NAME : YATIN VERMA ROLL NO : A33 SECTION : K2R15 TERM PAPER TOPIC :: ROLE OF DATA STRUCTURE IN

THE DESIGN OF THE COMPILER

CONTENTS : 1. Acknowledgment. 2 . INTRODUCTION .

3.HISTORY

2 Compilation o 2.1 Structure of a compiler 3 Compiler output o 3.1 Compiled versus interpreted languages o 3.2 Hardware compilation 4 Compiler construction o 4.1 One-pass versus multi-pass compilers o 4.2 Front end o 4.3 Back end 5 Compiler correctness 6 Related techniques 7 International conferences and organizations

8 See also 9 Notes 10 References

. FUTURE USE .reference link.

Acknowledgment
Firstly I say to thanks of my subject teacher and education management, because they think able me of this golden opportunity to prepare of term paper.M y t e r m p a p e r t o p i c i s Ro l e o f d a t a Structure in Compiler Design. This topic isrelated on my sub Data Structure; this topic helpI know how can compile the softwares. This topicis clear my more concept.I wish to express to my gratitude to all thep e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n t h e w r i t i n g o f t h i s p r o j e c t , s p e c i a l l y A ma n d e e p K a u r ma m wh o wa s ve r y g e n e r o u s i n s h a r i n g t h e i r t i m e a n d k n o w l e d g e w i t h m e . I t h a n k t o m y s o m e o t h e r t e a c h e r a n d friends who give help and support me.

INTRODUCTION :
A compiler is a computer program (or set of programs) that transforms source code written in a programming language (the source language) into another computer language (the target language, often having a binary form known as object code). The

most common reason for wanting to transform source code is to create an executable program. The name "compiler" is primarily used for programs that translate source code from a high-level programming language to a lower level language (e.g., assembly language or machine code). If the compiled program can run on a computer whose CPU or operating system is different from the one on which the compiler runs, the compiler is known as a cross-compiler. A program that translates from a low level language to a higher level one is adecompiler. A program that translates between high-level languages is usually called a language translator, source to source translator, or language converter. A language rewriter is usually a program that translates the form of expressions without a change of language. A compiler is likely to perform many or all of the following operations: lexical analysis, preprocessing, parsing, semantic analysis (Syntax-directed translation), code generation, and code optimization. Program faults caused by incorrect compiler behavior can be very difficult to track down and work around; therefore, compiler implementors invest a lot of time ensuring the correctness of their software. The term compiler-compiler is sometimes used to refer to a parser generator, a tool often used to help create the lexer and parser.

HISTORY :
Software for early computers was primarily written in assembly language for many years. Higher level programming languages were not invented until the benefits of being able to reuse software on different kinds of CPUs started to become significantly greater than the cost of writing a compiler. The very limited memory capacity of early computers also created many technical problems when implementing a compiler. Towards the end of the 1950s, machine-independent programming languages were first proposed. Subsequently, several experimental compilers were developed. The first compiler was written by Grace Hopper, in 1952, for the A-0 programming language. The FORTRAN team led by John Backus at IBM is generally credited as having introduced the first complete compiler in 1957. COBOL was an early language to be compiled on multiple architectures, in 1960.[1]

In many application domains the idea of using a higher level language quickly caught on. Because of the expanding functionality supported by newer programming languages and the increasing complexity of computer architectures, compilers have become more and more complex. Early compilers were written in assembly language. The first self-hosting compiler capable of compiling its own source code in a high-level language was created for Lisp by Tim Hart and Mike Levin at MIT in 1962.[2] Since the 1970s it has become common practice to implement a compiler in the language it compiles, although both Pascal and C have been popular choices for implementation language. Building a self-hosting compiler is a bootstrapping problemthe first such compiler for a language must be compiled either by hand or by a compiler written in a different language, or (as in Hart and Levin's Lisp compiler) compiled by running the compiler in an interpreter.

Structure of a compiler
Compilers bridge source programs in high-level languages with the underlying hardware. A compiler requires 1) determining the correctness of the syntax of programs, 2) generating correct and efficient object code, 3) run-time organization, and 4) formatting output according to assembler and/or linker conventions. A compiler consists of three main parts: the frontend, the middle-end, and the backend. The front end checks whether the program is correctly written in terms of the programming language syntax and semantics. Here legal and illegal programs are recognized. Errors are reported, if any, in a useful way. Typechecking is also performed by collecting type information. The frontend then generates an intermediate representation or IR of the source code for processing by the middle-end. The middle end is where optimization takes place. Typical transformations for optimization are removal of useless or unreachable code, discovery and propagation of constant values, relocation of computation to a less frequently executed place (e.g., out of a loop), or specialization of computation based on the context. The middle-end generates another IR for the following backend. Most optimization efforts are focused on this part. The back end is responsible for translating the IR from the middle-end into assembly code. The target instruction(s) are chosen for each IR instruction. Register allocation assigns processor registers for the program

variables where possible. The backend utilizes the hardware by figuring out how to keep parallel execution units busy, filling delay slots, and so on. Although most algorithms for optimization are in NP, heuristic techniques are well-developed.

Compiler output
One classification of compilers is by the platform on which their generated code executes. This is known as the target platform. A native or hosted compiler is one which output is intended to directly run on the same type of computer and operating system that the compiler itself runs on. The output of a cross compiler is designed to run on a different platform. Cross compilers are often used when developing software for embedded systems that are not intended to support a software development environment. The output of a compiler that produces code for a virtual machine (VM) may or may not be executed on the same platform as the compiler that produced it. For this reason such compilers are not usually classified as native or cross compilers. The lower level language that is target of a compiler may itself be a high-level programming language. C, often viewed as some sort of portable assembler, can also be the target language of a compiler. E.g.: Cfront, the original compiler for C++ used C as target language.