effect of scan interval on noise passed to an actuator. FIG. 3
76

I

noise but also on the controller tuning. If the impact on valve
movement is acceptable, then the filter serves no purpose and
will reduce the controllability of the process. Its presence means
that tuning has to be relaxed to maintain stability. Conversely, we
must remember that, if a filter is removed, then the benefit will
not be apparent until the controller is re-tuned to accommodate
the change in apparent process dynamics.
Filtering can be beneficial if it permits greater use of derivative
action. Since derivative action responds to the rate of change error,
the small fluctuations in signal occurring at a high frequency are
greatly amplified. Many DCSs now offer the facility to selectively
filter only the measurement passed to derivative action. This per-
mits derivative to be used without changing the dynamics seen by
the proportional and integral actions.
Rule 9. Tune by trial-and-error methods. Over 200
tuning methods have been published.
8
All of them have at least
one flaw. It is not surprising that control engineers have gen-
erally adopted the trial-and-error method as the main tuning
method. It requires no knowledge of the process dynamics and
little understanding of the control algorithm being applied. But
its main disadvantage is that it is extremely time-consuming. Trials
conducted on a simulated process with dynamics of a few minutes
showed that engineers would spend around 30 minutes finding
the best tuning. Quite a modest investment one might think until
one realizes that the simulation was running much faster than real
time and each test was exactly reproducible. On the equivalent real
process such an exercise would easily have filled a working week.
In practice, no engineer can commit this time to a single control-
ler and will stop trying to improve its performance once it is stable
and looks about right. The result is that the process operator will
likely be unimpressed by its performance during the next process
upset and will switch the controller to manual.
Developers of tuning methods have attempted to develop a set
of tuning formulae that can be applied to any situation. In reality,
such an approach is unlikely ever to be successful. There are two
fundamentally different processes: self-regulating and integrating.
There are two fundamentally different PID algorithms: ideal and
interactive. Some versions of the algorithm include a derivative
filter that cannot be changed by the user. Proportional action can
be based on error or PV, as can derivative action. These options
are not mutually exclusive; just considering those listed so far gives
32 possible combinations. If we add to this the requirement to
specify the aggressiveness of the control, allow for different scan
intervals and to take account of vendor-specific modifications to
the algorithm, then the number of sets of tuning formulae grows
to an impractical level.
Figs. 68 show comparisons between the commonly pub-
lished tuning methods and user-defined optimum tuning. For
the comparisons to be fair, the controller was assumed to be
analog and subject to a SP change. The results were obtained
by using a tuning constant optimizer freely available.
9
In this
case, the optimum tuning was specified as minimum ITAE sub-
ject to a 15% MV overshoot limit. So, unlike many methods,
the optimized controller gain does not approach infinity as /
approaches zero. The IMC method appears to estimate the con-
/
-0.5
-0.3
-0.1
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
0 1 2 3 4
l
o
g
1
0

(
K
p
K
c
)
PID
PI
Impact on Kp of inclusion of derivative action. FIG. 5
/
0.1
1.0
10.0
0 1 2 3 4
K
p
K
c
Optimized (P on E)
Optimized (P on PV)
= 0.31 + 0.88
Smith, Murrill et al.
Cohen Coon
Ziegler-Nichols
Determination of process gain. FIG. 6
0
1
2
3
T
i
/
/
0 1 2 3 4
Determination of integral time. FIG. 7
/
0 1 2 3 4
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
T
d
/
Determination of derivative time. FIG. 8

