A POLICY

on

GEOMETRIC DESIGN
of

HIGHWAYS
and STREETS

1994

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..\merican Association State of High*av and'l'ransportation Officials {{.1 North CupitolStreet.N.lV..Suite2.{9 lVashington. D.C. 20001 (202)62{-51t00 ioCoprrilht.199.5. thc .\rncriclrr bv ..\ssrlciutiorr.St:rtc ol' l'I iglirvrri TrunsportatiOf[icills. .\ II Riglirs Rc'sl'rvcrl. lnd on
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iii

AASHTO EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 1994 Pennsylvania President: HowardYerusalim, Vic'ePresident: WayneShackelford. Georgia : Secrelary-Treasurer Clyde E. Pyers,Maryland

1994 DESIGN TASK FORCEON GEOMETRIC

Members
Don T. Arkle HaroldE. Bastin O. James Brewer Don Carlson P h i l l i pJ . C l a r k WayneF. Cobine Davilla Eugene P. Glen Alan CharlesA. Goessel Don Gripne DennisA. Grylicki Irving Harris,Jr. C. Lany King JohnN. LaPlante Ken Lazar DonaldA. Lyford Mark A. Marek StevenR. Oxoby RobertP. Parisi RandyPeters N o r m a nH . R o u s h JohnSacksteder Larry Sutherland RobertL. Walters Alabama NLC Kansas Wyoming New York Oregon PuertoRico California New Jersey Washington NACE Mississippi FHWA, Secretary APWA Illinois New Hampshire Texas Nevada PANYNJ Nebraska West Virgnia Kentucky Ohio Chainnan Arkansas.

ELECTED REGIONAL MEMBERS Region/ RegionII RegionIII RegionIV Betty Hager Francis,District of Columbia G.M. Roberts,Alabama CharlesThompson,Wisconsin Donald Diller, Wyoming

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NON.VOTING MEMBERS ErecutiveDirector: D.C. Washington, Francis Francois, B.

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IrI'

PR EF AC E
HrcHwAY SUBCOMMITTEE DESIGN-I994 ON
Chairman: Dan Flowers, Arkansas Vice Chairman: Kenneth Affenon, New Jersey C. Secretary: William A. Weseman. FHWA

rhe Standing at This Po[icy wa! deneloped part of the continuingwork of o the Committee n . o Committee n Highways. The Committeethen titled andrecomin wasestablished 1937to fbrmulate planningandDesignPolicies. mendh|ghwa},engineeringpolicies.IthasdevelopedAPolic't'onGeometric Design,lJ.RurulHighw,ays'l954andl965editions,'lPolit,l.onArter|ul Highu'arsand on A in Higiu'u,;s L'rban Areui. 1957, Polit'1' DesignoJ'Urhan rtJ. National Svstem Stuntlurclsfot'the lgl3.Gertrtetrit'Desigtt Streets. Arltreriai 1956 Higtrl1,a.ys. and t967. GeometricDesignstctndards anrlDeJ'ense Interstate oJ' Freeu,a'r,1969,A Potit't'on Geometri('Design 'Highw:ats OtherThai Irr Highx'avs InrerA and 1990, Polit'y on DesignStantlardsund Streets,l984 of other AASHO and AASHTO policy and sti'teS,lstem.l99l, and a number "guide" publications. the through followingsteps: is Rn eisHro publication typicallydeveloped to of andbroadoutlines material becovered' subjetis selects ( I ) The Committee in and irs raskforces, thiscasethe subcomsubcommirree izi rrl. appropriate and assemble analyze Design, on and mitteeon'Derign itsTaskForce Geometric are held and Working meetings draft' relevantdataand preparea tentative and as are tJrafts prepared. necessary, reviewedby the Subcommittee' revised ibr standing is (3) is unril a-greement relrched. The manuscript thensubmitted appro'rll' ExecutiveCommittee anclthen on Cornmlrtee Highwaysapproval. Stanchrdsandpoliciesniustbeadoptecibyatwo.thir.dsvotebythelvlember c p r o c e s s .o t n m e n l s p . D e p a r t n r e nb s t o r e u b l i c a t i o nD u r i n gt h ed e v e l o p n t c n t a l te AdrninisFlighwal' Fcdcral the tl'or1all the Statcs, altd s,)ughr copsidcred ,uere t W o r k s A s s o c i a t i o n 'h c P ot a t r a t i o n . n d r c p r e s c . n t a t i v e 'st h e A n t e r i c a n u b l i c o Ll c a g u c t ' c i t i c s 'a n d th n N a r i o n l lA s s o c i a t i oo f c o u n t y E n g i n c c r s . c N a r i o r u r othcr i nt!'restetl Parties b) thei\letric Act llnd Thc onrnibusTrade cornpetitivencss ol' lglJtlarncndccl l t l t h eI n c t r i c l c r A C o n v c r s i o n c t o l ' 1 9 7 - 5c q u i r c d i l c hl ' c c l c r iilllU c n c v( )c ( ) l l v c r t Highwll Federal of rhc svstcnl.In response U. s. Depurtmcnt Transporlation. ( l a t c . t i rtrn c t r i c l t t i t lttrll ' -r 1 S i \ t l r r r i n i s t r a t i rc n t u h l r s l t e dc p t e r n h c 1 0 . 9 9 6i l s t h c r s, irith icdcrel aitl' collstrtlctc(l tirr anrl spccit'icltti()lls. cstirnates pro.iccts pllns. SId]ILld)'.1 this .\,\SHTO t()n]etrici]tc policv' .ls7.l/ I'.r.1() This actionrcquire(l
rl/' , lri t.i {.!/ ) rvls itdtlptcd b1.FHW.\ P t . t t t ' r i c t ,| i l r L . t t t , | t I t t | 1 1 1 1 , s 1 1 4 | i t l n L r l ' ! ' f . T / ( , /t' l

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| | I | I I .lltnhtrt Alabamu. Don .\rklc, Rav D. Bass,J. F. Caraway .llarlu. !fu| Linthwurte Arrzonr. Frrn\ Vrilinr, Dallis B. Saxton, J o h nL L o u i s Orcgon. ThonrusD. Lulry Jr. Pennsylvanir,Frcd W. Bowscr, John J. Faic'lla. Dcan Schrcibcr p u e n o R i c o .J o s cE . H e m a n d e z Rhodc lsland.J. Michrel Bennctr s o u t h C a r o l i n a w i l t i a m ! 1 . D u B o s el l l ,

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Paul DeBusk lili:Hil}:,tt !iltss' Jrmes Siebcls, Corontto. E. Kennerh Mauro F.

Connccticut.Earlc R. Munre, Eradlcy J. Smirh, JamcsF. Bymcs. Jr. Dcluwure. Vichael A. Angelo, Chao H. Hu D.C.. CharlesF. Williams. SanfordH. Vinick Florida. Bill Deyo, FreddieSimmons Georgia. Walker W. Scott. Hoyt J. Lively, Jint Kennerly Hawaii. Kenneth W, C. Wong, Albert Yamaguchi ldaho. Richard K. Sorensen. Doug Chase I l l i n o i s .K c n L a z u r .D c n n i sP e s c i t c l l i I n d i a n a . h e l p sf l . K t i k a P lowa, Ccorge F. Sisson.f)onald L. East, Davc [-. Littlc K u s a s . J a m c sO . [ J r c w ' c rR i c h a r d . A d u n r s , C K c n l u c l \ . ( ' h a r l c sS . R r r r r r c r J o h nS a c k s t c t l c r . . Stcvc Willirnrs A l . o u i s i r r t r . l D u n n s .W i l l i a n rl l i c k c y ' .N i c k K r l i v . r d o \ l a r n c , C h r r l c sA . V n l l c ! . W r l t c r l l c n r i c k s o r r \ l a r v h n d . S t c l c D r u n r n r R o b c r tD . D o u g l a s s . llr\\ilchu\ctts. Shcrnr.rrr [jidclrnun, Stitnlcv . \\'orrj.Jr. W \ l i c h i q r n . ( ' h r r l c sJ . A r n o l t l \ l i n n c s o t r .{ v r c . r n t ) \\'cntlcl 1'. Ruft'.J. Richrrd Young \lrsr-issippi. \lrsstruri. ljrrnL l,. ('xroll. tloh Slicdrlo \l()ntrnn. Ronrld [:. Williarns, Crr! S. I'cil \cbrrska. Donakl l-. I'urck. Flkln D, Poppc \ c v r d r . . \ t c v c R . O r , r h v .l l i c h a c l l V . l l c l : a l l ( \ r ' r r l l a n r r r s h r r c i.r l h c r tS R o r r ' r s \t'q Jcrscr. K('r! .\lli'rton, W.tltcr W ('.rtlicll. ( ' h a r l c . , . \ .( i o c s r c l .J r n t. S n v t l < ' r \ c $ \ l c r t i o , I o s c ' p h) r e h c ' c t( , l t r r l c sV P . f r u l r l l r l l' \ . u \ ( r r l . I ) c r c r[ ] c l l . r r rt.r h r i r p . l( i l r r k , . R.f*rr:\. l)cnnrr,rn r. \ ' ) r t h ( ' . r r o l r n , ( i . I t . l ' , r n rS h c a r r r r . l I). R. tl)rrnt\,ftrrton \ , r r t h [ ) . r l r r t . tI.) . r \ r , lK . ( ) L c ' c r .l t c r r [ ] r r s t ()hro,[)onrilK.lluhnr.rn.tlrrr,r,,,,rrr"rl..nunr.ru { )[l.rhornr. l]ruer. li. l'.rrltrr. C. W,ir nc Phrllrhcr. '' " * (-lct l-urhrlrll

Monte Dakota. Engbrecht. schneider. Lanv south ,.lT:Y Loveal |j:ffiTji,on, clelron
Texas. Robert Wilson, Mark Marek U.S. DOT, John Rice (FAA), ThomasO. Willcn (FHWA) p. Urah, Kim Schvaneveldr, K. Nlohanry, Hebcr Vlam Vermonr, Roben M. Murphy, Donald H. Lathrop, John L. Armsrrong Virsinia, E. C. Cmtrran, Jr., R-.E. Arherlon. K. F. phillips W a s h i n g r o n . e n n i sJ r c k s o n D W e s rV i r g i n i a ,N o m a n H . R o u s h , RandolphEppcrly Wisconsin.Robcr! pti,ifltr W v o m i n g .D o n a l dA . C a r l s o n D a v i c J . g r r r l i n l , Allilittct! lqt,nr6r,rs Albc'ilnAllnn Kwilrl . l k r n g K o n g ,S . K . K r v c i lfunitohr. A. Eoychuh l l l r r u n r l s l a n t l sI.: l i r r b c ' t h l . S r l a s l l a l r l r t l r i r N o v l l r u n s w i c k , . l l c r l r c r tl ' r g c C l N c w l i r r r n d l u t l . ' l ' c r r rl c ( ' a r t h v \()rthwcst'l'cnitorics, l'ctcr Victrtt Novr Scolir. l)orrrld W. lhclntosh (hrtario. (icny IVlclvliltxn Srskrlchcwrn. lirnt ( iutcfi l l n t i s h C o l u n r l t r ai .\ l c r r ' ( ' l , r r l .1.rl,r'r,rrrl!orl'.r\ .\t,tlr

\ l a s s \ l c t r o l ) l \ l ( ' ' ) l l r t r l l ' l l - c r rl - r r i r r r \ J f u n t p r l c , \ u l l r o r t n ,A t l h u r . ' \ l . r l l . r t ) t r ',.t r l\)rt '\uth')rtlv rf\.\' .'( \.l , ll.rrrr Stltnrcrl \strtrttl. lltnrltttt l'nltt'tl I]rrrctu'rlln(lrin'\llrrr\'l)r\trr.n'rll.r'tlrprrllltrrtr l\ rmo \rlcwi r|l l -S t)9p.11tr194t .\{fllulturc ljtJtc\l ji('r\r(.Trrm Pcttrtrcw

