This article is about the major war of 19141918.

For other uses, see World War One (disambiguation) and Great War (disambiguation). World War I

Clockwise from top: Trenches on the Western Front; a BritishMark IV Tank crossing a trench; Royal Navy battleship HMSIrresistible sinking after striking a mine at the Battle of the Dardanelles; a Vickers machine gun crew with gas masks, and German Albatros D.III biplanes Date 28 July 1914 11 November 1918 (Armistice) Treaty of Versailles signed 28 June 1919 Location Europe, Africa, the Middle East, the Pacific Islands, China and off the coast of South and North America Allied victory

Result

End of the German, Russian, Ottoma n, and AustroHungarian empires Formation of new countries in Europe and the Middle East Transfer of German colonies andregions of the former Ottoman Empireto other powers Establishment of the League of Nations. (more...)

Belligerents Allied (Entente) Powers Central Powers French Third Republic British Empire Russia (191417) Italy (191518) United States (191718) Romania (191618) Empire of Japan Kingdom of Serbia Belgium Greece (191718) and others Commanders and leaders Leaders and commanders Raymond Poincar Georges Clemenceau Ferdinand Foch H. H. Asquith Leaders and commanders Wilhelm II Paul von Hindenburg Erich Ludendorff Franz Joseph I German Empire Austria-Hungary Ottoman Empire Bulgaria (191518)

David Lloyd George Douglas Haig Nicholas II Nicholas Nikolaevich Antonio Salandra Vittorio Orlando Luigi Cadorna Woodrow Wilson John J. Pershing Ferdinand I and others Strength Entente[1] 12,000,000 8,841,541[2][3] 8,660,000[4] 5,093,140 4,743,826 1,234,000 800,000 707,343 380,000 250,000 Total: 42,959,850 Casualties and losses Military dead: 5,525,000 Military wounded: 12,831,500 Military missing: 4,121,000

Karl I Conrad von Htzendorf Mehmed V Enver Pasha Mustafa Kemal Ferdinand I Nikola Zhekov and others

Central Powers[1] 13,250,000 7,800,000 2,998,321 1,200,000 Total: 25,248,321

Military dead: 4,386,000 Military wounded: 8,388,000 Military missing: 3,629,000

Total: 22,477,500 KIA, WIA or MIA...further details. [show]

Total: 16,403,000 KIA, WIA or MIA...further details.

Theatres of World War I World War I (WWI), which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918. It involved all the world's great powers,[5] which were assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of theUnited Kingdom, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (originally centred around the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy; but, as AustriaHungary had taken the offensive against the agreement, Italy did not enter into the war).[6] These alliances both reorganised (Italy fought for the Allies), and expanded as more nations entered the war. Ultimately more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history.[7][8] More than 9 million combatants were killed, largely because of great technological advances in firepower without corresponding advances in mobility. It was the sixth-deadliest conflict in world history, subsequently paving the way for various political changes such as revolutions in the nations involved.[9] Long-term causes of the war included the imperialistic foreign policies of the great powers of Europe, including the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, theOttoman Empire, the Russian Empire, the British Empire, the French Republic, andItaly. The assassination on 28 June 1914 of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by a Yugoslav nationalist was the proximate trigger of the war. It resulted in a Habsburg ultimatum against theKingdom of Serbia.[10][11] Several alliances formed over the previous decades were invoked, so within weeks the major powers were at war; via their colonies, the conflict soon spread around the world. On 28 July, the conflict opened with the Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia,[12][13]followed by the German invasion of Belgium, Luxembourg and France; and a Russian attack against Germany. After the German march on Paris was brought to a halt, the Western Front settled into a static battle of attrition with a trench linethat changed little until 1917. In the East, the Russian army successfully fought against the Austro-Hungarian forces but was forced back by the German army. Additional fronts opened after the Ottoman Empire joined the war in 1914, Italy andBulgaria in 1915

and Romania in 1916. The Russian Empire collapsed in March 1917, and Russia left the war after the October Revolution later that year. After a 1918 German offensive along the western front, United States forces entered the trenches and the Allies drove back the German armies in a series of successful offensives. Germany, which had its own trouble with revolutionaries at this point, agreed to a cease-fire on 11 November 1918, later known as Armistice Day. The war had ended in victory for the Allies. Events on the home fronts were as tumultuous as on the battle fronts, as the participants tried to mobilize their manpower and economic resources to fight a total war. By the end of the war, four major imperial powers the German, Russian,Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires ceased to exist. The successor states of the former two lost a great amount of territory, while the latter two were dismantled entirely. The map of central Europe was redrawn into several smaller states.[14] TheLeague of Nations was formed in the hope of preventing another such conflict. The European nationalism spawned by the war and the breakup of empires, the repercussions of Germany's defeat and problems with the Treaty of Versailles are generally agreed to be factors contributing to World War II.[15] Contents [hide]