troller gain well, but only because the choice of has been opti-
mized for this particular case. Note: The method developed by
Smith, Murrill and others is only applicable to values of / less
than 1. Outside of this range, it can generate negative tuning con-
stants. But, most importantly, optimization permits tuning to be
derived also for the preferred proportional-on-PV algorithm. The
much higher gains derived for this controller will substantially
reduce the impact of process disturbances.
Rule 10. Dont train engineers in basic control. The
most effective way of reducing process profitability is to ensure
that the control engineers are kept completely unaware of what
can be achieved by minor changes to PID control. Those that have
studied control theory at university will have been subjected to
daunting mathematics, much of which is irrelevant to the process
industry. Almost certainly little will have been covered on the
alternative forms of the PID algorithm, let alone which one to
use and how to properly tune it.
While it is common practice to send staff on vendor sup-
plied courses in DCS programming and multivariable predictive
control (MPC), it is rare to consider also training in basic con-
trol techniques. Industry seems to expect engineers to somehow
acquire this expertise without outside assistance. This ensures that
the techniques described above, many of which have been avail-
able for over 30 years, are still not properly appreciated and that
plants continue to operate away from maximum profitability. HP
NOMENCLATURE
Complete nomenclature available online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
LITERATURE CITED
1
King, M. J., How to lose money with advanced controls, Hydrocarbon
Processing, June 1992, pp. 4750.
2
King, M. J., How to lose money with basic controls, Hydrocarbon Processing,
October 2003, pp. 5154.
3
King, M. J., How to lose money with inferential properties, Hydrocarbon
Processing, October 2004, pp 4752.
4
Ziegler, J. G. and N. B. Nichol, Optimum settings for automatic control-
lers, Transactions of the ASME, 64, pp. 759768, 1942.
5
Cohen, G. H. and G. A. Coon, Theoretical considerations of retarded con-
trol, Transactions of the ASME, 75, pp. 827834, 1953.
6
Smith, C. L., Digital Computer Process Control, Intext Educational Publishers,
p. 147, 1972.
7
Lopez, A. M., J. A. Miller, C. L. Smith and P. W. Murrill, Tuning control-
lers with error-integral criteria, Instrumentation Technology, 14, pp. 5762,
1967.
8
ODwyer, A., A summary of PI and PID controller tuning rules for processes
with time delay, IFAC Digital Control: Past, Present and Future of PID Control,
Terrassa, Spain, 2000.
9
http://www.whitehouse-consulting.com/tune.htm.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
King, M., Process Control: A Practical Approach, published by Wiley, ISBN 978-
0-470-97587-9.
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Myke King is the author of Process Control: A Practical
Approach. He is the director of Whitehouse Consulting. Previ-
ously, he was a founding member of KBC Process Automation,
and prior to that he was employed by Exxon. He is responsible for
consultancy services assisting clients with improvements to basic
controls and with the development and execution of advanced control projects. He
has 35 years of experience in such projects, working with many of the worlds leading
oil and petrochemical companies. Mr. King holds an MS degree in chemical engineer-
ing from Cambridge University and is a Fellow of the Institute of Chemical Engineers.
Select 164 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS Select 161 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
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PROCESS ENGINEERING

I

79
I
f the analyzer in your analytical system requires gas but your
sample is liquid, the only option is to convert the liquid to gas.
This process is called vaporization or flash vaporization. The
objective is to convert a sample of all liquid to all vapor instantly,
without changing the composition.
It is not easy to vaporize a sample, nor is it always possible, so
make sure it is really necessary and possible before you try. You
should always analyze a liquid in a liquid phase unless there are
strong reasons for analyzing in a vapor phase.
If you proceed with vaporization, it is important to under-
stand the difference between evaporation and vaporization.
Evaporation occurs gradually with an increase in temperature.
Vaporization occurs instantly with a drop in pressure. Its not
possible to vaporize a sample by increasing temperature. Heat
causes evaporation, and adding more heat simply makes evapora-
tion happen faster.
In a mixed sample, evaporation will allow some compounds to
evaporate before others, resulting in fractionation. Vaporization,
done properly, ensures that all of the compounds vaporize at the
same time, preserving the samples composition.
However, it is possible for things to go wrong when vapor-
izing. Instead of flashing the whole sample into a vapor, you
could unintentionally cause a combination of vaporization and
evaporation. The result would be fractionation. Once a sample
of mixed compounds fractionates, it is no longer suitable for
analysis. With fractionation, a common scenario is for lighter
molecules to evaporate first and travel on toward the analyzer,
while the heavier molecules remain behind in the liquid phase.
Even if at some later point in the process a fractionated sample
appears to be all gas, the mixture will not be of the same molecu-
lar proportions as it was before fractionation. It will no longer
accurately represent the product taken from the process line.
Lets take a closer look at the process of vaporization and how
we can manipulate the variables (temperature, pressure and flow)
to ensure proper vaporization and an accurate analytical result.
Understanding vaporization. To vaporize a sample, one
typically uses a vaporizing regulator, also called a vaporizer, which
is a pressure-reducing regulator with the capacity to transfer heat
to the sample at just the right location.
Vaporization consists of a three-stage process (Fig. 1). First, the
sample enters the vaporizer as a liquid. At this point, the liquid
should not be bubbling or boiling.
Second, the liquid passes through the regulating orifice in the
vaporizer, resulting in a severe and sudden pressure drop, which
vaporizes the liquid. At the same time, heat is applied, which
enables the vaporized liquid to remain a vapor.
Third, the sample, now a gas, exits the vaporizer and travels to
the analyzer to be read. Due to the immediate transition to the
vapor phase, the composition of the gas is unchanged from that
of the liquid, ensuring an accurate reading.
In this delicate process, there are many variables or inputs that
determine success or failure. For the purpose of this discussion,
lets say there are two main sets of inputs.
The first set of inputs concerns the composition of the sample.
Depending on the composition of the sample, it will begin to
bubble and finish vaporizing at different pressures and tempera-
tures. We will need to know what these pressures and temperatures
are to successfully manage the process.
The second set of inputs concerns settings that you control in
your sampling system: pressure, temperature and flow. Pressure
and temperature are controlled at the vaporizer, while flow is
controlled downstream at a rotameter (variable area flowmeter)
and needle valve. We set these inputs based on what we know
about the first set of inputs. Proper vaporization requires a delicate
balance of all inputs.
Even when approaching vaporization in a systematic manner
like this, the process does require some trial and error, so we will
also talk about how to diagnose and address problems.
How to manage vaporization
in an analytical system
When done properly, this process ensures that all compounds
vaporize at the same time, preserving the samples composition
D. NORDSTROM and T. WATERS, Swagelok, Cleveland, Ohio
3) Vapor at low
pressure
1) Liquid at high
pressure
2) Sudden
pressure drop
Vaporizer outlet
temperature is
above vapor
dewpoint
Vaporizer inlet
temperature is
below liquid
bubblepoint
Drawing showing the three-stage vaporization process. FIG. 1
PROCESS ENGINEERING
80