()utlincd lhc Follorving procctlurcs to lusthc stlrnd;.rrd guitientctricconvcrsion. rvorkr"hich Dcsignrnct irr l99l to bcgin thc Irbrlre, Tusk Forccorl Geornctric l o i p u b l i c l t i o n n l t ) t ) . 1 l ' t h c l r r r t ' r i n S c l t c t e t'll l t ' t t ' i t ' \ ' t l t t t ' s' t r ' r c s u l t c (iln r h c this itntl strbscquc'ltl) to xn ildd('ndum thc lgq0 PolicJ(isltrttt,tt-it' as Dt,.si.qrt eftitrt .{ctirrtinuirrg Ciuidc'. lirtCriiri Thii cunr.nr.,diriirrr. irJivPoliiv sirpcrsetleilliE t t r h cS u b c o l t n l i t t c L ' iD c s i g n o k c c pt h cP t l l i c l . u p o d a t c lrt w i l l b c l l i r i n r t i n c (tlr v t 1 ' r ri t h t \ r t u r c l Lg\l,l r p t t t c t litls S c o t t t c t r t cc s t g t t . il

t,ii

CONTENTS

Preface CHAPTER TITLES

Chapter I Chapter II Chapter III Chapter IV Chapter V Chapter VI VII Chapter VIII Chapter Chapter IX Chapter X

HighwayFunction DesignControlsand Criteria of Elements Design """"""""""""" SectionElements Cross Roadsand Streets Local """"" CollectorRoadsand Streets UrbanArterials.'.""""""" Ruraland Freeways . At-Grade Intersections and Interchanges GradeSeparations I ChaPter FUNCTIONS HIGHWAY

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327 4t7 459 483 555 627 805

Page "" S y s t e n ta n dC l a s s i f i c a t i o n s" " " " s Classification of The Concepr Functional and """""" ol Hierirrchies lvltlvements Components R Functional elationshiPs and Controls Needs Access C " S 1 ' s t e m h l r a c t e r i s t i c"s " " " " " " " Functional of Definitions Urbanand Rural Areas"""""' Categortes Functiclnal tbr Svstems Rural Areas"" Functional .\rterial S.'"stem Rurll Principal R u r a l\ l i n o r A r t e r i u lS Y s t e m r R u r a lC o l l c c t o S Y s t e m Locel RoildSystem Rural I I I -5

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qt :':' :' E,rfe41 Iq1q!SystcqS::.':': ::"':':':" " :" "' r\rcus in Systems Urbanizcd l{ighway Funcrional
Artcrial SYstem UrbanPrinciPal Artcriul StrcetSystem L'rban\lintlr

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t r U r b a nC o l l e c t o S t r e e S y s t e m . . . . . . . . . SYstem Local Street andTravel Lengthof RoadwaY S o n U r b a n y s t e m.s. . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T as C Functional lassification a Design ype....'.'..... References

l5 l5 l5 t5
l1 tl

D i r e c t i o n aD i s t r i b u t i o n l of ComPosition Traffic ;; i"': " "' :" -r"" " Future Piojedtiohof Traffic Demands" " "';' :" t"'; "' " SPeed.......".. O P e r a t i nS P e e d" " " " ' g " S Design Peed"""" " S R u n n i n g P e e d" " " " ' " Traffic-Flo*' RelationshiPs HighwaYCaPacttY c" G e n e r aC h a r a c t e r i s t i" "s " " " " " " ' l APPlication as CaPacitY a DesignControl Flow Rate DesignService VersusDesignVolume . M e a s u r eo f C o n g e s t i o.n. . . " " " " " " " s Congestton Between Relation and Traffic Flow Rate of Degrees Congestion """"""""" Acceptable for AccePtable Principles " D e g r e e o f C o n g e s t i o.n " " " " " " " ' s tbr of PrinciPles Reconciliation D e g r e e o f C o n g e s t t o"n " " " " " " " s " Acceptable """""""":"" Freeways H O t h e rM u l t i l a n e i g h r v a y s Traffic Volumc Othcr'I'han Factors 'fhitt tions g Opc'ratin Condi r\ t'fect High* at' Factors Alincmcnt S Wcaving cctions...'... . T Rantp ennirtlls'.....'.""" Traffic Flctors Lcvelsof Sr-'rvice DcsignScrviccFltlw Ratcs WclvingSections W \ l u l t i l l n c 'H i g h r v l Y s i t h o u t Cotttrolof r\cccss a S . \ r t e r i u l t r c c t s n d U r b a nH i g h u a l ' s lntcrscctions Signirliz-ed AcccssControland Accessillltnagemcnt i ' : : ': . ' T h e P e i i e S i r i a.n' . . . ." .- . '" " " " :" ' ; " ; " " " " " " :::; : " " n" G e n c r uC o n s i d e r a t t r l" "s " " " " " ' l " G c n c r l lC h a r l c t c r i s t i c"s " " " " " " "

57 59 60 6l
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62 68 7l
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Introduction DesignVehicles 's G e n e r aC h a r a c t e r i s t i.c . , . ' . . ' . ' . " . " ' . l of Minimum Tuming Paths DesignVehicles Vehicle Performance VehicularPollution Driver Performance Introduction T h e D r i v i n gT a s k. . ' . ' . ' . ' . . ' Task The Cuidance . a L a n eP l a c e r n e n tn dR o a dF o l l o r v i n g. . . . . . " " " " ' ' ' ' C t r F o l l o w i n S. . . . . . ' . . . . . . a l Overtaking ncPassing.. A Cuitlance ctivitics Othcr -l'he I ntbrnrntion S.v-stctll Control Dcviccs l'rat'l'ic 'fhc Roadwlv and its Envirt)nlllcnt Hundling Intirrmation T i t n c. . . . . . . . . . . . Rclction Prirnac-v E,rpcctancy Driver Error Error Due to Drivcr Dcl'icicncics Dcmalrds Enor Duc ttl Situatitltl . S p e ea n d D e s i g n. . . . . . . . d Dcsign..\sscssnlcnt it T r a i t l cC h a r l c t e r i sc s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . ' . . C c n c r aC o n s i d c r a t i o. n's ' . . . . . ' . . . . . . " l Volurnc ,.\vcrlr:cDaill"f rell'ic Pcuk-l'burTrlt't'ic

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C i. . P h y s i c a l h a r a c t e r i s t " c.s . . . . ' . ' . . ' . " ' R W a l k i n g a t e. . . . . . . . . . . . W a l k w u yC a P a c i t i e s Sidewalks Intersections . s C h a r a c t e r i s t io f P e r s o nW i t h D i s a b i l i t i e' s. ' . " " " " " cs MobilityImPairments Visual ImPairments . Il D e v e l o p m e n t am p a i r m e n t.s . . . . ' . . . . ' . ' . . . . Conclusions. BicycleFacilities . Safety......... Environment EconomicAnalYsis Ref'erences III ChaPter ELEMT]NTS OF DESIGN . S i g h tD i s t a n c.c ' . . . . . ' . . . ' . . . ' . . . . G e n e r aC o n s i c l e r a t i o.r l.s. . . . . . ' . . ' . ' . . l c S t o p p i n S i g h tD i s t a n c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " g Brekc ReactionTintc BrakingDistancc' D c s i g nV a l u e s ot'(lrltlc on StoPPing Et'l'cct Variltion lirr Trucks S D c c i s i o n i g h tD i s t a n c c ' . . . . . . ' . . . . ' . . . . . . firr Sight Distance Two-LaneHighways Passing t b r D c s i g n. . . . ' . Critcria V Design altrcs . g o f G n t t l co n P a s s i n S i g h tD t s t a n c e. . . . " . . " " " " ' Et-ltct S a n d L c n g t ho l ' P l s s i n g e c i i o n s Frcqucncy t S i g h tD i s t a n c ci r r } l u l t i l a r t cH i g h t r a y ' s Sight Distlnce Criteriatbr lVlcrsuring E y e. ' . . . . . . . . . . . . ' F l c i g ho f D r i v c r ' s t Hcightol Oblcct -.'.'Si ght Obstruetitxl"',,...., Sight Distancc lnd iVlcasurirrg Rccording trn Plltns

99 99 100 100 r02 103 103 103 103 r04 104 104 105 l12
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Alinement Horizontal . " C T h e o r e t i c a l o n s i d e r a t i o n"s " " " " " " "
' ! .' ' C e n e r a l C o n s i d e r a r i o n.s . . . - . . . . ' . . . . . . ." , . :" " : 1 1r r ': : '

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F S i d eF r i c t i o n a c t o r . . . . . ' . ' . . . of Distribution e and f Over a Rangeof Curves . . C D e s i g n o n s i d e r a t i o n.s . . . . . . " " " " " Rates SuPerelevation Ma.ximum Radius Minimum Designfor All Rural HighwaYs UrbanStreets """"" and High-Speed of for DeveloPment Proceclure e Finalized Distribution Tables """' DesignSuperelevation WithoutSuperelevation """"" "" Curve Sharpest Effectsof Grades..'.. ( C T r a n s i t i o nS p i r a l ) u r v e s . . ' . " " ' Runoff Superelevation UrbanStreets Designfor Low-Speed Ma.rimum ComfortableSPeed Curves on Horizontal Runoff Length Supereievation Requiretl Radii and Minimum Lengthsol Superelevatton lviiriirnum o R u n o f ft b r l - i m i t i n gV a l u e s f e a n d | " " " " " " " " " ' and C u r v a t u r o i T u m i n gR o a d w a Y s e . . a C u r v a t u r e t I n t e r s e c t i o n.s . . " " " " " ' f R " l v l i n i m u r n a d i u s o r T u m i n gS p e e d " " " " Curves Trlnsitionsand CornPound o Length f SPiral CircularCurves Cornpound "" s W i d t h st o r T u m i n gR o a d w a y d t l n t e r s e c t i o n s " " " " " " ' Widths \\ itirhsOutsideTravcledWaY Edges WeYWideningon Curves Travelerl V o Derivltion f Design alues V Design alucs o o A t r a i n r n c n ti W i d e n i n g n C u r v c s Curves""""' tln Distance Horizontal Sight
. S t o p p i n g S i g h t D i s t a n c e . . . ' . . .".. ' , ." . , !: :" " " i ' :" r ' r " " " " "

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rii . Rural ... a S i g n i n g n dM a r k i n g . N o i s eB a r r i e r s - . . . . . . ' . . . . - ' . . . . . , , . . . . : : : of Maintenance Traffic Through Ar Construction eas'.......... Signals Ret'erences

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Grades Ch vehicle-Operating aracteristics on Grades ControlGradesfor Design of Critical Lengths Gradefor Design c l i m b i n gL a n e s . . . . . . . . . . . Climbing Lanesfor Two-LaneHighways and Climbing Laneson FreewaYs MultilaneHighwaYs on OperationalLane Improvements Two-Lane Highways on Lane Sections Two-LaneRoads Passing Three Lane Sections Turnouts S h o u l d eD r i v i n g . . ' . . . . . r Use Sections Shoulder RamPs EscaPe EmergencY General NeedandLocation . Types.......... . . C D e s i g n o n s i d e r a t i o n.s . " . . . " " " " " A r e a s. . . . . . . . ' . . B r a k eC h e c k Maintenance VerticalCurves . . G c n e r aC o n s i d e r a t i o n.s. ' . " " " " " " ' l CrestVerticalCurves Sag VerticalCurves Controlst'orVcrticalAlinement General and of Combination Horiz.ontal VerticalAlinement . . s. " . . . . ' . . . ' . . . . G e n e r aC o n s i d e r a t i o n . l DesignControls General in AlinementCoordination Design Design AffectingGeometric OrherElements Drrinage Development """"""""' ErosionControland Landscape Centers. RestArels. Intbrmation Sirt'ety and ScenicOverlooks Utilities Generul Urban