1 Names 2 Background 3 Theatres of Conflict

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3.1 Opening hostilities

3.1.1 Confusion among the Central Powers 3.1.2 African campaigns 3.1.3 Serbian campaign 3.1.4 German forces in Belgium and France 3.1.5 Asia and the Pacific

3.2 Early stages

3.2.1 Trench warfare begins

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3.3 Naval war 3.4 Southern theatres

3.4.1 War in the Balkans 3.4.2 Ottoman Empire

3.4.3 Italian participation 3.4.4 Romanian participation 3.4.5 The role of India

3.5 Eastern Front

3.5.1 Initial actions 3.5.2 Russian Revolution

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3.6 Central Powers proposal for starting peace negotiations 3.7 19171918

3.7.1 Developments in 1917 3.7.2 Entry of the United States

3.7.2.1 Non-intervention 3.7.2.2 U.S. declaration of war on Germany 3.7.2.3 First active U.S. participation

3.7.3 Austrian offer of separate peace 3.7.4 German Spring Offensive of 1918 3.7.5 New states under war zone 3.7.6 Allied victory: summer and autumn 1918

3.8 Armistices and capitulations

3.8.1 Allied superiority and the stab-in-the-back legend, November 1918

4 Technology
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4.1 Aviation 4.2 Improvements in naval technology during World War I 4.3 Improvements in ground warfare technology in World War I 4.4 Flamethrowers and subterranean transport

5 War crimes
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5.1 Genocide and ethnic cleansing

5.1.1 Russian Empire

5.2 "Rape of Belgium"

6 Soldiers' experiences
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6.1 Prisoners of war 6.2 Military attachs and war correspondents

7 Support and opposition to the war

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7.1 Support 7.2 Opposition

7.2.1 Conscription

8 Aftermath
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8.1 Health and economic effects 8.2 Peace treaties and national boundaries

9 Legacy
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9.1 Memorials 9.2 Cultural memory 9.3 Social trauma 9.4 Discontent in Germany 9.5 Views in the United States 9.6 New national identities 9.7 Economic effects

10 See also
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10.1 Media

11 Notes 12 References 13 External links

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13.1 Animated maps

Names

In Canada, Maclean's Magazine in October 1914 said, "Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War."[16] During the Interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War, in English-speaking countries. After the onset of the Second World War in 1939, the terms World War I or the First World War became standard, with British and Canadian historians favouring the First World War, and Americans World War I. The notion that the "World War" was merely the first in a series was not a new idea at the time, however; it was first introduced in September 1914 by German philosopher Ernst Haeckel, who claimed that "there is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word."[17] The First World War was the title of a 1920 history by the officer and journalist Charles Court Repington. Background Main article: Causes of World War I

Map of the participants in World War I: Allied Powers in green, Central Powersin orange, and neutral countries in grey In the 19th century, the major European powers had gone to great lengths to maintain a balance of power throughout Europe, resulting by 1900 in a complex network of political and military alliances throughout the continent.[6] These had started in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria. Then, in October 1873, German Chancellor Bismarck negotiated theLeague of the Three Emperors (German: Dreikaiserbund) between the monarchs of AustriaHungary, Russia and Germany. This agreement failed because AustriaHungary and Russia could not agree over Balkan policy, leaving Germany and AustriaHungary in an alliance formed in 1879, called the Dual Alliance. This was seen as a method of countering Russian influence in the Balkans as theOttoman Empire continued to weaken.[6] In 1882, this alliance was expanded to include Italy in what became the Triple Alliance.[18] After 1870, European conflict was averted largely through a carefully planned network of treaties between the German Empire and the remainder of Europe orchestrated by Bismarck. He especially worked to hold Russia at Germany's side to avoid a two-front war with France and Russia. When Wilhelm II ascended to the throne as German Emperor (Kaiser), Bismarck's alliances were gradually de-emphasised. For example, the Kaiser refused to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with

Russia in 1890. Two years later, the Franco-Russian Alliance was signed to counteract the force of the Triple Alliance. In 1904, the United Kingdom sealed an alliance with France, the Entente Cordiale, and in 1907, the United Kingdom and Russia signed the Anglo-Russian Convention. This system of interlocking bilateral agreements formed the Triple Entente.[6]

HMS Dreadnought. A naval arms raceexisted between the United Kingdom and Germany. German industrial and economic power had grown greatly after unification and the foundation of the Empire in 1870. From the mid-1890s on, the government of Wilhelm II used this base to devote significant economic resources to building up the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial German Navy), established by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, in rivalry with the British Royal Navy for world naval supremacy.[19] As a result, each nation strove to out-build the other in terms of capital ships. With the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906, the British Empire expanded on its significant advantage over its German rival.[19] The arms race between Britain and Germany eventually extended to the rest of Europe, with all the major powers devoting their industrial base to producing the equipment and weapons necessary for a pan-European conflict.[20] Between 1908 and 1913, the military spending of the European powers increased by 50 percent.[21]

Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian-Serb student, was arrested immediately after he assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria Austria-Hungary precipitated the Bosnian crisis of 19081909 by officially annexing the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878. This angered the Kingdom of Serbia and its patron, the Pan-Slavic andOrthodox Russian Empire.[22] Russian

political manoeuvring in the region destabilised peace accords that were already fracturing in what was known as "the powder keg of Europe".[22]

Ethno-linguistic map of AustriaHungary, 1910 In 1912 and 1913 the First Balkan Warwas fought between the Balkan Leagueand the fracturing Ottoman Empire. The resulting Treaty of London further shrank the Ottoman Empire, creating an independent Albanian State while enlarging the territorial holdings of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece. When Bulgaria attacked both Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913, it lost most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece and Southern Dobruja to Romania in the 33-day Second Balkan War, further destabilising the region.[23] On 28 June 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian-Serb student and member of Young Bosnia, assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo, Bosnia.[24] This began a period of diplomatic manoeuvring among Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France, and Britain called the July Crisis. Wanting to finally end Serbian interference in Bosnia, Austria-Hungary delivered the July Ultimatum to Serbia, a series of ten demands intentionally made unacceptable, intending to provoke a war with Serbia.[25] When Serbia agreed to only eight of the ten demands, Austria-Hungary declared war on 28 July 1914. Strachanargues, "Whether an equivocal and early response by Serbia would have made any difference to Austria-Hungary's behaviour must be doubtful. Franz Ferdinand was not the sort of personality who commanded popularity, and his demise did not cast the empire into deepest mourning".[26] The Russian Empire, unwilling to allow AustriaHungary to eliminate its influence in the Balkans, and in support of its longtime Serb protgs, ordered a partial mobilisation one day later.[18] When the German Empire began to mobilise on 30 July 1914, France, resentful of the German conquest of Alsace-Lorraine during the Franco-Prussian War, ordered French mobilisation on 1 August. Germany declared war on Russia on the same day.[27] The United Kingdom declared war on Germany on 4 August 1914, following an "unsatisfactory reply" to the British ultimatum that Belgium must be kept neutral.[28] Theatres of Conflict

Opening hostilities Confusion among the Central Powers The strategy of the Central Powers suffered from miscommunication. Germany had promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously-tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but the replacements had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia.[29] Germany, however, envisioned Austria-Hungary directing most of its troops against Russia, while Germany dealt with France. This confusion forced theAustroHungarian Army to divide its forces between the Russian and Serbian fronts. On 9 September 1914, the Septemberprogramm, a possible plan which detailed Germany's specific war aims and the conditions that Germany sought to force on the Allied Powers, was outlined by German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg. It was never officially adopted. African campaigns

Lettow surrendering his forces to the British at Abercorn Main article: African theatre of World War I Some of the first clashes of the war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorate of Togoland. On 10 August, German forces in South-West Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces in German East Africa, led by Colonel Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck, fought a guerrilla warfare campaign during World War I and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe.[30] Serbian campaign

Declaration of war. Austro-Hungarian government's telegram to the government of Serbia on 28 July 1914.

Serbian troops artillery positions in theBattle of Kolubara. Main article: Serbian Campaign (World War I) Austria invaded and fought the Serbian army at theBattle of Cer and Battle of Kolubara beginning on 12 August. Over the next two weeks Austrian attacks were thrown back with heavy losses, which marked the first major Allied victories of the war and dashed Austro-Hungarian hopes of a swift victory. As a result, Austria had to keep sizable forces on the Serbian front, weakening its efforts against Russia.[31] Serbias defeat of the Austro-Hungarian invasion of 1914 counts among the major upset victories of the last century.[32] German forces in Belgium and France

German soldiers in a railway goods van on the way to the front in 1914. A message on the car spells out "Trip to Paris"; early in the war all sides expected the conflict to be a short one. Main article: Western Front (World War I)

At the outbreak of the First World War, the German army (consisting in the West of seven field armies) carried out a modified version of the Schlieffen Plan, designed to quickly attack France through neutral Belgium before turning southwards to encircle the French army on the German border.[10] The plan called for the right flank of the German advance to converge on Paris, and initially the Germans were successful, particularly in the Battle of the Frontiers (1424 August). By 12 September, the French, with assistance from the British forces, halted the German advance east of Paris at theFirst Battle of the Marne (512 September). The last days of this battle signified the end of mobile warfare in the west.[10] The French offensive into Germany, launched on 7 August with the Battle of Mulhouse, had limited success. In the east, only one field army defended East Prussia, and when Russia attacked in this region it diverted German forces intended for the Western Front. Germany defeated Russia in a series of battles collectively known as the First Battle of Tannenberg (17 August 2 September), but this diversion aggravated problems of insufficient speed of advance from rail-heads not foreseen by the German General Staff. The Central Powers were denied a quick victory and forced to fight a war on two fronts. The German army had fought its way into a good defensive position inside France and had permanently incapacitated 230,000 more French and British troops than it had lost itself. Despite this, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of early victory.[33]