I

Understanding your sample. The best way to understand
the first set of inputs is with a phase diagram. A phase diagram
plots pressure and temperature, showing at any pair of conditions
whether a substance will be vapor, liquid or solid. The lines indi-
cate the interfaces between two phases.
Phase diagrams for most pure gases are available on the Internet
(one example is encyclopedia.airliquide.com). But diagrams for gas
mixtures are very difficult to create without commercial software.
Fig. 2 represents a phase diagram for 20% hexane in pentane.
When the sample is above the bubblepoint (blue line), its all liq-
uid. We want the sample to be all liquid when it enters the vapor-
izer. When the mixture is below the dewpoint (gold line), its all
vapor. The sample must be all vapor when it leaves the vaporizer.
Between the bubblepoint and dewpoint lines is what we call the
no-go zone. This zone is the boiling range of the sample. Here, the
mixture is in two phases, part liquid and part vapor. Once a sample
falls into the no-go zone, it is fractionated and no longer suitable
for analysis. The objective in vaporization is to set the temperature,
flow and pressure so that the sample skips instantly from the liquid
side of the no-go zone to the vapor side of the no-go zone.
With pure and nearly pure samples, there is little to no boiling
range or no-go zone. The bubblepoint and dewpoint lines are
on top of each other or nearly so. Indeed, pure and nearly pure
samples will convert to vapor of the same composition, whether
through evaporation or vaporization. Some industrial samples
approach this level of purity and convert easily.
On the other hand, some samples have such a wide boiling range
or no-go zone that they cannot be successfully vaporized. There is no
way to skip from the liquid side of the no-go zone to the vapor side
of the no-go zone. We are unable to manipulate the variables (tem-
perature, flow and pressure) in such a way as to avoid fractionation.
Most samples fall between these two extremes. For example,
in Fig. 2, the band between bubblepoint and dewpoint is narrow
enough that, with the proper settings, we can enable the sample to
effectively skip from the liquid side of the no-go zone to the vapor
side. At the same time, the band in Fig. 2 is wide enough that we
cannot afford to be careless. Indeed, we will need to be skillful in
our manipulation of the variables or we will end up with a sample
in the no-go zone.
Setting temperature, pressure and flow. Lets continue
to work with the sample in Fig. 2 (20% hexane in pentane) and
see how we can set our inputs to ensure successful vaporization.
In general, at the inlet, we want high pressure and low tem-
perature. At the outlet, we want high temperature and low pres-
sure. But there are limits as to how high and low these parameters
can be, and not all of them are under our control completely.
Vaporization is basically a balancing act between the variables.
Here is a four-step process for setting your inputs:
1. Determine the inlet pressure at your vaporizer. This pres-
sure, which is fixed, is your process pressure, provided your vapor-
izer is located close to your sample tap. In Fig. 2, that pressure is
4 bar. Higher pressure is better because it allows you to keep the
vaporizer temperature higher without boiling the incoming liquid.
2. Set your inlet temperature, or the temperature of your
vaporizer. There are two objectives. First, the temperature must
be low enough that, when the sample enters the vaporizer, it is
entirely a liquid and isnt bubbling. In Fig. 2, the bubblepoint at
4 bar is 88C, but we want to build in a cushion, so lets choose
80C, a round number far enough away from 88C to be safe. The
second objective is that the temperature must be high enough to
contribute to the complete flashing of the sample, ensuring that
only vapor leaves the vaporizer. When you vaporize the sample,
the temperature drops, in accordance with the laws of energy
conservation. The sample temperature must be high enough at the
outset so that after the pressure drop, the sample is not in the boil-
ing range or no-go zone. In Fig. 2, the vapor temperature after the
pressure drop is 60C, just on the vapor side of the dewpoint line.
3. Set the outlet pressure at the vaporizer. Your objective is
to drop the pressure below the gold dewpoint line. In Fig. 2, the
outlet pressure is set to 1.5 bar. If the outlet pressure were any
higher in this example, the sample would not vaporize entirely. It
would fractionate.
4. Set your flow. Flow is set downstream at a valve and rotame-
ter, not at the vaporizer. In a sampling system, high vapor flow is
Watching out for time delay
Time delay is another problem in vaporizing samples. It
can be an issue on both the liquid and vapor side of the vapor-
izer. On the liquid side, the difficulty is caused by the samples
degree of expansion when it is vaporized. A small amount of
liquid creates a large amount of vapor.
Its easy for liquid on the upstream side of the vaporizer to
be held up awhile before it is vaporized.
If your vaporizer is located near the tap, the best solution is
to install a bypass on the liquid side of the vaporizer, so the sam-
ple being vaporized is always fresh. In addition, try to minimize
the volume of the probe and tubing preceding the vaporizer.
To address time delay on the vapor side, you may want to
increase flow. This may not be the best option. Many samples
require low vapor flow rate for proper vaporization. High flow,
in combination with insufficient heat at the vaporizer, could
result in fractionation, with liquid passing downstream. Such
a scenario would ruin the sample for analysis, evident by frost
on the tubes downstream of the vaporizer.
A better way to reduce time delay on the vapor side is to
minimize volume. For example, move the vaporizer closer to
the analyzer and/or build a fast loop on the liquid side. HP
Bubble point
Dew point
Temp. drop
at vaporization
Vaporizer body temp. 20% hexane in pentane
Liquid @ 4 bar
Vapor @ 1.5 bar
Vaporizer core temp.
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