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G c n e r l l C o n s i d c r l t i o l l s. . . . . . . . . . "

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317 319 380 380 381 383 384 38.1 385 386 387 389 389 389 3e0 393 399 403 40J -104 -107 .107 -t07 -ll0 - ll 3

Alinement CrossSloPe Superelevatton..".'.....'.'..." ' o N u m b e r f L a n e s. . . . . . and Roadway of TraveledWay, Shoulder' Width Structures Bridgesto Remainin Place Venical Clearance Width """"" Right-of-WaY ForesloPes to """""""" Clearances Obstructions Horizontal C u r b s. . . . . . . . . . . Design Intersection GradeCrossings """"""" Railroad Traffic Control Devices BicycleFacilities ErosionControl Local Urban Streets "s C G e n e r aD e s i g n o n s i d e r a t i o n " " " " " " " " l DesignTraffic Volumes

418 418 420 420 .120

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426 426 426 427 421 428 428 428 429 129 429 410 4-10 .t-10 -+lI
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V ChaPter LOCAI- RO.\DS AND STRF]ETS

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i P r o v i s i o no r U t i l i t i e s I n t e r s e c t i oD e s i g n n G r a d eC r o s s i n g s ' . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . Railroad L S t r e e a n dR o a d w a v i g h t i n g . ' . . . . . t ControlDevrces Traffic ErosionControl Landscaping B i c y c l eF a c i l i t i e s R S p e c i aP u r p o s e o a d s. . . . . . . . . ' l Introduction . R R e c r e a t i o n a lo a d s . . . . . . . . . . . G e n e r aC o n s i d e r a t i o n.s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l S D e s i g n p e e d. . . . . . . . . . V Design ehicle . S i g h tD i s t a n c.e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e S P a s s i n g i g h tD i s t a n c . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . ' . . . . Grades Vertical linernent A H o r i z o n t aA l i n e n l e n t l N u m b e lo t 'L a t t e s . . . . . . . atttlIl,oatlwltl Way. Shouldcr. Widthsof Travclccl CrossSlope A C l c a rR e c o v c r v r c a SltlPcs Rtlrtdsidt: Barricr Iloarlsidc a S i g n i r t g t r dM t t r k i r r s St ructures R . R c s t t u r c D c v c l o p n t c n t o a t l s. . ' . . . . . . . c ' R L o c t l S c r v i c c o a t l s. . . . ' . . . . Rcli'renccs ! ChlPtcr 'i RO.\DS AND S1'RF:F:'I'S C'()T,I,F,C'T0RS Irrtroduc!ton . R u r l l C o 1 l c c t o.r.s . . . . . . . . . . . . . D c s 1 g Q q l s i { c r a t i . r i l . , , . . , , , .:. ,t:::: . . . . . ' . ' . . . . . . 4 Gq\taI :. . . . . . . . - . . . . . . ."."." " " " " " " "" T r l l ' f i cV t l l u n l c s Dcsign . Spccd ......... Dcsign . S i g h tD i s t u r t c. c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Grades Alinement.... CrossSlope Superelevation................... o Number f Lanes....... Width of RoadwaY Foreslopes Structures to Bridges Remainin Place VerticalClearance ..'....'...."" to Clearances Obstructions Horizontal Width .....'.... Right-of-Way Design Intersection GradeCrossing Railroad-Road Traffic ControlDevices ErosionControl U r b a nC o t l e c t o r s . . . . . . ' . . ' . . . . ' DesignConsidera General Traftlc Volume Design

463 463 464 464 4& 166 466 466 468 468 468 469 469 470 470 470

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N u r l b e ro l L a n c s . , . . . . . Width of R<tldwa;' L Parking 1rrcs.......,... i\{cdian Curbs........... Drainage Sidcrvrlks Drivervitvs C u r b - C uR a m p s t Ro;rd*avWidths tbr Briilgcs V e r t i c l lC 1 c 4 r 1 n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r L l t r r i z o n rC l c l r a n c e o O b s t r u c t i o l 1 s . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . ' . ' ll Wudth........'. 'i Right-of-Wa1 t Prolision br Utilitics
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A o C l i m b i n gL a n e s n M u l t i l a n e r t e r i a l s CrossSections Superelevated Widths.!,! :,'r: "r' :":' :: "': r"':"' : andRi ghl.of--W'ay " CrossSection Fencing Roadways With Widely Separated Sections Intersectlons Controlof Access a B i k e w a y s n dP e d e s t r l a n s . . . . . . " . . .

VII Chapter RURAL AND URBAN ARTERIALS Introduction Rural Anerials ."........-...... ....."...'..'.."' Characteristics General ..'.""""""" GeneralDesignConsiderations S Design Peed'..'..'... DesignTraffic Volume o Levels f Service..... . S i g h tD i s t a n c e. . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . ' . Alinement:. . G r a d e s. . . ' N u m b e ro f L a n e s. , . . . . Superelevatton,... Slope Cros.s VerticalClearances structures ControlDeviccs Tral't'ic ErosionControl Widths itll to Clcarancc C)bstruct ls " " " " " " " "' Horiz-ontal . a S C r o s s e c t i o n n dR i g h t - o f - W a y" . " " " " tbr Provision Passinq D o D U l t i m a t e c v c l o p n t c n tf F o u r - L a n c i v i d e d Arterials....... A ! l u l t i l a n eU n d i v i d e d r t c r i a l s Arterirls Divided Ccnerll Feltures LaneWidths CrossSlope
ShOUldc'fS_._ !::!.r...:rr.,.i.iri.t.'.:.::.::.:]:j.:

BusTumouts Crossings Railroad 483 483 483 484 484 484 485 485 485 486 .186 486 ,187 ,187 .187 +81 +8$ .r88
A R Safety est reas........... . U r b a nA r t e r i a l s. . . . . . . ' . . . . ' . . . . s ..... CeneralCharacteristic "'. ". " " "' .""""""""' GeneralDesignConsiderations . S D e s i g n P e e d. . " . . . . . DesignTraffic Volumes o Levels f Service . S i g h tD i s t a n c e. . . . . . . . ' . ' . . . . . . Grades Alinement CrossSlope
S ul P p r c r .v' v , t t i ( ) n J i nLrrl

500 501 503 507 508 509 509 5r0 510

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Venical Clearanccs LaneWidths Nunrbcof Lancs r W i d t ho i R o a d r v a v ians lvled CurbsantlShoulclers Drainage L Parking anes........... a B o r d c r s n dS i d e w a l k.s. . . ' . " . . . . . .". . R l i l r o a dC r o s s i n g s R o a d * r t rW i d t h f o r l S r i t l g c : t " t l o r i z o n t aC l c a r l t n ctc l ( ) b s t r u c t i o r l"s " " " " " ' l
Risht-trt-Wlr \\ itltlt Trlific Brtnicrs ,.\cccssContrtll (lcrtcral l:cltturcs ..\cccssCotltrol bY St.ttutc '1"":r,::::r"ii:':r'::::r"':"': . \ c c c s se o t l t r o l b ) , Z i l r r i l t g Corltrol'l'h roush Drir cwlrv Regullttions .-\cccss D A c c c s sC r r t t t r o l ' f h r o u g hC c t r r t r c t r i c c s i g n

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P e d e s t r i aF a c i l i t i e s n F Provision or Utilities I n t e r s e c t i oD e s i g n n .. a C O p e r a t i o n a l o n t r o l s n d R e g u l a t i o n s. . ' . . . ' . . . ' . . . . Traffic Control Devices !leas ures ReguIator-r" Lane Usage Directional One-WayOperation Operation Reverse-Flow ' ' a R F r o n t a g e o a d s n dO u t e rS e p a r a t i o n.s. . . . ' . . . . . and GradeSeparations Interchanges ErosionControl Lighting....... Bikeways..... PublicTransitFacilities . o L o c a t i o n f B u sS t o p s . . . . . . ' . ' . . Bus Turnouts Bus Lanes Reserved Traffic Control Measurcs Rct'erences

53r 532 53,r3l

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C h a p t cV l l l r I,'RIiIi}VAYS

-\).) Intr:rxluclion c . , , t r i , r . , . , i i , r.,...r.:. . . . . ' . - . . . . . . . . . . , " . ' . " " " " " " : " " " " " " " " " " G e n c r nD c s i g n l 5S5 S l ) c s i . s n p c c d. . . . . . . . . . 5-s6 DcsignTraffic Vtllutrlcs 5,i(r c o [-cvcls f Scrvie 557 S l t t l t r l t l c r '.\-.. " . . , . . .. . P i t v u ' t n ca n t l nt 5-i3 Crrrbs......... qr rn.rr,' l,ryrl .55S l g l u \ ( t t lt \r /\ rt r . . . . . . . . . . .)(ll,gl 5.itt (lntdcs -i-59 Structurcs 5-i9 Vcrtical Clcltntttcc -i6{) .. :.."""""". Fltrriu.tlru.t! e!r'illanq.' Qbsllqc!9!l!-::.:.::.:r.::..r:t::::: 1t] .i6{) . . r R l t t t t p s t r t t l ' l ' c r n t i n l r l. s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' 560 Roads ilortlcrs. ltntl [:rtltttagc Outcr Scprtrations. :61 L ' r l ' r t t[t:rr c c ul t \ ' \ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.. G e n e r aC h a r a c t e r i s t i.c s. . . . . . . . . ' . . . . ' . l Medians Freeways;..-.;;::.:;. Depressed and Walls SIooes Typical CrossSection CrossSection Restricted WalledCrossSection FreewaYs of Examples Depressed Freeways Elevated c. G e n e r aC h a r a c t e r i s t i . .s. . . . ' . . . . . . ' . " . l Medians . a R a m p s n dT e r m i n a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . Roads.......... Frontage to Clearance Building Line .......'..". TypicalCrossSection Viaduct FreewaysWithout RamPs Two-Way Viaduct FreewaysWith Ramps on Freeways Earth Embankment Examplesof ElevatedFreewaYs FreewaYs Ground-Level .. G e n e r aC h a r a c t e r i s t i.c s. . . . ' . . . . . . . ' . . . l Section Typical Cros.s CrossSection Restricted ' . . " . . . . . . . ' . . " . 'd .' . . Fr C o m b i n a t i o n - T y p e e e w a y.s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c. G e n e r aC h a r a c t e r i s t i . .s' . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . l ProfileControl Control Cross-Section Freeways of Examples Combination-T;"pe Designs FreewaY Special RoadwaYs.'.. Reverse-Flow FreewaYs Dual-Divided . Rr C o l l e c t o r - D i s t r i b u t oo a d s . . . . . . . . . Transitand High-Occupancy Accornmodating F Vehicle acilities . . G e n e r aC o n s i d e r a t i o n's. . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . l 8uses........... H Exclusive OV lanes B u ss t o P s . S t a i r sr l m p s .a n de s c r l a t o r s. . " . . ' . . . . . . . . . . Busstop arangemcnls Stopsat freewaylevel Stopsat street[evel..

561 561 562 563 564 565 566 566 572 572 573 573 573 574 574 575 576 578 578 584 584 587 588 589 589 s89 593 595 595 595 602 607
60i 607 608 610 610 610 6ll 6ll
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R a i lT r a n s i t '!":',":!"'rr"::i" T y p i e a ls e c t i o n s Stations with freeway of Examoles rail transitcombined s R u r a lF r e e w a y" . . . . . . . ' . ' . . ' . . .s C G e n e r aD e s i g n o n s i d e r a t i o n" ' . . " " " " " l Alinementand Profile Medians....... Sideslopes . F r o n t a gR o a d s . . . . . . . . . e References

6i6 616 620 620 620 620

o!:

623 625 625 626

665 . E f f e c to f C u r b R a d i io n T u m i n gP a t h s . . . . ' . ' . . . 613 Islands 613 cenJrarChiriCteiistiCs..'..'..'..'..................'-"'..'."""""""""""':"':" 613 Roadways Minimum Designlbr Turning 671 Islands Channelized 676 D i v i s i o n ails l a n d s 679 RefugeIslands 619 'n S I s l a n d i z ea n dD e s i g n a t l o . . ' . . . ' . . . . . . . . 680 d D e l i n e a t i oa n dA p p r o a c h - E nT r e a t m e n"t" " " " " " " ' n 681 Turns With Comer Islands Right-Angle 689 TurnsWith Comer Islands""""' Obtique-Angle Terminals Applicationat Tuming Roadway 9?9 696 697 697

' : .

