Explain the mechanism of action of ventilation?

The lungs consist of two cone shaped spongy organs that contain alveoli and trap air for gas exchange. The lung is designed for gas exchange. Its prime function is to allow oxygen to move from the air into the venous blood and carbon dioxide to move out. Although the lung performs other functions, its primary responsibility is to exchange gas. Oxygen and carbon dioxide (CO2) move between air and blood by simple diffusion that is from an area of high to low partial pressure. Ficks Law of diffusion states that the amount of gas that moves across a sheet of tissue is proportional to the area of the sheet but inversely proportional to its thickness. The airways consist of a series of branching tubes which become narrower, shorter, and more numerous as they penetrate deeper into the lung. The trachea divides into right and left main bronchi, which in turn divide into lobar, then segmental bronchi. The process continues down to the terminal bronchioles, which are the smallest airways outside the alveoli. All these bronchi make up the conducting airways. Their function is to lead inspired air to the gas exchanging regions of the lungs. Since conducting airways contain no alveoli, they do not participate in gas exchange. The terminal bronchioles divide into respiratory bronchioles, which have few alveoli. Finally, we come to the alveolar ducts that are completely lined with alveoli. This alleviated area of the lung where gas exchange occurs is called the respiratory zone. During inspiration, the volume of the thoracic cavity increases and air is drawn into the lung. The increase in volume is brought about partly by contraction of the diaphragm and partly by the actions of the intercostals muscles. These muscular actions increase the size of the thoracic cavity and air flows in due to the reduced pressure inside the chest (inhalation; governed by Boyles law which states that the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume). Inspired air flows down to the terminal bronchioles by bulk flow. Beyond that point, the combined cross-sectional area of the airways is so enormous because of the large number of branches, that the forward velocity of the gas becomes very small. Diffusion of gas within the airways then takes over as the dominant mechanism of ventilation in the respiratory zone. The rate of diffusion within the airways is so rapid, and the distances covered arson short, that differences in concentration within the alveoli are virtually abolished within a second. An increase in thoracic volume results in a decrease in intrapulmonary pressure causing air to be pushed out of the lungs (exhalation). The lung is elastic and returns passively to its pre-aspiratory volume during resting breathing. It is remarkably easy to distend. For example, a normal breath of about 500 ml requires distending pressure of 3 cm water. By contrast, a balloon may need a pressure of up to 30 cm water f or the same change in volume. Blood in need of oxygenation enters both lungs via the pulmonary arteries (from the hearts right ventricle). Oxygenated blood leaves the lungs through the pulmonary veins to the hearts left atrium. Air inspired through the nose, is passed through the trachea and bronchea, eventually entering the terminal bronchioles which supply the alveoli or air sacs, each 0.2mm in diameter. An estimated 300 million alveoli are contained in the lungs, generating up to 50 square metres of internal surface area at a lung volume of 3000ml.(The area of an average tennis court). Inspiration results from the contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. The rib cage swings upwards and outwards. The enlarged cavity housing the lungs undergoes a pressure reduction (-3 mm Hg) with respect to the pressure existing outside the body. Since the lungs are passive (no muscle tissue), they expand due to the positive external pressure.

e.g. if the environmental pressure is 760 mm Hg, the lung pressure is 757 mm Hg upon inspiration. Expiration results from the relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. The rib cage moves inward and downwards. The elastic recoil of the lungs creates a higher than atmospheric intrapulmonic pressure (plus 3 mm Hg) that forces air out of the lungs. What is the composition of O2 and CO2 in atmosphere, alveoli and blood? Atmospheric (external) air contains a high percentage of oxygen and nitrogen whereas alveoli gas contains a lower percentage of oxygen and a higher percentage of carbon dioxide. The differences in composition are due to the fact that gaseous exchange is taking place within the alveoli in the lungs. Oxygen is diffusing from the alveoli into the pulmonary artery and carbon dioxide is diffusing back into the alveoli from the pulmonary artery due to the concentration gradients. This is the main reason why external air and alveolar gas have such different compositions. Another reason why the gas compositions are different is due to the fact that alveoli gas contains a mixture of both atmospheric air which has been inhaled and 'old' air which stays in the respiratory track and is not exhaled after each breath therefore giving it a different composition. Alveolar gas has a larger percentage of water vapour than atmospheric air due to the fact that air is being warmed and moistened as it travels into the respiratory track. This is done by the mucus in the nasal cavity as the air travels past it. Atmosphere Alveoli OXYGEN 20.85 % 13 % CARBON DIOXIDE 0.03 % 5%