b
a
r
Temperature, C
Vapor reheat
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Vapor Liquid
T
w
o
-
p
h
a
s
e

(
n
o
-
g
o

z
o
n
e
)
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Phase diagram showing 20% hexane in pentane, with
temperature settings.
FIG. 2
PROCESS ENGINEERING
desirable because it moves the sample to the analyzer faster. How-
ever, high flow can be problematic, too, because with high flow,
more heat is required to vaporize the sample. In other words, high
flow results in a greater drop in temperature at the time of vapor-
ization. In Fig. 2, the purple line illustrates the temperature drop.
As flow increases, the purple line angles more sharply to the left.
Another variable influencing the temperature drop is the heat
transfer capability of the vaporizer. Some vaporizers are constructed
in such a way that heat transfers more efficiently to the sample.
When the liquid sample converts to a vapor and its temperature
drops, it draws heat from the stainless steel surrounding it. The
critical question is how efficiently can the vaporizer replace that
heat and keep it flowing to the sample. The more heat the sample
can draw, the less its temperature drops during vaporization.
In some instances, it is possible for the vaporizer to be hot to
the touch on the outside but cold at the core inside. Thats because
the vaporized sample is drawing lots of heat and the vaporizer
cannot transfer enough heat to keep up. The best solution is to
reduce the flow.
In sum, the angle of the purple line in Fig. 2 is a product of the
flow rate and the heat transfer capability of the vaporizer. With a
good vaporizer and low flow, the line will become more vertical.
Unfortunately, there is no easy way to calculate the location of
the purple line, and it is not generated by any known software
program. As a result, vaporization involves some approximation.
As a rule of thumb, keep the flow rate as low as possible without
causing an unacceptable delay in the samples travel time to the
analyzer. Its better to start with a low flow rate and experiment
with increasing it than to start with a higher flow rate.
Troubleshooting. Phase diagrams will enable you to approxi-
mate temperature, pressure, and flow settings, but some trouble-
shooting will still be required. One sure indication of a problem
is poor repeatability in analyzer results.
There are two possibilities when the sample is fractionating
instead of vaporizing, with Problem #1 being the more common:
Problem #1. Only part of the sample is being vaporized. Liq-
uid is passing through the vaporizer and sitting in the tubing on
the downstream side. Eventually, it evaporates. When it does,
it draws heat from the surrounding tubing, making the tubing
cold to the touch or causing frost or ice to form. Signs of the
problem: Vaporizer outlet and downstream tubing is cold to the
touch or has frost or ice on it. Note: In many cases, liquid on the
downstream side of the vaporizer may pass beyond the area of the
vaporizer and into other components, such as flowmeters and
filters, where it can cause considerable damage.
Problem #1 solution. In the previously discussed approach,
your best option would be to reduce the flow rate. Another option
would be to lower the vaporizer outlet pressure, if that is possible.
A third option would be to increase the heat to the vaporizer, but
in this case you risk causing Problem #2.
Problem #2. The sample is boiling at the inlet to the vapor-
izer. It is fractionating before it can be vaporized. Lighter mol-
ecules evaporate and create a vapor wall, which pushes the
liquid back into the process. A portion of that vapor wall then
cools and condenses. Finally, the liquid sample moves again
toward the vaporizer, where the lighter molecules evaporate,
starting the cycle all over again. Meanwhile, the heavier molecules
move on toward the analyzer for an inaccurate reading. Signs of
the problem: The inlet tube to the vaporizer twitches, sometimes
violently, and the measurement values oscillate.
Problem #2 solution. Lower the vaporizer temperature.
Know your variables. Vaporizing a liquid sample is chal-
lenging. In many sampling systems around the world, vaporizers
are fractionating samples and sending unrepresentative samples
to the analyzer every minute of every day. You can dramatically
increase your chances of success by researching a phase diagram of
your systems particular mixture of compounds. You can further
increase your chances of success by understanding what is occur-
ring in the process; specifically, by knowing what the variables are
(temperature, pressure and flow) and their role in influencing the
process outcome. With this framework in place, you can come
very close to the right settings, making adjustments in accordance
with the signs and symptoms you observe. HP
Doug Nordstrom is market manager for analytical instrumentation for