ChapterIX AT.GRADE INTERSECTIONS Introduction and DesignConsiderations Objectives """""" General of Typesand Examples At-GradeIntersections ns G e n e r aC o n s i d e r a t i o . ' . . . " . . . . . . . . . . . . l Intersections Three-Leg . . T B a s i c y p e so f I n t c r s e c t t o n's . . " " " " " " I Thrce-Lcglltcrscctions Channelized Four-LcgIntersecttons BasicTYPes l C h a n n c l i z cF o u r - L c g n t c r s c c t i t l n s d lnterscctions Multilcg AnalYsis Capacitl, Alinemcntand Profile G e n e r aC o n s i d e r a t i o t l s ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' l Alinement Profilc ...^..'......""".' C l n t c r s c c t i o nu r v c s s " W i d t h sf b r T u m i n g R o a d w a v r l t l n t c r s c c t l o n s" " " " " " OutsitlcTrlvcled Wlv Edges Clearance 'furns tilr """""' Designs Sh:rrpest lvlinirnum V P a s s c n g e re h i c l c s . . . . . . . S i n g l e - U n iT r u c k sa n d B u s c s t !":"!:':!'"'""' ' S c m i t r a i l c C o m b i n a t i o +-s. . . . . . . . . " " r Conditions Designlilr Specit'ic Chtticctlt iVlinirnum O b l i q u c - r \ n g lT u r n s c Urbln Strccts tirr Curvaturc Turning Vltlvcnlcttts.

621 62'7 629 629 629

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Approaches-SightTriangle.........."."... . - O.puttut.s-Sight Triangle Control Intersection CaseI-No Control,but Allowing Vehicles . t o A d j u s tS p e e d . . . . . . . . . . CaseII-Yield Controltbr lvlinorRoads...'...... CaseIIl-Stop Controlon lvlinorRoads".'.""' CaseIIIA-Crossing Maneuver CaseIIIB-Turning Lefi into a Major Highway I C a s e I I C - T u r n i n g R i g h ti n t o a M a j o r H i g h w a y CaselV-Signal Control CaseV-Stoppcd VehicleTurning Left '..... HighwaY from a lVlajor Skew ...... of Et'tl'ct of Eft'ect VerticalProfiles at SightDistance Intersections Stopping tbr Tuming RoadwaYs C e n e r l lC o n s i c l e r a t r o n.s. . . . . . ' . . . . . . ' ". . V c r t i c l l C o n t r o l. . . . . Control Horizontal E e r D e s i g n o D i s c o u r a gW r o n q - W a v n t r y" " " " " " .s a t l n l e r s c c t i o n" " " " " " " " ln S u p c r e l e v a t i oo r C u r v e s . .s . . . . ' . ." " ' . . C G e n e r aD e s i g n t l n s i d e r a t i o n l Runoff Superelevation

6-r2 615
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699 700 702 703 Itl 7t6 7t6 718 7ts 721 12l' 12:
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and Transition Superelevation "r,"""""""""""' Contrsl Gradeline ControlDevices Traffic Ty G e n e r aIl n t e r s e c t i o n p e s. . ' . . . " " C n" D e s i g n o n s i d e r a t i o" "s " " " " " " ' Ceneral .o n. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Channelizati . " a La S p e e d - C h a n g e n e s t I n t e r s e c t i o n.s " " " " " " ' M e d i a nO p e n i n g s . . . . . . . C G e n e r aD e s i g n o n s i d e r a t i o n.s " " " " " " " ' l Turning Paths"""""' ControlRadii for Minimum o S h a p e f M e d i a nE n d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . """' Minimum Lengthof MedianOpening on Based ControlRadii MedianOpenings N V ForDesign ehicles oted.."'..."' V P a s s e n g e re h i c l e s . ' . . . ' . Trucksor Buses Single-Unit ' S e m i t r a i l eC o m b i n a t i o n.s. ' . . . ' . . " " " " r E f f e c to f S k e w . . . . . . . . . . . for Above-MinimumDesigns DirectLeft Turns"" IndirectLeti Tums and IndircctU-Turns . C G e n e r aD e s i g n o n s i d e r a t i o n"s" " " " " " " ' l U-TurnLeft Tum or Indire'c:t Inclircct Using Local Strccts IndircctLeti Tunr or lndircctU-Turn. W i c l e c d i a n s. ' . . . . . ' . . ' . . . . . . . M M o t L o c a t i o n n d I ) c s i g n l ' U - ' l ' u r n e d i a nO p c n i r t g s ( L L C o n t i n u o u s c t ' t - T u r n a n c s T w o - W a y )" " " " " " " ' . I A u , r i l i a r v - a n c ..s . . . . . " . . GcncralDcsignConsiclcratiotls L Decelerltion cngth......'.......... Length Storage
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V e r t i c aA l i n e m e n t l General

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740 710
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794 195 802

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780 780 7tt I 7S.1 786 787 tnt 790 791 7el 7,1j 79.1

i V t c d i aL c f t - T u mL a t r c s ' . . . . . . . . . " . . . n E n dT r e a t m c n.t. ' . ' . lVledian Leti Sinrultaneous Turns Rtlacls With Frontage DesignElentents lntersection .n . ' . . . . . ' . . . . ' . . .s a Bicycles tInterscctio s W h e e l c h a iR l n r p sl t I n t c r s e c t l o l.l " . . " " " " " " r
t Lighdng at lntrlrsee iOns ,.':r,'r:1i1:1r:::::::"":'l'

Types and Introduction Ceneral 805 . . o f I n t e r c h a n g e.s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807 and Warrantsfor Interchanges GradeSeparations of Adaptability HighwayCrade 809 ............... and Separations Interchanges 809 ............. Traffic and Operation 8II siteConditions""""""""' " 8l I Facility Type of Highwayand Intersecting .. 812 Safety.......... 813 '. . D S t a g e e v e l o p m e n.t. . . . . . . . 8r3 EconomicFactors 813 I n i t i a lC o s t s 8l-l . C M a i n t e n a n c eo s t s . . . . . . . . . . 8li . C V e h i c u l aO p e r a t i n g o s t s . . . . . . . . . . . r rl I.l . n G r a d eS e p a r a t i oS t r u c t u r e.s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 l't lntroduction 8 l'{ Structures Typesof Separation til I .. U O v c r V e r s u s n d e r. . . . . . . . . . ftll C G e n e r aD c s i g n o n s i d c r a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l lll-5 Widths Structure ti25 Roadway Undemass 826 LateralClearances . . : . . . . . ' . . . ' . . . . . ' . . . . . . ' . .t.l'l S V e r t i c aC l e a r a n c e l lJlS Roadway Ovc.rpass 8l() B r i d s cR a i l i n s s ll]9 L:rterrlClearances Ilc'dians n t t H o r i z o n t aD i s t a n c co E l . t c cG r a d cS c p a r a t i o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l Without Rlrnps Scparations Grede lnterchenges C e n c r uC o n s i d c r a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . l itrrcJ-t.'-sbcsigns........... Dcsigns Four-Lc'g in Rlurtps One Quadrant

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I I I
I I
I I I I I

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I,IST OF TABLES

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I I

845 I D i a n r o n dn t e r c h a n g e s 852 .ri::..rr,:..j.':.:::r:.rr':'r':":::':"rl P o i n tD i a m o n d Single 860 Cloverleafs 863 ts f P a r t i aC l o v e r l e aR a m pA r r a n g e m e n . . . . . " " " " " " " l 870 Interchanges and Semidirectional Oirectional 873 Weaving With LooPsand 873 Weaving With LooPsand No 814 ' F u l l yD i r e c t i o n a.l. . . ' . . . . " . . ' . . 881 TYPes Other Interchange nC . + L ^ 881 . . Orf^f^ s e ttI-n^t, ^e ^r6c^h a n g e's . . . . . ' . 882 Interchanges Combination 888 . . C G e n e r aD e s i g n o n s i d e r a t i o n.s . . . . . . . . . . . . " . . l 888 De lnterchange-Type termination'......'.... 890 .'.....'..'...... to Approaches the Structure 894 Spacing Interchange 894 Pattems Uniformityof Interchange 894 Routes Overlapping 896 . R o u t eC o n t i n u i t y. . . . . . . . . . . . ' 897 Signingand Marking 899 BasicNumberof Lanes and of Coordination Lane Balance 899 BasicNumberof Lancs 904 L Auxiliary ancs........... 908 L a n eR e d u c t i o n ' . ' . . ' . . ' . ' . " . . 909 S Weaving ections....... 9r0 . C o l l c c t o r - D i s t r i b u tR o a d s. . . . . . . . ' . or 910 e S T w o - E x i tV e r s u s i n g l c - E x iltn t e r c h a n gD e s i g n 9 1.1 E Wrong-Way ntranccs..... 915 Rarnps 91,5 and ExamPles Types 916 C nR l r n p D c s i g n o n s i d e r a t i o . .s . " . . . ' . . . . . . . " General 93r Widths Trtveled-WaY Ramp 9.17 .s . . . . . . . ' . . . ' . . R a m pT c r n r i n a l 941 Terminlls. Entrances Frce-Flow Single-Lane .,r++ T . F r e e - F l o w e m t i n a l sE x i t s. . . . . . ' . . . . ' Single-Lane 966 DesignFeatures Other Interchange 966 OPeration Testingtirr Eascof 968 Pcdestrilns 970
Devclopmcnt Gradinglnd Landscape lvlodcls .s R c t ' e r u ' n c.c . . . . .

Page

I -I I-2
rI r
ll_ l

n- 2
II-3 It-4

II.5 II-6 il-1 II-8

III-I III.2 III-3

ilt--+
I I I-.5 III.6

III-7 II I - r J Il l - 9 I l l - 10 lil-il

911 912 912

l n T y ' p i c ad i s t r i b u t i o o f r u r a lf u n c t i o n as y s t e m s l of distribution urbanfunctionalsystems T.u-pical v d Design ehicle imensions v r l l i n i m u m t u r n i n g a d i io f d e s i g n e h i c l e s of freewayin tlow ratein outsidelane Service v i c i n i t l lo l r a m pt e r m i n a l s and recreational fbr trucks,buses, Factors converting cars vehicles equivalent passenger (multilane to highways) by characteristics highwaytyPe............". Level-of-service of Guidefor selection designlevelsof service for statistics five typicalyears.......,.,..... Highwayaccident undividedand four-lane Accidentrateson four-lane dividedhighwaysbeforeand afteropeningsections systemin the sametraffic conidor of Interstate ( .. s S t o p p i n g i g h td i s t a n c ew e t p a v e m e n t s ) . . . . . . . . . . . . sightdistanceEit'ect gradeon stopping of r v c -c o n d i t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t s s D c c i s i o n i g h td i s t a n c e passing of sightdistance-two-lane Elements sat'e ............,........ highwrys o p t s N t i n i n r u n ra s s i n g i g h td i s t a n c eb r d e s i g n f t w o - l a n e highrvavs a o t r l i n i n r u nrrr d i u st i r r d c s i g n f a l l r u r a lh i g h w a y s n d s h i g h - s p c cu r b u ns t r e e t u s i n g d v o l i r n i t i n g a l u e s f e a n df and related designspeed to VrrlLrcs designelements tirr Irorizontrl curvature specdand Vrrlucs desisnclements rclatedto (lesiSn tirr hrrrizrlntal curvalure and to related designspeed Vllues tor designcletnents curvillurc htlrizontal and related designspeed to Vllucs tilr designelcnrents curvature horiz.ontul und to Vllucs tbr designilemcnts related designspeed horizontal curvature

