Partial Fractions Consider the integral

x2x63x32x219x7dx The integrand is an improper rational function. By "long division" of polynomials, we can rewrite the integrand as the sum of a polynomial and a proper rational function "remainder": x2x63x32x219x7=3x+1+1x2x6 So

x2x63x32x219x7dx=

3x+1+1x2x6

dx

This looks much easier to work with! We can integrate 3x+1 immediately, but what about 1x2x6? Notice that 1x2x6=1(x+2)(x3) which suggests that we try to write 1x2x6 as the sum of two rational functions of the form Ax+2 and Bx3: 1x2x6=Ax+2+Bx3 This is called the Partial Fraction Decomposition for 1x2x6. Our goal now is to determine A and B. Multiplying both sides of the equation by (x+2)(x3) to clear the fractions, 1=A(x3)+B(x+2) There are two methods for solving for A and B: Method 1 Collect like terms on the right: 1=(A+B)x+(3A+2B) Now equate coefficients of corresponding powers of x: A+B=0 3A+2B=1 Solving this system, A=1 5, B=1 5. Method 2 The equation holds for all x. Let x=2: 1=A(23)+B(2+2) 1=5A A=1 5. Now let x=3: 1=A(33)+B(3+2) 1=5B B=1 5.

So 1x2x6=51x+251x3 Returning to the original integral,

x2x63x32x219x7dx = =

3x+1+51x+251x3

dx 23x2+x+51ln

x3x+2

+C

In the next example, we have repeated factors in the denominator, as well as an irreducible quadratic factor. Example We will evaluate

x1x2(x2+x+1)dx The integrand is a proper rational function, which we would like to decompose into proper rational functions of the form xA Bx2 andCx+Dx2+x+1

[Notice that we have two factors of x in the denominator of the integrand, leading to terms of the form xA and Bx2 in the decomposition. The factor x2+x+1 is irreducible and quadratic, so any proper rational function withx2+x+1 as denominator has the form Cx+Dx2+x+1 where C or D may be 0.] Set x1x2(x2+x+1)=xA+Bx2+Cx+Dx2+x+1 Multiplying through by x2(x2+x+1), x1=Ax(x2+x+1)+B(x2+x+1)+(Cx+D)x2 Since x2+x+1 has no real roots, it is easiest to solve for A and B using Method 1: Collecting like terms on the right, x1=(A+C)x3+(A+B+D)x2+(A+B)x+B Equating corresponding powers of x,

A+C A+B+D A+B B = = = = 0 0 1 1 So

A=2 B=1 C=2 D=1

x21x22x+1x2+x+1

x1x2(x2+x+1)dx = = =

x21x22x+1x2+x+1

dx 2ln x +x1ln x2+x+1 +C x1+ln

x2x2+x+1

+C

Key Concepts Partial Fraction Decomposition of a Rational Function

If the rational function is improper, use "long division" of polynomials to write it as the sum of a polynomial and a proper rational function "remainder." Decompose the proper rational function as a sum of rational functions of the form

A(x where:

)kandBx+C(x2+

x+

)k(x2+

x+

irreducible)

Each factor (x

)m in the denominator of the proper rational function suggests terms A1(x )+A2(x )2+ +Am(x )m

Each factor (x2+

x+

)n suggests terms

B1x+C1(x2+

x+

)+B2x+C2(x2+

x+

)2+

+Bnx+Cn(x2+

x+

)n

Determine the (unique) values of all the constants involved.

Use either Method 1 or Method 2, or a combination of both.

The partial fraction decomposition is often used to rewrite a complicated rational function integrand as a sum of terms, each of which is straightforward to integrate.

In mathematics, a partial function from X to Y is a function : X' Y, where X' is a subset of X. It generalizes the concept of a function by not forcing f to map every element of X to an element of Y (only some subset X' of X). If X' = X, then is called a total function and is equivalent to a function. Partial functions are often used when the exact domain, X' , is not known (e.g. many functions in computability theory). Specifically, we will say that for any x X, either:

(x) = y Y (it is defined as a single element in Y) or (x) is undefined.

For example we can consider the square root function restricted to the integers

Thus g(n) is only defined for n that are perfect squares (i.e. 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, ...). So, g(25) = 5, but g(26) is undefined. Domain of a partial function There are two distinct meanings in current mathematical usage for the notion of the domain of a partial function. Most mathematicians, including recursion theorists, use the term "domain of f" for the set of all values x such that f(x) is defined ( X' above). But some, particularly category theorists, consider the domain of a partial function f:XY to be X, and refer to X' as the domain of definition. Occasionally, a partial function with domain X and codomain Y is written as f: X Y, using an arrow with vertical stroke. A partial function is said to be injective or surjective when the total function given by the restriction of the partial function to its domain of definition is. A partial function may be both injective and surjective, but the term bijection generally only applies to total functions. An injective partial function may be inverted to an injective partial function, and a partial function which is both injective and surjective has an injective function as inverse. [edit]Discussion and examples The first diagram above represents a partial function that is not a total function since the element 1 in the left-hand set is not associated with anything in the right-hand set. [edit]Natural logarithm Consider the natural logarithm function mapping the real numbers to themselves. The logarithm of a non-positive real is not a real number, so the natural logarithm function doesn't associate any real number in the codomain with any non-positive real number in the domain. Therefore, the natural logarithm function is not a total function when viewed as a function from the reals to themselves, but it is a partial function. If the domain is restricted to only include the positive reals (that is, if the natural logarithm function is viewed as a function from the positive reals to the reals), then the natural logarithm is a total function. [edit]Subtraction of natural numbers Subtraction of natural numbers (non-negative integers) can be viewed as a partial function:

f(x,y) = x y It is only defined when [edit]Bottom type In some automated theorem proving systems a partial function is considered as returning the bottom type when it is undefined. The CurryHoward correspondence uses this to map proofs and computer programs to each other. In computer science a partial function corresponds to a subroutine that raises an exception or loops forever. The IEEE floating point standard defines a Not-a-number value which is returned when a floating point operation is undefined and exceptions are suppressed, e.g. when the square root of a negative number is requested. .

In a programming language where function parameters are statically typed, a function may be defined as a partial function because the language's type system cannot express the exact domain of the function, so the programmer instead gives it the smallest domain which is expressible as a type and contains the true domain.