Swagelok, and he focuses his efforts on advancing the companys involvement in
sample handling systems. He previously worked in new product development for
Swagelok and earned a number of Swagelok patents for products. Mr. Nordstrom
graduated with a BS degree in mechanical engineering from Case Western Reserve
University and earned a masters degree in business administration from Kent
State University.
Tony Waters has 45 years of experience with process analyzers and their sampling
systems. He has worked in engineering and marketing roles for an analyzer manufac-
turer, an end-user and a systems integrator. He founded three companies to provide
specialized analyzer services to the process industries and is an expert in the applica-
tion of process analyzers in refineries and chemical plants. Mr. Waters is particularly
well known for process analyzer training courses that he has presented in many of the
countries of Asia, Europe and the Middle East, as well as North and South America.
His presentations have equal appeal to engineers and maintenance technicians.
Shop Online at www.GulfPub.com
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I

83
T
he replacement of pressure vessels is a common function
in an operating refinery, particularly those units that have
been in operation for the full design life of the vessel. From
the clients perspective, a vessel may have operated successfully
for many years beyond the original design life with no issue. Its
replacement should be easily accomplished given the relative
success of the original design. In the real world, the replacement
of existing refinery vessels in a brownfield environment is sel-
dom replacement in kind. Some minor, yet important, activities
should be addressed to ensure project success.
In the presented example, work processes used to replace a
hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S) absorber as part of a refinery crude unit
that was originally identified as replacement in kind will be dis-
cussed. In addition to working to a documented work process,
there are many areas where the various design engineers must
think outside of the established work practices to ensure the
timely, safe and effective installation of new vessels. This article
is not meant to replace existing work processes; it will identify
unclear areas that exist when replacing equipment in an existing
operating unit.
The project. This example involves the replacement of an H
2
S
absorber tower. This tower is commonly found in refinery crude
units. In this particular crude unit, the removal of H
2
S is done by
a vertical tower with three integral vessels consisting of two drums
and a packed section.
The purpose of the tower is to remove H
2
S, and it is necessary
to minimize sulfur dioxide (SO
2
) emissions from an adjacent
atmospheric furnace where the treated offgas is burned. As the
atmospheric furnace and adjacent atmospheric column operate
at very low pressures, the pressure drop through the H
2
S absorber
must be minimal to avoid excessive backpressure on an adjacent
vacuum-seal drum.
H
2
S removal. To do these three activities, the vessel is separated
into three major components. The bottom drum contains hydro-
carbons, H
2
S solution and diethylolamine (DEA). The drum
removes the hydrocarbons from the H
2
S, and the DEA assists with
this process. The rich-H
2
S stream is sent from the bottom drum
up into an H
2
S absorber section that is filled with random pack-
ing. Treated offgas is sent into the top drum where the untreated
DEA is sent back to the absorber section and the gas is forwarded
to the adjacent furnace.
As the vessel operates in an H
2
S and rich-DEA environment,
the refinery performs regular inspections as part of a risk-based
inspection (RBI) program as outlined by industry standard prac-
tices, refinery specific practices and guidelines established by the
American Petroleum Institute. Following an automated ultrasonic
testing (AUT) and manual ultrasonic testing (MUT) inspection
of the bottom drum, it was found that stress- oriented-hydrogen-
induced cracking (SOHIC), resulting in step-wise cracking, and
blister formation was present in the drum with concentrations
higher in the lower drum region (Fig. 1). Fitness for service cal-
culations resulted in the recommendation to replace the vessel,
thus preventing a potential unplanned production interruption.
Original vessel. The original vessel was built in 1974 to
ASME Section VIII, Division 1, 1971 Ed. The vessel was speci-
fied with a joint efficiency of 0.85 (Spot RT) and the material of
construction was SA-285 Grade C. Although vessel materials were
Case history: Replacement of
existing pressure vessel
Installing new equipment involves more processes
to ensure safety and to meet new codes
D. FEARN and J. MCKAY, Fluor Canada Ltd, St. John, New Brunswick, Canada
Stress-oriented hydrogen-induced cracking of the H
2
S
absorber column.
FIG. 1
84