13 l6 2l 22 85

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III-36 III.37 IV- I IV-l IV-l V-l

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Minilum radii and minimum lengthsof superelevation III. I 5 urban runoff for limiting valuesof e and f (low-speed i| r93 streets)......,.. r95 curves Minimum radii for intersection I I I .I 6 n o M i n i m u ml e n g t h s f s p i r a lf o r i n t e r s e c t i oc u r y e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r 9 8 I I I -I 7 curve of I I I .I 8 Lengths circulararc for a compoundintersection when followedby a curveof one-halfradiusor preceded by a curveof doubleradius.......... III.I 9 Derived widths (m) for turning roadwaysfor different 207 designvehicles 208 III-20 Design widths for turning roadways lateralclearances Rangeof shoulder rIt-21 widthsor equivalent outsideof turning roadways,not on structure. where (All dimensions shouldbe increased, 2t3 for necessary, sightdistance.) and lll-22 Calculated designvaluesfor traveledway ( h c w i d e n i n g n o p e nh i g h w a y u r v e s t w o - l a n e i g h w a y s ' o 2t1 o one-way r two-way) on for car Passenger equivalents specificgrades two-lane III-23 ''t A1 , r u r a lh i g h w a y sE ,a n dE , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l.ftt criteriafor specificgrades Level of service lll-24 distribution on factorfbr directional Adjustment lll-25 2-+8 f; specificgrades, gradeanci percent speed, Values v/c ratio versus of lll-26 zonestbr specificgrades percent passing no tactorsfor the combinedeft'ectof narrow Adiustment lll-27 t l-50 width. f* shoulders andrestricted lanes otr lbr equivalents trucksand buses Passcnger-car III-28 1.5-i unitbrm upgrades vehiclcs tbr recreational Passenger-carequivalents lll-29 157 on unitormuPgrades l-5t't highways criteriafor multilane III--10 Level-of-service l-59 sections criteriatbr basictieeway Level-of-service Ill--l I 2qq ttg4t ol igtlgt.4.l,:.:::.:.r !!!.]? iqllqnrqglg4lqqlty4leqtllql t i o ld R c c o m m e n d e e n g t h s f t u r n o u t sn c l u d i n g t p e r . . . . . . . . . ' . . ' 1 6 6 III-33 170 m s of R o l l i n gr e s i s t a n c e r o a d w a y u r t a c i n g a t c r i l l s III-3J ltil tor III--I-5 Designctrntrols crcstvenicalcurves

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v-4 v-5 v-6 v-7

V-8 V-9 V-10 V- I I V- 12 V- I 3 V- l+ V-l-5 VI-I
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l b f o g D e s i g n o n t r o l so r c r e s tv e r t i c ac u r v e s a s e c l n p a s s i ns i g h t c 28 tdis t a n c e ve l 292 D e s i g n c o n t r o lts r . s a - s r t i c ac u r v e s. . . . . . . . . . : : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b t \ o r m a l p a v e m e nc r o s s l o p e 3_11 s eft'ect lanervidthand restricted of lateral Combined 3ll c l e a r a n co n c a p a c i t v e l i78 \ o i s e a b a t e m e n tr i t e r i a b r v a r i o u s a n du s e s c t - ll 9 \ l i n i m u md e s i g n p e e d.s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s . l l i n i m u m s t o p p i n s i g h t i s t a n c( w e tp a v e m e n t .s. ) . . . . . . . . . -119 g d e . .110 \ l i n i m u m p a s s i n g i g h td i s t a n c e s tl I \ l a . r i m u mg r a d e s. . . . . . . . . . t1l Normalcrossslope way and graded shoulder........ t l ' ) lvlinimumwidth of traveled ^Vlinimum clearroadwavwidthsand designloadings tbr +_ -t new and reconstructed bridges and minimum roadway lvlinimum structuralcapacities .l2J widthsfor bridges remainin place to
*I

Cornersightdistances rural intersections at M i n i m u mi l l u m i n a t i oln v e l s . . . . . . . . . . . e N { i n i m u m t o p p i n g i g h td i s t a n c e s s passing lbr lUininrum sightdistance two laneroads (% roads .. i\laxinrunrsrades ) fbr recreational W i c l t h s f t r r v e l e d v a va n ds h o u l d e r o r l an , \ l i n i r n u nd c s i t r ts p e c d si r r r e s o u r cte c v e l o p r n c n t t l r l I o c u s c r v i c co a d s . . . . . . . . . . . . l r l s s s \ l i n i r r r u nrtl c s i s r tp c c t l ( r u r a c o n d i t i o r t . .). . . . . . . . . . .

421 .l-ll -1J6 -1-17 -1'+S +-51 +55 -16l

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hri,i,'r's \ l i n i n r L r n ts t r u c t t r n rc : r p a c i t i c s n t i t n i n i t r t t t n lr r x t t l * u v l a u itlths lirr bridrtcs to rcrnuin in placc R c l r t t i o no t ' r n a x i r n u r ng r a d c st o r l c s i g r ts p e c t l \ l i r t i r t t u r t tw i t l t l t o l ' t l u r c l c d r v l v a t t r lu s a b l cs l t t l t t l t l c r firr rural artcrials R c ' l a t i o n t s i g h t t l i s t a n c et o d c s i s n s p c c t l. . . . . . . . . . . . o \lrrrirnuln grltlcs lirr urhln lrlcrirtls .................. ...-...:....... Stlnilrrurrr!iirtlcs litaulbirtl lrnil rtrrlrl ll'c'c'tvllV.s \ l i r t i r n u n r c t l s c - o t - t n t v c - l c w l v d c s i g n s t i r t 't u r n s u t tl I r tl c r \ c c || ( ) n 5 J(r-lo-lsh lss -l()() . 5l J .i-ie

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tbr way lvtinimumedge-of-traveled designs turnsat Intersectlon.s f b t C r o s ss t r e e w i d t h o c c u p i e d y t u r n i n gv e h i c l e o r v u r i o u s IX.3 o n a n g l e s f i n t e r s e c t i oa n dc u r br a d i i. . . ' . . . ' . . . ' . r t M i n i m u md e s i g n sb r t u r n i n g o a d w a v s IX-.I n l e n g t h s f s p i r a lf b r i n t e r s e c t i oc u r v e s o Minimum IX-5 curve circulararc tbr a compoundintcrseclion Lengthsof IX.6 by a curveof one-halfradiusor preceded when followecl . b y a c u r v eo f d o u b l er a d i u s . . . . . " . . . s in vehicles -3.0 by traveled Distances lx-7 vehicles ratestbr passenger IX-8 Acceleration time at (t") at Effectof gradicnton accelerating IX.9 intersections for t x - 1 0 Stoppingsightdistance tuming roadways on Designcontrolsfbr crestverticalcurvesbased I X - II sightdistance stopping .s a rn s S u p e r e l e v a t i oa t e f o r c u r v e s t i n t e r s e c t i o n . . . . . ' . " " " . . " IX-I2 way Maximum rateof changein edge-ot--traveled elevation IX.I3 .s i f b r c u r v e sl t i n t e r s e c t i o n . . . . " . . . . ' . . . . in diff'erence crossslopeat algcbraic Ivlaximum tx-t4 terminals turninqroadway h o i I X - 1 . 5 G u i d ei i r r l c t i - t u r n a n c s n l w o - l a n e i g h w a - v s ( s n o d M i n i r n u n r c ' s i g n l ' t n c c l i a o p c n i n g s P c l e i g nv e h i c l e ' lX- 16 o c o n t r or a d i u s t ' l 2 r n ). . . ' . . . . . . ' . l l s o n [ V l i r r i n r t rd c s i g n t ' t n c t l i r to p c r t i n g( ' S L d es i g nv eh i c l c ' nt lX- l7 c o n t r o lr l t l i u st l l ' l - 5n t ). . . . . . ' . ' . . . ( o n N ' l i r r i r t r t drc s i g n t ' t r t c t l i ao p c n i n g sW t l - 1 3t l c : s i g n r n tX- fS s v c h i c l e c o n l r o lr ; t d i t t o l ' l - l n t ) . . . ' . . . . . . . . opcnlngs dcsigntirr ntetlian tlt'tccttlt'skuv on tlrinitllttttl lX- l9 o r s o ( t y p i c a v ; . t l u cb a s e d n c o n t r o l a d i u s f l 5 m ) " " " " " " ' l o t n c D e s i g n o n t r o l sb r n r i n i r n u r m e d i a n p e n t n r : s IX-10 lf i s d c s i g n i g h tt l i s t r r n cfct r c o r r r b i n a t i ton h i g h r v a v Rcquired tx-l t vehiclc spccds: rn truck crossllttl l0 untl trltin r I s i n g l cs c tt l l t r i t c k s l t9 0 ' . . . . . . . . . . . t s l r a n t l ld c s i g n p c e d t sr c l a t c d o h i g l t w l v l G u i d cv l r l u c st l r x-l .l d e sg n s p e e c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i . lt l ! l i n i n r r r ml c n g t ho f t a p c rb c v o n d t n r l l ' l . s c1 ( ) s c" " " " " " " ' x-l x--l Dcsign* idthstbr turningroadwavs lorentrancc tcrmuralswith len-qths 3{-'!'ete1-a1k)p \--.1 - lvtinirnunt t t l l t g r l d c so f 2 p c r c e no r l c s s. . . . . . ' . . . ot' lts factors a lurlctiott Spcctlchrrntclanc ttd.iustmcnt lX-2
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LIST OF FIGURES

I -l I-2 I-3
t.4 l-t

of Hierarchy movement izationof trips Channel rural classified of illustration a functionally Schematic highwaynetwork street of illustration a portionof a suburban Schematic network in systems service classified of Relationship functionally ..'....... traffic mobility and landaccess Minimum tumingpathfor P designvehicle Minimum turningpathfor SU designvehicle Minimum turningpathfor BUS designvehicle Minimum tuming pathfor A-BUS designvehicle Minimum tuming pathfor WB- l2 designvehicle v p M i n i m u mt u r n i n g a t hf o r W B - 1 5 d e s i g n e h i c l e. . . . . . . . . ' . . ' . v p M i n i m u mt u r n i n g a t hf o r W B - l 8 d e s i g n e h i c l e v p t u r n i n g a t hf o r W B - 1 9 d e s i g n e h i c l e Ivlinimum vehicle turningpathfbr WB-20 de'sign lvlinimum (lnterstate Semitrailer) turningpathfbr WB-29 design Ivlinimum r c h i c l e( T r i p l eT r a i l e r ) turningpathtor WB-35 clesign fvlinimum (Tumpike ouble railer) D T vc'hicle parhtbr MH designvehicle turning lVlinimurn Minirnumturningpathtor P/f designvehicle Nlinimumturningpathtbr P/B designvehicle lvlinimumturningpathtor MH/B designvehicle cars.levcl ctlnditions of Accelcration passenger vehicles approaching tbr distanccs passenger Decclcrrtion intcrsections (irneto expected and utiexpecteti driver reaction \letli:.rn intirrmation lnd time to expected driverre:lction 8-5th-percentile intbrmation unexpected betw-enTeak-hirmrnd avcr:rgedaily traftic RCLrti-)n v t l l u n t e o n r u r a la r t e r i l l s . . . . . . . . s