Draw oxygen dissociation curve and bohr effect? The oxygen dissociation curve is a graph that shows the percent saturation of hemoglobin at various partial pressures of oxygen. Commonly a curve may be expressed with the P50 value. This is a value which tells the pressure at which the erythrocytes are fifty percent saturated with oxygen. The purpose of an oxygen dissociation curve is to show the equilibrium of oxyhemoglobin and nonbonded hemoglobin at various partial pressures (Oxygen Dissociation Curve). At high partial pressures of oxygen, usually in the lungs, hemoglobin binds to oxygen to form oxyhemoglobin. When the blood is fully saturated all the erythrocytes are in the form of oxyhemoglobin. As the erythrocytes travel to tissues deprived of oxygen the partial pressure of oxygen will decrease. Consequently, the

oxyhemoglobin releases the oxygen to form hemoglobin. The sigmoid shape of the oxygen dissociation curve is a result of the cooperative binding of oxygen to the four polypeptide chains. Cooperative binding is the characteristic of a hemoglobin to have a greater ability to bind oxygen after a subunit has bound oxygen (Oxygen Dissociation Curve). Thus, hemoglobin is most attracted to oxygen when three of the four polypeptide chains are bound to oxygen. The Bohr effect is a microbiological phenomenon, stating that hemoglobin's oxygen binding affinity is inversely related to acidity and inversely related to the concentration of carbon dioxide. That is to say, a decrease in blood pH or an increase in blood CO2 concentration will result in hemoglobin proteins releasing their loads of oxygen and a decrease in carbon dioxide or increase in pH will result in hemoglobin picking up more oxygen. Since carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid, an increase in CO2 results in a decrease in blood pH.

Write short note on O2 and CO2 transport? Oxygen Transport In the lungs, oxygen diffuses from alveolar air into the blood because the venous blood has a lower partial pressure. The oxygen dissolves in the blood. Only a small amount is carried as a physical solution (0.31 ml per 100 ml). The remainder of the oxygen is carried in chemical combination with the hemoglobin in red blood cells (erthrocytes). Hemoglobin (molecular weight of 68,000) is made from 4 hemes, a porphyrin ring containing iron and globin, a 4 protein chains. Oxygen is bound to the iron for the transport process. Hemoglobin (HHgb) behaves as a weak acid (K = 1.4 x 10-8; pKa = 7.85). Oxyhemoglobin (HHgbO2) also behaves as a weak acid (K = 2.5 x 10-7; pKa = 6.6) Because both forms of hemoglobin are weak acids, and a relationship of the numerical values of the equilibrium constants, the net reaction for the interaction of oxygen with hemoglobin results in the following equilibrium: HHgb + O2 <===> HgbO2 + H+ If O2 is increased in the + the right and H ions increase. blood at the lungs, the equilibrium shifts to

Oxyhemoglobin can be caused to release oxygen by the addition of H+ ions at the cells. The difference in pH (7.44) of arterial blood and venous blood (pH = 7.35) is sufficient to cause release of oxygen from hemoglobin at the tissue cells. Carbon Dioxide Transport Bicarbonate Buffer: Carbon dioxide produced in the tissue cells diffuses into the blood plasma. The largest fraction of carbon dioxide diffuses into the red blood cells. The carbon dioxide in the red blood cells is transported as: dissolved CO2, combined with hemoglobin, or as bicarbonate,(largest fraction). The formation of bicarbonate ions, (HCO3- ) takes place by the following reactions: Hydration of CO2: CO2 + HOH === H2CO3 Dissociation of H2CO3: H2CO3 === H+ + HCO3The H2CO3/HCO3- combination acts as the primary buffer of the blood. The hydration of carbon dioxide is a slow process but occurs rapidly in the red blood cells because a high concentration of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the reaction. Bicarbonate diffuses out of the red blood cells into the plasma in venous blood and visa versa in arterial blood. Chloride ion always diffuses in an opposite direction of bicarbonate ion in order to maintain a charge balance. This is referred to as the "chloride shift". The changes in concentration of CO2 or HCO3-ion can influence slight pH changes in the blood even though it is buffered. At the same time the concentration of H+ ions will influence the concentrations of CO2 and HCO3- ions. Blood Buffer Equation: The two equilibriums on the right may be combined into one equation as follows: CO2 + HOH <===> H2CO3 <===> H+ + HCO3Combined Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport: The reactions for both oxygen and carbon dioxide are coupled together and work in cooperation with each other. The main reason for this "coupled" effect is that both systems are influenced by hydrogen ions and equilibrium principles. At the lungs, the diffusion of oxygen into the blood triggers the reactions. The oxygen reacts with and attaches to hemoglobin. This oxygenation reaction with hemoglobin produces excess H+ ions which react with

HCO3- to produce H2CO3. The carbonic acid decomposes to CO2 which diffuses out of the blood.

Explain factors affecting diffusion of respiratory gaseS?

Temperature. At increased temperature the fish needs more oxygen due to increased metabolic rate. Fish react to temperature by increasing the respiratory volume, increasing the output of the heart (volume and heartbeat rate) and decreasing the resistance in the vascular system. This increases the blood flow in the gills. The limiting factors become the rate of respiration, the blood flow to the gills, and the rate of oxygen diffusion over the gills. Oxygen deficiency. A low oxygen content in the water leads to greater respiration rate, slower heartbeat but greater volume of each beat, so heart output is not much affected. The water flow through the gills increases. The fish uses a larger amount of the oxygen from the venal blood, increasing the amount of lactic acid in the muscles. Thus oxygen is more easily released from the hemoglobin, but this chain reaction can continue until the fish chokes in a prolonged period of oxygen deficiency. Increased activity of the fish (e.g. swimming). The heart output and respiratory volume are increased, thereby increasing the total oxygen diffusion rate. At the change of flow, there may be changes of ionic balance ( in freshwater salts are released and water absorbed). The fish may counter this effect by changes in renal function (kidneys). The osmosis through the gills and the kidneys are mostly controlled by hormones/ hormonal system.