I

not post-weld heat treated (PWHT), weld hardness was limited to
200 HB. The bottom drum is 4 ft in diameter and 40 ft in height
(including the 14-ft skirt). The top drum and packed section is
70 ft long and 2 ft in diameter.
The H
2
S absorber internals consisted of four hold-down plates
and 120 ft
3
of random packing. To distribute solution to the
H
2
S absorber, tangential nozzles were used on the inlet nozzles
where the solution would collect on the spray header that is then
gravity-fed down through the packing. To limit direct contact
(and subsequent erosion) of DEA and H
2
S on carbon steel, the
tangential nozzles directed flow toward a 304 stainless steel (SS)
clad plate that was welded to the vessel internal diameter.
Theoretical design considerations and scope. Ini-
tially, the project requirement was the replacement in kind of the
vessel; other equipment directly attached or adjacent to the vessel
would also need to be examined. For example, the piping system
that also processes rich DEA and H
2
S was potentially at risk for
associated metallurgical damage mechanisms. The foundation
and corresponding anchor bolts needed to be reviewed to deter-
mine if they were acceptable for continued service for the esti-
mated design life of the replacement vessel. Electrical and control
systems were also reviewed to determine if existing systems are
code compliant and adhere to current refinery practices. While
other disciplines face challenges similar to the vessel designer, this
article will focus solely on the vessel replacement. However, noted
items are considered inter-discipline related.
For the vessel designer, the scope to replace a vessel includes
far more than the replacement in kind of an existing asset and
ensuring that the new asset will meet the latest codes. The designer
must engage operations to ensure that manway size and location,
ladder and platform access, packing access, etc., are acceptable to
the current and future needs. Some needs may not be identified
until the piping, electrical and controls designers also do their
respective design activities.
As the request from the client was to replace the vessel in kind,
the existing vessel was modeled into an available simulation model
to determine if revisions to ASME Section VIII between 1971 and
2008 would result in an overall design change to the new vessel.
For this vessel, particular attention was paid to the internal head
design for the bottom/top drum assemblies, as well as the transi-
tion (48 in. to 24 in.) between the bottom drum and random
packing section. Where the new vessel was to be constructed of
SA-516-70N, the greater allowable stress compared to the original
SA-283 offsets any code changes that would otherwise increase
the overall thickness and potentially impact the total dimensions.
An important activity of the vessel designer is to visually verify
and place hands on every item of the vessel and to check its accu-
racy against the original design drawings. This includes additional
vessel penetrations, platform loads or equipment that was not part
of the original design. Depending on the level of documentation
control within the existing facility, it is possible that the original
drawings do not exist or are of such poor quality that new draw-
ings must be drafted.
Whereas construction is not typically engaged until further in
the fabrication process, brownfield development should include
design considerations recommended by the construction team
and lift contractor. Items addressed include the timing of internals
installation, adding lift lugs or relocating platform clip locations
to facilitate installation where space is limited.
The output from this process should include a defined and
inter-discipline reviewed datasheet and general arrangement
drawing (as-built or new) that will be issued to the vessel fabrica-
tor. This allows all disciplines to review potential interferences
between nozzles, clips, guides, supports, girth flanges, etc.
Actual design conditions and scope development.
The original project scope basis was for a replacement in kind
vessel. However, during project development, many changes
were made. To identify the changes required for this vessel, each
discipline input was identified separately.
Mechanical related changes. Given the presence of H
2
S and
SOHIC, the base materials were upgraded to SA-516-70N HIC
resistant carbon steel and included for PWHT in accordance with
the recommendations of NACE MR0175. The radiographic test-
ing (RT) was increased to full 100% RT while maintaining the
200 HB harness limit.
To prevent solution entrapment between the original internal
shell, it was decided to use 304L weld overlay on top of 309L. Mini-
mum weld overlay thickness was specified to ensure adequate thick-
ness for long-term protection. Additional NDE was specified for
the overlay, such as LPI, UT (for disbondment) and ferrite testing.
This vessel is tall relative to the base diameter, and, without sup-
plementary support, it requires additional material on the base ring,
anchor bolts and girth flanges to resist buckling due to the wind and
seismic overturning moment. The original vessel design included
Trail-fit ladders and platforms manufactured by the vessel
fabricator.
FIG. 3
Guide locations from the adjacent atmospheric column. FIG. 2