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243

252 two-lane highway Exampleproblem-freeway truck climbing laneanalysis261 four-lanefreeway 263 h III-3.1 C l i m b i n gl a n eo n m u l t i l a n e i g h w a y 269 actingon vehiclein motion III-35 Forces 273 ramps .......... escape III-36 Basictypesof emergency Jt6 ramp ............ Typical emergency escape trI-3'7 281 III-38 Typesof verticalcuryes.......... III-39 Designcontrolsfor crestverticalcuryes,for stoppingsight 284 distance-upper range Designcontrols for crest venical curves,for stopping sight III-40 286 distance-lower range Designcontrols for sag vertical curves-upper range ........ 289 III-4I Designcontrolsfor sagverticalguruss-lower range........ 290 Ut-42 in III-43 Alinementand profilerelationships roadwaydesign 298 Figures through ................. N A for Roadwaysections dividedhighway(basiccrossslope IV.I 329 a r r a n g e m e n t s.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 336 shoulders Gradedand usable IV-2 341 . . T y p i c a lc r o s s e c t i o ns u p e r e l e v a t e.d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s , IV.3 346 c . IV-.1 T y p i c a lh i g h w a y u r b . s. . . . . . . . . . 355 regions of roadside I V - 5 Designation 3-59 s . T y p i c a lc r o s s c c t i o nn o r m a lc r o l v n. . . . . . . . . . IV6 37r .............. roadarrangemeltts Typical frontage IV.7 312 pattern irregular roads. IV-tt Frontage and exit ramps entrance liontageroad.s. One-rvay lv-9 r , e I V . I O T w o - w a yf r o n t a g eo a d se n t r a n c a n de x i t r a m p s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 roadin business areawith nalTowouter Frontage IV-II 37.5 scparution 316 r v p i c a l, r " t . r l . o r r " , ; ; ; ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tv- tl -lttO the Eft'ects depres.sing highway of IV- l-l I -18 the lV- tJ Eft'ects elevating highway of .188 s t l V - 1 . 5 T y p i c a ln v o - l a n eu n n e l e c t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -190 u l IV-t6 D i a g r a m m a t itc n n e s e c t i o n s 3 9I t l E n t r a n ct o t i e e w a y u n n e. . . . . . . . . . e lV- 17 lnterior of a 3-!a!e ory:ya-v !!!!q! :r:11.njjj1.j1..-,, ..,.... ,-19 !! 1l$ ! -19'l Pcdcstrian ovcrpass IV- 19 .. -19-5 structure Pedcstrian sepurution lV-10 397 C u r b - c u r a r n rd e t a i l s t r IV-l I III.33

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Curb-cutrampat middleof radius a C u r b - c ur a m p s t e n do f c u r br a d i u s . . . . . . . . . . t e * i t h a i C h i t e c t u rta l x t u r e r Cuiu-cui amp midblock Curb-cutramp at o a M e d i a n n di s l a n d P e n i n g s Bus turnouts !lidblock bus turnout a . b S a w t o o t h u sl o a d i n g r e a . . . . . . . . . . . . . facil T;-picalpark-and-ride itY . n l P a r k i n ga n et r a n s i t i o a t i n t e r s e c t i o.n . . . . ' . . ' . . . . . ......... streets and Typesof cul-de-sacs dead-end . Alleys......... roadnetwork Potential '...""" curve for gravelsurface horizontal Minimum-radius Tumout design Desirableminimum RAV two-lane arterial Climbing laneon two-lanerural arterial crosssectionwith ultimatedevelopment Two-lanearterial arterial to a fbur-lane

398 400 401 4A2 403 .105 406 409 410 4l I 434 436 445 450 451 489 492 495 )ul 50.1 505 -507 5l t i
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on superelevation dividedarterials of "" VII-4 lvlethods attaining on V I I - 5 Typicalmedians dividedarterials on arrangements divided arterials V I I - 6 Crosssection on arrangements dividedarterials V I I - 7 Crosssection l l VII-It C o n t i n u o un r e d i a ne f i - t u r n a n e. . . . . ' . . . . . . ' s i t u r n o u t sn d o u n t o w nd i s t r i c t VII-9 Parking a n V I I -I O A n cr i aI s tr c L ' itr t r c si d e t i aI a r e . . . . ...... .' .. \ l i d c da r t c r i as t r c c t \ i t h p a r k i n gl a n c s . ' . . . ' . . . . . . Dir VII.II b c t V I I -I ] ' \ r t e r i a ls t r c e r v i t ha c c c s s o u t r o l l e d y s t a t u t c . " . . " ' . " " " " ' * arterialstreet ith one-waytiontageroads'."" "" Dir ided vil-t3 . r i V I I - I . T U n d i v i d e dr r t e r i arlv i t hf r o n t a g eo a d s . . . . . . . . . . . ol'one-uav fiontage V I I -I . 5 Shortsegment road in downtowndistrict frontage vll-lf, One-rvav w i t h d u u ll c t i - t u ml a n e s. . . . . . . . . . . . v i l - 1 7 L r h a nl r t c r i a l s t vll-lrt A r t c r i a ls t r c e w i t h p r o v i s i o n f b r l c t i - t u m s \\ ith twtl-wav fiontageroad"""" " ' V I I . I 9 Dir idetllrtc'rialstrccr c s d v l l - 1 0 G f t r t l c e p a n t t cs t r u c t u r t l n l n c r i a l s t r c c t. . . . . " " " tt s u vil-l I B u ss t o p s t s p e c i allo c l t t i t l na d . ; a c c no c c n a i n Vll-ll VII-:-1 VIII- I Vlll-l lurtcrials b E x c l u s i v e u sl a n c b E x c l u s i v c u sl l n c r t s T yp i c l l c r o s s e c t i o ni l r d e p r c s s cfd c e w a v s t.reeways lirr sccti()lls dcprcsscd cr()ss Re:trictcd

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Vltl-3-14 V I I I - . 1 - l B F r r ' c r v l v - t r a n s iu t p a r a l l ea r r a n g e m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6.0.9 l ot . . . V l l l - . l - l B u ss t r . r p st f i e c w a )l-e v e l. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6l: a V-11F.3-f Bfratog{ltaTiaewrv-lE El aliamondihiE-eha-Ec*--...' 611 VIll-16 6l.s F r c r : r ' , : . r l - l c h c lss t o pa t c l o v e r l e aifn t e r c h a n g e vu l V I I I - . 1 7 f : r c c r r u-rl c v c 'b u ss t o p: r tc l o v e r l e aifn t e r c h a n g c 615 u Ol1 V I t t - . l l ' { B u ss t t l p s t s t r c c t c v e lr r nd i a m o n d n t e r c h a n s e l i

-way 618 right-of with retaining VIII-3T Joint freeway-transit walls on depressed Crosssections 619 median t VIII-4O Typical sectionswith rail *ansit in f+eeway f r e e w a yw i t h o u r a m p s : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . : . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . .567. . . . . . . s : .... 6 2I . l t o freeway V I I I - 4I E x a m p l e f t r a n s i s t a t i o na y o u t . . . . . . . . . Depressed 568 621 freewaywith rail rapidtransitin the median...'. VIII-42 Depressed Depressed freeway 569 622 freewaywith rail rapid transitin the median..... VIII-43 freeway Depressed Depressed 510 621 VIII-44 Typicalrural medians r D e p r e s s efd e e w a y . . . . . . . . 571 " 631 Typical cross-sections elevated freeways on IX- I C h a n n e l i z eh i g h - t y p eT " i n t e r s e c t i o n s . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . d for "T" channelized .......' 633 rural intersection. IX-2 Exisringthree-leg s t r u c t u r ew i t h o u tr a m p s . . . . . . . . . . s . 576 634 plain and flared.'..'.' four-legintersections, freeways structure on IX-3 Unchannelized Crosssections elevated for 636 i fd u r - l e g n t e r s e c t i o n s . . . . . . . ' . . . . . ' . . , . ! . . o with frontage 577 lX-4 Channelize roads........... 638 T i n t e r s e c t i o nc h a n n e l i z e"d " . . . ' . ' . . . . . . . . s, Four-leg freeways embankment on ........ 579 IX-5 Crosssections elevated for 639 (channelized high-type) intersections Four-leg IX-6 Viaduct freeway 580 640 (channelized high-type) 'IX-7 Four-legintersections 581 Viaduct freeway 642 multilegintersections Realining IX-8 582 Two-level viaduct freeway &5 ................. variations intersections at Realinement . 583 IX-9 o F r e e w a y n e m b a n k m e n.t, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653 ve f M i n i m u md e s i g n so r p a s s e n g e r h i c l e s . . . . ' . . on ................ 585 IX- l0 Freeway embankment 655 unit trucksand buses for view of viaductfreeway Minimum designs single 586 IX- I I Underside (WB- l2 combinations for Minimum designs semitrailer ramp ........... 586 lX-12 Sideview of freewayentrance 657 fl . designvehiclepath) s s T y p i c a lc r o s s e c t i o n f o r g r o u n d - l e v e r e e w a y s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 (WB- l5 combinations for freeways Minimum designs semitrailer crosssections ground-level for 588 IX- 13 Restricted 65ll v p design ehicle ath) freeway, restricted right-of-waywithout Ground-level (WB- l5 combinations tbr designs semitrailer iV{inimum 590 IX-I4 ll'ontagroads............ e 6-59 t e designvehiclepath) i e c -591 P r o f l e c o n t r o l - - r o l l i ntg r r a i n o m b i n a t i o n - t y p ie e w a y . . combinations semitrailer for designs interstale freeway....... 591 tx- t5 iVlinirnunr Profile control--tlat terraincombination-type 660 p v d freeway 59-1 Cross-scction controlcombination-type 1 W B - . l 9 e s i g n e h i c l e a t h ). . . . . . . . . . . . (s B - 2 9 W c f \ { i n i m u m d e s i g n sb r t r i p l et r a i l e r o m b i n a t i o n ticeway' 596 I X -I 6 Combination-type 6 6I v p design ehicle ath) tieeway -597 Cornbination-type t c t is i t l i n i m u md e s i g n sb r d o u b l e r a i l e r o r n b i n a t i o nW B - 3 - 5 -59[l cantilcvered freervay IX.I7 Four-level 661 v p cicsignehicle ath) tbr operation -599 Typical crosssections reverse-f'low of IX.I8 Eit'ect curb radii on tunling pathsof variousdesign reverse roadwayterminals 60 I Diagrammatic 666 vchicles 60-i A -l-l-J reversctlow f'reewav Eftc'ct U m | n g p i on tuming u s d e s g ^ ] - ] - ] r c v e r s e t . l o w t r c e w l y ' ' . . ' ' . ' . . . ' . . ' ' . ' ' . . ' ' . . . . . . ' . . - ' . . ' . . ' ' ' . ' , ' 6 ( N I X - I 9 E l l c c t o f c u r b r . r d l ' o n of curb rlriiil n s o r v l n o pathsof lvariousdesisn | 6bo 'chiclcs h()-5 Dilgrlrnrnatic dual-divided tieeway Et'tecrofcurbradiiandparkingonturningpaths''.........'.'..66() IX ]0 Dual-dir ided tieewlv rvith r -l-3-3-4 roadwlv w b is V r r r i r r t i o nn l c n g t ht t f c r o s s w a l k i t h c o r n e r - c u rr l d i u s {n)6 tx-tI rlrrangenrent : 67 | . ot'borcter lntl rviclth 609 E,xclusivc'hroadwav us

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IX-)1 IX-2rl IX-29 IX-30 IX-3I tx-32 IX-33 IX-3.{ IX-35 IX.36 IX-37 IX-lr,r JX.39 _lx-.10 t x - +I tx--tl lx-l.l l.\-r{ I\-r.i

I.\--16 lX--17

D e t a i l s f t r i a n g u l airs l a n d e s i g n c u r b e d s l a n d sn o o ( d i , s h o u l d e r. l. . . . . . : : . . . : . . . D e t a i l s f t r i a n g u l airs l a n d e s i g n c u r b e d s l a n d i t h o ( d w i shoulders) Nosedown at approach end of medianand island Detailsof divisionalislanddesi-en Designs turningroadways for with minimum comer islands Useof transition and compound curvesat turningroadway terminaldesigns 30 kmlh rums ............ fbr Useof transition and compound curvesat turningroadway terminaldesigns 50 km/h turns ............ for Sightdistance intersections, at minimum sighttriangle...... Sightdistance intersections (CaseIII. acceleration at fiom stop) Acceleration curves Acceleration curve time-speed relationship passenger for vehicles Intersection sightdistance at-grade at intersections ( A l a n dA 2 ) - l n t e r s e c t i o n i g h td i s r a n c eC a s e I I A l s ( I level-90 degree crossings) S i g h td i s t a n c e t i n r e r s e c r i o nC a s cI I I A , r e q u i r e d a (s s i g h td i s t a n c e l o n ga n r a j o rh i g h w a y ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a C a s eI I I B . s t o p p c d e h i c l e u m i n g l e f t o n t ot r v o - l a n r n a o r v t e j highwav .........:.. C a s el l l B , s t o p p c d c h i c l ct u r n i n gl e l i o n t or n u k i l a n e v hishwa_r Intcrscction sightdistances itt-grade at interscction ( C r s eI I I B a n dC a s e l l C ) . . . . . . . . . . . . l C a s cl l l C . s t o p p e d e h i c l e u m i n gr i g h to n t or r v o - l a n e v t r n a . j oh i g h w a y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r Sightdistancc intersecrions. at eft'ect skerv of D c s i g n o n r r o l so r c r c s tv c r t i c a c u r v c s( s t o p p i n g i g h r c f l s d i s t a n c e .p e nr o a dc o n d i t i o n s ) . . . o Lutcralclcarance sightttbstrucrion to insitleot' h t l r i z o n r a lu r v e s r o v i d i n g t o p p i n g i s t t n c c c p s d lirr turningroadways 'f',vo-llnc crossroud designs discouragc to wron[-rvilv
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IX-48 682 684 685 686 IX-49 IX.5O

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133 735 736 13'l

1ll tal 1A") 1,1.1

at of Development superelevation turningroadway terminals roadway at.turning of Development superelevation at of Development superelevatlon tumlng roadway terminals...... intersections typesof at-grade General intersections typesof at-grade General " T " i n t e r s e c t i o n.s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "T" intersections .............. .'...'......'. "T" Channelized intersections .., "T" Channelized intersections -.........left turns """"' for Control radii at intersections 90-degree (P lvlinimumdesignof medianopenings designvehicle, o controradius f l2 m) ............ l (SU designvehicle, Minimum designof medianopenings o controradius f l5 m).'.'.....'.' l (WB- 12 design designof medianopenings iVtinimum o r v e h i c l ec o n t r o l a d i u s f 2 3 m ) . . . . ' . . . ' . . , ( o o o d N l i n i m u m e s i g n f m e d i a n p e n i n g sr a d i u s f 3 0 m ) " " " (eft'ect skew)"""' of iUinimumdesignof medianopenings Above minimum designof medianopenings (rypicalbullet noseends) " J u g - h a n d l e - t y r a m pw i t h c r o s s r o a"d " " " " " " " ' pe " loop) with crossroacl loop (surthce Ar-grade leaving leti-turndcsignstbr tratTic intJirect Special median...""" highwayrvith narrtlrv Indirectlett turn through3 crossover tbr }linimurn designs U-tums indirectU-tum rvith nanorvtnedians Special m \ i u l t i l a n ca n dt w o - l a n e a r k i n g s . t T i r p c r e s i g n b r r u x i l i a r yl a n e s " " " " " ' d d - l . l t o - 5 . 'm m c d i a n i d t h l e t i - t u r n e s i g n" " " " ' w l \ledian leti-turntlesigntbr medianwidth in cxccss m of -5.'l ls s pr i F o u r - l e gn r e r s e c t i o n o v i d i n g i m u l t u n e t l uc l ' tt u r n s . . . . . . -' wi{h fntersc'c-tieins fro+ttlLreroatj's""""""""' cr h Railroad ighway'gradc ossing"""""""" " crossor stop Clsc r\: illoving vehicleto sat'el,v
lt railroad crL)sslnq

693 694 698 705 706 107 708

IX-52 IX-53 IX-54 IX-55 IX-56 IX-57 IX.58 IX-59 IX.60 IX-6I tx-62 IX-63 IX-6.1
IX-65 IX-66 lX-67 IX-68 IX-69

745 716 74'l 753 756

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X-22 X-23 X-2,1 X-l-5 X-:6 X-17

x-lrl x-19

position of CaseB: Departure vehiclefrom stopped i r o e r o s s i n g l e a i l r o a dr a c k. . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 0 r t y I n t e r c h a n gte p e s . . . . . . . . . . . . 806 with closedabutments 8 1 9 structures Typical gradeseparation with open-end Typical gradeseparation structures spans ... 820 Multilevelgradeseparation structures 822 Lateral clearances major roadway underpasses for 827 Typical overpass structures 830 Flat terrain, distance required effectgradeseparatron .... to 834 interchanges with singlestructures Three-leg 838 with multiplestructures interchanges Three-leg 840 (T-type or trumpet) Three-leginterchange 841 Three-leg interchange semidirectional design u2 three-leg interchange with minor interchange Directional providedinternally 843 three-leg interchange a river crossing .......... 843 Directional of Trumpet-type freeway-to-freeway interchange ................... 84.1 Modified trumpetinterchange an urbanfacility and a at freeway........ 8.14 Four-leginterchanges, rampsin one quadrant 846 Diamondinterchanges, conventional arrangements 8.18 interchange arrangements reducetratTic Diamclnd to conllicts 8-19 with adclitional Diarnond interchanges structures 8.50 diamondinterchangt: Frecwaywith a three-lcvel ti.52 f E x i s t i n g i r u r - l e gn t e r c h a n gw i t h d i a r n o n d t a g e i e s conslructlon tl5.l X-pattcrnramparrangement............. 8-5-l singlcpoint intcrchange Underpass 8-56 in .\n SPI undetpass restricted right-of-wuy ll57 lavoutwith a frontage Ovcrpass roadand lr separatc s.59 U - t u r nr n o v e m e n t s U n d c r p a sS P I a n dO v e r p a sS P I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s 86I i f. f F o u r - l e sn t c r c h a n g eu l l c l o v e r l e aw i t h roa collcctor-distributor ds............ 116l C l o v e r l e aifn t e r c h a n gw i t h c o l l e c t o r - d i s t r i b u tro ra d s . . . . . . l l 6 - i e o l S c h c n r a t io f p a r t i a c l o v c r l c a f ' r r r nipr r a n g c l n c n tc r,i t l n d c l s e n t r r n c eu r n s. . . . . . . . . . . . t 866
\rwt, yuuurstr rr.rr r......,.,.,.....,.

X-34 X-35 X-36 X-31 X-38 X-39 X-40 X-41 X-42 X-43 X-44 X-45 X-46 X-4'7 X-48 X-4g X-50

l x-,s x-52 x- 53 x-5-+ x--s-5 x--s6 x--57 x-.5r1 x-.s9

X-60 X-6 I X-61 'i
I

with no weavlng interchanges Semidirect -mult!leve! anddirectioqal Semidirectional !nlerchangcs struclures connections two """"" interchange. semidirect Directional Four-leveldirectionalinterchange Four-leveldirectionalinterchange with loops interchange Semidirectional with a singleloop"' interchange Semidirectional with two exitsand interchange semidirectional Four-level o n e a c hl e g . ' . . . . . " " " " two entrances via Offsetinterchange ramp highway"""""""""' diamond with a semidirect Four-leginterchange, connection cloverleafwith a semidirect Four-leginterchange, connection one-halfdiamondand one-quadrant Four-leginterchange' ..... cloverleaf Complexinterchangearangement to with connections downtown freewaysection Elevated . a r e a. . . . . . . . . . . . . .....'.... Variedrampalrangements interchange cloverleaf """"""" with a three-level Freeway to as on of Adaptability interchanges freeways related types facilities of intersecting Wideningtbr divisionalislandat interchanges n s "s A n a n g e m e no f e x i t sb c t w e e n u c c c s s i vi e t c r c h a n g e" " t road Collector-clistributor on rnltjor-minor overlaP roadway r ' " o l n t e r c h a n gfe r m st o m a i n t a i n o u l Lc o n t i n u i t y " " " " " " " " of Schematic basicnumberof lanes of Typical examPles llne balance of and basicnunrber llncs "" of Coonlination lanebrllance l s a n A l t e m a t i v e is d r o p p i n g u x i l i a r y r t n c " " " " " " ' of and basicnutnber lanes of Coordinatittn lanebalance l o l t h r o u g h p p I i c a t i o n f a u x i I i a r ;l" n c s" " " " " " ' e a . \ u x i l i a r yl a n ed r o p p c d t t w o - l a n c x l t " " " " " " ' tbrmi u ith one and two exits Interchange . o G e n e r atly p e s f r a n l p s . . . . . " " ' r:rmp at of Developmenr superelevation frc'e-tlow terminals . . c T y p i c a lr t o r ca r e i l h a r e c t c r i s t i c.s . " " " " " " '

875 876 877 878 878 879 880 880 88r 882 883 884 885 886 886 887 89r li93 tt9-5 s97 89S 900 90I
90-1 906 q0;

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X-O-t _Ramp shapcs....,.......'..'....i..............""::rriiir"":"'iiii'-t:""11

X-.1 I X-l: I X-.1

t i F ( ) u r - l c sn t c r c h a n g(ew o - q u a d r a n t o v e r l e u l ) cl Four-lcgintcrchanrc(pilrtiulclovcrlcaf) . S c r r r i r l i r cr rtt c r c h u n g r rst h w c a v i n s ic ci

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x-6-i

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x-66
61

x-68 x-69 x-]0 x-71 x-]2 x-73 x-74 x-75 x-76 x-'t7 x-78 x-79 x-80 x-81 x-82 x-83 x-84 x-8-5 x-86 x-87 x-88

goredetails T1'pical Tr:aveled-way narrowing entrance on ramps...-,..... . C o r ea r e as i n g l e - l a n e i t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ex Gore area.major fork Gore area,two-lane exit on viaduct Entrance terminal Recommended minimum ramp terminalspacine T y p i c a ls i n g l e - l a ne n t r a n c r a m p s. . . . . . . . . . e e Exit ramps-single ne a Layoutof taper-type terminals curves on Parallel-type ramp terminals curvesdiagrammatic on ........ Single-lane fieewayterminals Single-lane freewayterminals Single-lane freewayterminals Typical two-laneentrance ramps ........... Two-laneexit terminals Multilaneerminals t Multilaneerminals t ..................,,. Multilaneerminals t Muhilane erminals t Major tbrks Branch onnections c Diagramof freewayoperational problenr and solution.......