I

85
guides, as shown in Fig. 2, at three upper elevations whereby the
adjacent column provided support. The inclusion of the guides
permitted the redistribution of wind load (overturning moment on
the vessel base) and the acceptance of the existing anchor bolts and
vessel thickness.
Per requirements by the client and construction team, hand
holes were installed to facilitate inspection, removal and installa-
tion of the random packing. Lift trunions were also installed on
the base of the packed section to facilitate installation. Several
new pipe guides and supports were also installed on the vessel to
remove loads from platforms.
Following a review of the loads placed on the ladders and plat-
forms, in addition to occupational health and safety changes since
original construction, the ladders and platforms were redesigned.
Electrical related changes. As the refinery specifications have
changed over the years, the requirement was made to include for
cable tray clips on the vessel to facilitate electrical cable installation
and pre-dressing prior to lift.
Vessel fabrication. For this particular project, the vessel fab-
ricator was provided with the original as-built vessel drawing and
revised datasheets. The fabricator was required to produce new
drawings incorporating all of the changes. For the vessel designer,
this requires attention to detail to ensure that while overall dimen-
sions are consistent with the original design, all changes have been
incorporated into the new design.
To help facilitate quality concerns between the fabricator and
client, a third-party inspector was enlisted throughout the fabrica-
tion process. The scope of the third-party inspector was to ensure
the agreed to inspection and test plan was being adhered to, as
well as to be a client representative for any hold points during the
fabrication or final assembly and test process.
As new platforms were specified for the replacement vessel, it
was decided that a shop-trial fit test should be done. This ensured
that the platforms would fit during installation and prevented
costly rework onsite that might, otherwise, have to be performed
within the turnaround window.
Demolition and installation of vessel. Depending on
the time available, space considerations and resource availability,
the construction team may choose to pre-install as many vessel
related components as possible to reduce construction costs and
to prevent doing work within an operating unit. This may include
pre-dressing fireproofing, process pipes, heat tracing, insulation,
valves, platforms, internals, instrumentation and cable trays.
Where this vessel was being removed and installed in an operating
environment, these processes were followed:
Lift contractor reviewed available space and determined
maximum allowable lift capacity (Fig. 4).
Construction determined the recommended extent of pre-
dressing.
Mechanical engineering determined the total weight and
center of gravity for the vessel, complete with all pre-dressed com-
ponents. Depending on the amount of materials pre-installed, and
the level of certainty of equipment/weight estimates, a lift factor
was incorporated into the overall maximum lift weight. A factor
of 10%30% is not uncommon to include for errors in drawings,
fabrication tolerances, etc. This weight becomes very important as
space availability may limit the crane type and capacity. Improper
weight estimates to the lift contractor may result in too small (or
too large) of a crane.
The lift contractor verified the weight prior to the demoli-
tion/installation to confirm that crane capacity would not be
exceeded.
Elevations, offsets and grouting of baseplate. Dur-
ing the design and construction process, the elevation of the
foundation and underside of the vessel base ring was surveyed.
This ensured that the vessel would rest at a similar elevation to
the original asset.
With the original vessel removed, the foundation was prepared
to accept the new vessel and associated grout. Once the vessel was
installed, a survey was completed at the underside of the base ring at
the shim locations as well as all girth flanges on the vessel. This served
as a check to ensure there was no wobble in the vessel sections.
Once the vessel had achieved proper alignment, the vessel was
grouted to the foundation with the remaining components (lad-
ders, internals) installed that could not be pre-dressed. HP
CAD drawing for the lift contractor to confirm lift plan
relative to available working space and local obstructions.
FIG. 4
Engineered lift lug and space limitations with pre-installed
platform and adjacent column.
FIG. 5
Dan Fearn, P.Eng., is a design engineer with Fluor Canada Ltd. He holds a BS
degree in mechanical engineering and is a registered Professional Engineer. Mr. Fearn
has more than 10 years in mechanical engineering; his expertise lies in the in the speci-
fication and selection of mechanical equipment and in the development and imple-
mentation of maintenance programs with a focus on site support and installation.
Jeff McKay, P.Eng., is a senior design engineer with Fluor Canada Ltd. He holds
a BS degree in mechanical engineering and is a registered Professional Engineer. Mr.
McKay has 14 years of experience with Fluor Canada Ltd., and, at present, is the lead
mechanical engineer at a client jobsite.
86

I

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TONY SOFRONAS, CONSULTING ENGINEER
ENGINEERING CASE HISTORIES
Editorial@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
The design of fiberglass and polymer tanks had many prob-
lems in the 1980s. Most of these problems were resolved with
experience, new materials and manufacturing techniques, along
with new national construction standards. Such tanks are now
considered quite reliable.
Problems. However, operating problems do continue to pop up
with fiberglass tanks, as was the case when the following analysis
was done. In this application, a prototype fiberglass tank was
designed to mix caustics in a small pilot plant. The mixer was
mounted on a separate structure and was not in contact with the
tank. This tank vibrated at a low frequency and developed stress
cracks within the vicinity of the mixer blades at the baffles.
The presented model was constructed to help explain the
causes for the stress cracks and to identify possible modifications.
This simple analysis answered many questions.
Fig. 1 is a view looking down into the tank, with the impeller
and baffles shown. Also shown is an imagined water slab captured
by one sector of the impeller. The impeller was near the floor of
the tank; so, the flow was mostly tangentially outward, as shown
in Fig. 1 and replenished from the impeller top.
The water is considered to be a slab the thickness of the blade
width, h, and a sector of the circle, D
imp
. The mixer is rotating at a
given rpm with a tip velocity of V. There is a velocity profile, but,
for simplicity, the slab is assumed to move at a tip speed, V. The
trajectory of the slab is shown by the dashed arrow and impacts
the tank wall with a force F
avg
(Fig. 1). This occurs because the
water must be displaced. Since it does not go down or up within
the tank, it is assumed to travel tangentially, where it contacts the
wall and baffle and then swirls up.
Tank model. The analysis to determine F
avg
will assume that
the weight of the water slab with h, the blade width, n, the num-
ber of blades; and , the fluid density, is:
W = 0.785 D
imp
2
h (1/n) lb
where: m = W / 386 lb-sec
2
/in.
The tip velocity is:
V = D
imp
rpm/60 in./sec
The time for the slab to deform and decelerate when it hits
the wall is assumed to be the time for the rotor to make 1/n turn.
Result: The slab has exited and is filled again:
t = ( D
imp
/V ) (1/n) sec
F
avg
= m a = W V / (386 t ) lb.
For this case the fluid is water
= 0.036 lb/in.
3
D
imp
= 84 in.
h = 4 in.
rpm = 45
n = 4.
The results is F
avg
= 307 lb, and it is a cyclic force on the
wall at a baffle of 180 vpm, since there are four blades passing
a baffle at 45 rpm. Some portion of this load impacts the baffle
that may have been responsible for the flexing, cracking and
vibration issues.
Because this was a pilot plant, it was only to operate for
three years. The mixer speed was lowered to 30 rpm with a gear
change, which reduced the force to 136 lb and had no adverse
affect on the mixing. It did, however, eliminate much of the
flexing. This allowed continued operation until the unit was
retired from service.
Even with this rather simplistic model, the internal loads
causing the vibration and flexing were better understood. Some-
times. this is all that is required from an analytical model. The
conclusions and recommendations were clear and were presented
to management in a quantitative form, which is always better
than speculation. HP
The author, PE, was the worldwide lead mechanical engineer for ExxonMobil
before his retirement. Information on his books, seminars and consulting, as well
as comments to this article, are available at http://mechanicalengineeringhelp.com.
Case 66: Fiberglass mixing tank flexing vibration
Rpm
D
imp
Tank wall
Impeller
Water
slab
V
Bafes
F
avg
Mixer and tank model. FIG. 1
90

I

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Unconventional Feedstocks and Heavy Oil Conversions
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