930 932 933 933 934

vJ4

F OR EW OR D
of strive to tiotide foi the needS t'igtt*ui engineeis n, f,igfr*oy Jesigneis. of the environment' Unique highway userswhile maintainingthe integrity that are always conflicting result in unique of co-mbinations requiremenrs by supplied this text,A Polic;" ro solurions thedesignproblems.The guidance practlces on established is and Streets. based Desienof H ighu'avs on Geometrit' to is also intended form a by and is supplemented recentresearch.This text and planning. in for manual assistance administrative. ref-erence comprehensive to pertaining designformulation' eff,orts educational hereindoesnot imply that The fact that new designvaluesare presented the nor and highwaysare unsafe, doesit mandate initiationof existingstreets acas is This publication not intended a policy for resurf projects. improuement this type. or ing, restoration rehabilitation(R.R.R.) projects. For projectsof oI where major revisionsto horizontalor vertical curyatureare not necessary S ned p r a c t i c a l . ; x i s t i n g d e s i g n v a l u e s m a y b e r e t a ip e c i.f i c s i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d are historyanalysisoften indicatethat th existingdesignfeatures accident for manner. The cost of full reconstruction these performing in a satisfactory will oftennot be is wheremajorrealinement not required, particularly iacilities, projects enablehighway and restoration rehabilitation justified. Resurtacing, existinghighway upgrading by ro improvehighwaysafery selectively agencies 3R Whendesigning withoutthecosrof full reconstruction. t'eature.s androadside Safer Report214, Dcsigning to shouldref'er TRB Special rhe projects designer lrnd antl Restorttlion Rehabilitati(.)n related Roatls.PruL'tiL'cs ResutJrtt'ing,. .fitr guidance. tbr puLrlications by to The intentof thispolicy is to provideguidance thedesigner ret'crencing Sufficienttlexibilitl' is ibr of values criticaltlintensions. rangc' a recontmcndc'd designstailoredto particularsituatiorts' inilependent pennittedto encourase by given9r irnpliecl the lowervaluein a givenranr:e Mininrumvalucsareeither rvill normallybe uscdwherethe the ranges of values.The largervaluesrvithin a ( S . E . E . i)m p a c t s r en o t c r i t i c a l . a s o c i a l e c o n o m i c n de n v i r o n m e n t a i . ctlrridorsbr' joint use tlf transportation on has Ernphasis beenplacecl thc t r s v c h i c l c sD c s i g n c rs h o u l d c c t l s n i z ch c ' . a p e d e s t r i u nc yc l i s t s n dp u b l i ct r l l n s i t s, to antl corrid(lrs itrccnc()uragcd of implicltionsof thissharing thetransporta(ion ' t b u t a l s om o v e m c uo t ' p c t l p l cd i s t r i b u r c o n s i d en o to n l v v e h i c u l am o v e m e n t , r c , l t t i r ) nt ) t g 6 O t l sa t t t lp r t l v i s i t l n l t ' c s s e n t i as c r y i c c s . A t t t t l r cc t l t t t p r c h c n s i r cmphasizcd. is progratn thercby transponation t l C o s t - e f t c c r i vd c s i g ni s a l s o c m p h a s i z c d .T h c t r a d i t i o n ap r o c e d u r er i c c0mDq4'rs-hixhya.v:g!9t.h!gntswithcostshasbeenexpandcdtorcflectthe t a l . ; n . . j * n t n n n - u . . r : u n t l r h e c n v i r o n m c n tA l r h o u g h t l d i n rc o m p l e x i t y o t h e
this blradcr lpproach ulstl takcs inttl itccrlunlboth the nced tilr I Elvcn lnal-"-sis, project tnd rhc relativc priorirics amons vuritlus projects. Tht' results of this

943 946 950 953 95s 956 956 957 959 960 962 962 962 963 964 967 969

approach mayneedto bemodifiedto meettheneeds-versus-funds problems that faee.Thb goal of cost:effecrive @rway adminisrrators designi.s mereryto not give priority to the mosrbeneficial individuarprojects tJprovide rhemosr but benefits the highwaysystem which eachproiectis a part. to of Most of the technical materiar that follows is detaired descriptive or design information.Designguiderines incruded freeways. are fbr arteriars, coilectors. and local roads'in both urbanand rurar rocations, paraileling the functional classification usedin highwaypranning.The book is organizeJ into funcrional chapters stress rerationship to the between highwaydesrgn and highwayfunction. An explanation functional of classification included Chaprer is in I. Theseguidelines are intendedto provide operationar efficiency,comfort, ' safety,and convenience the motorist. fbr The designconcepts presented herein werealsodeveloped with consideration environmental for quuiity. The effects of thevarious environmental impacts andshourd mitilateiuy thoughtfur can be design processes. principre, This coupred with thatof aesthetic consistency with the sunounding terrainand urbansetting, intended produce is to highwaysthat aresaf'e efficientfor users, and acceptable non-users in harmonywith the ro and environment. This publicarionsupersedes r990 AASHTo publication the of rhe same name.Because concepts the presented courdnot possibly conrpretely be covered in one book, references addirionalliterature to are glven at the end of each chapter.

ChapterI HIGHWAY FUNCTIONS

SYSTEiVIS AND CLASSIFICATIONS T h e c l a s s i f i c a t i oo f h i g h w a y s n t o d i f f e r e n r p e r a t i o n a l y s r e m sf,u n c t i o n a l n i o s c l a s s e s .r g e o m e t r i cy p e si s n e c e s s a rfyo rc o m m u n i c a t i oa m o n ge n g i n e e r s . o t l n admini.itrators. the generalpublic. Different classification and schemes have been applied for different purposesin different rural and urban regions. Classification highways by design types basedon the major geometric of (e.g.,freewaysand conventional f'eatures streetsand highways)is the most helpful one for highway locationand design procedures. Classification by route numbering(e.g., U.S., State,County) is the most helpful fbr traffic o p e r a t i o n s . d m i n i s t r a t i v e l a s s i f i c a t i o( e . g . ,N a t i o n a lH i g h w a yS y s t e m r A c n o N o n - N a t i o n aH i g h w a yS y s t e m ) s u s e dt o d e n o t et h e l e v e l so f g o v e r n m e n r l i r e s p o n s i b lte r . a n d t h e m e t h o do f f i n a n c i n g h i g h w a yf a c i l i t i e s F u n c t i o n a l o , . c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . e g r o u p i n go f h i g h w a y sb y t h e c h a r a c t e o f s e r v i c et h e y th r p r o v i d e i.v a s e v e l o p e t b r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n n i n g u r p o s e s . o m p r e h e n s i v e d d pl p C t r a n s p o r t a t i o na n n i n ga n i n t e g r ap a r to f t o t a lc c o n o m i c n ds o c i a l e v e l o p pl , l a d n r e n t . s c sf u n c t i o n ac l a s s i f i c a t i oa s a n i m p o r t a n p l a n n i n g o o l .T h e e n r e r u l n t t ! t e n c co f f u n c t i o n a c l a . s . s j f i c a t ia .n t h e p r e d o m i n l n tn r e l h o r o l ' g r o u p i n l l os l h i s h * a v s i s c o n s i s t c ' n t i t h t h e p o l i c i e s o n r a i n e dn t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n . w c i

THE CONCEPT FUNCTIONAI. OF CLASSIFIC.\TI0N

-fhis sc'ctionintrorluccs the basic conceptsrequircd tirr unclersrlncling c th t u n c t i o n r cl l s s i f i c u t i o o f h i g h r v a va c i I i t i c s n ds v s t c r n s . r n f a

Hierarchiesof }lovements and Comp()nent.s . . \ c o r n p l e t e u n c t i o n t l d e s i g ns v s t e mp r o v i d e sa s c r i c so f d i s t i n c t t m l e l l rnovenlcnts. si.x The recognizable stages mosttrips includcmainmoverncnt. in t r a n s i t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n c o l l e c t i o n . c c e s s . n d t c r n r i n a t i o nF o r c r l m p l c , . , a r . F i g u r c[ - l s h o r , ,Is h v p o t h e t i c a li g h w a y r i p u s i n ga f r c c r v u vu , h c r e h c m a r n h r . r. l l l ( ) ! L ' n l c n ti v c h i c l c . is u n i n t c r r u p t c d .i g h - s p e c 'tdo r v .W h c n l p p r o a c h i n g o s h l t [ ' : t i n r t l i r r nlsr o t ttth c f r c c r " l t t . ' c h i c l c sc t l t t c c : p c c r l n l ' r c c r v l r vr r t t p rr., r i t i c h r ' r t n

AASfl'lQ deqryreylq De;ign ef H4Chlyqrys Slltstt stLd

Highu:ayFunction.s

Moin Movemenl

Terminol Access

Tronsif ion
Colleclion

ion Dislribuf

Figurel-1. Hierarchyof movement.

l t c t r t st r e t r s i t i o trto l t l r r r l s . T h c v c h i c l c st h c n c n t c r m o d c r l t c - s p c c dr t e r i a l l ( d i : t r i b u t o rt a c il i t i e st t h a th r i n gr h c mn e a r e t o t h c v i c i n i t l o f t h c i rd c ' s r i n a r i o n r r t c i q h b t l r h o t l d sh c t n c \ t c n t c rc o l l c c t o r o a d s h a tp c n c t r a t c e i g h b t l r h o o d s . T. t n -l'hc v e h i c l e si n a l l r e n t c rl o c a ll c c c s sr o a d s h a tp r o v i d cd i r c c ta p p r o l c h e so i t t inditidual rc'sitlc'rre'r's or <lthEilEinlrrations. ilrcir dcvirrariirns vehrcle,s At the t r c p l r k c d r r ti t n r p p r o p r i l r ct c r m i n a li a c i l i t y .

facilitydesigned trip by Eachof thesix stages a t,""pical is handled a separate of hierarchy based thetotal is for Because movement the on specifically it.sfunction. in highest the movement amountof traffic uolume,ir..*ry rL"et is generally in followedby distributor arterialtravel,which is in tum higher. the hierarchy. routes. hierarchy movement thantravelon collectors localaccess and i A l t h o u g hm a n y t r i p s c a n b e s u b d i v i d e dn t o a l l o f t h e s i x r e c o g n i z a b l e intermediate facilitiesare not alwaysneeded. The complete hierarchy slages, f o s o f c i r c u l a t i o n a c i l i t i e s e l a t e s s p e c i a l l yo c o n d i t i o n s f l o w - d e n s i t y u b u r r e t wheretraffic flows are cumulativeon successive elements ban development. H i t i t o f t h e s y s t e m . o w e v e r . t s o m e t i m e ss d e s i r a b l eo r e d u c e h e n u m b e ro f in a may fill components thechain.For instance. largesingletraffic generator one or more lanesof a freewayduring certainperiods.In this situation,it is expedientto lead traffic directly onto a freeway ramp without introducing traffic flows arterial facilities that unnecessarilymix already-concentrated with additional vehicles.This deletion of intermediatefacilities does not eliminatethe functionalneedfor the remainingpartsof the flow hierarchyor although it may changetheir physical the functional design components, The orderof movementis still identifiable. characters. The failureto recognize and accommodate suitabledesigneachof the by hierarchy a prominent cause highway of is of differenttrip stages themovement Conflicts and congestion betweenpublic occur at intertaces obsolescence. whenthefunctional f acilities and traffic-generating transitions highways private Examples commercial are drivewaysthat leaddirectly fiom a are inadequate. e h d r e l a t i v e l y i g h - s p e ea r t e r i a il n t o a p a r k i n ga i s l ew i t h o u ti n t e n n e d i a tp r o v i sions fbr transition deceleration and arterialdistributionor, more seriousll'. such as freewayrampsthat leaddirectly into or from largetraffic gcnerators shoppinqenters. c rnajor accL'ptance arterial internal or circulaInadequate capacit;* thedistributor of within thc.traft'icabsorber danqerthat traffic mlr createthe tion detlciencies intemaldesignthat provide.s tacilitiesto Successtul backup onto the t'reerra-v. tieewar all functionsbetween the high-speed accommodate the intermediate w s a n dt h e t e r m i n ap a r k i n g i r c i l i t v i l l a l l e v i a t e u c ha s i t u a t i o n . l t dcce['rltion ln thc clsc ot'thc tiecrvayleadingto a larte traffic gencrator. to frorn rapid n1()vemen! thc free$irvoccurson the exit rarnp.Distribution on roads or various parking lreasis thc'n lcconrplished primarydistribution-tvpe by s w T r o l a n e s i t h i n t h c p a r k i n g a c i l i t y . h e s e o a d s r l a n e s u p p l a ntth e d i s t r i b u t o r t Collecttlr-typc roadsor lancswithin the parkint tacility ma1 arterialfunction. The parkingaislc. fbw to thcparkingbays. thc'n deliversc'gnrcnts thccntering of parkinr space the terminals. thenbecomes equivalent of in lcldinc to individual lunaccess strcL't. Thus.the principallunctionswithin the hicrarchllmovement llso catcgorv svstcnl rc'cognizablc.canbe pointed th:]teachtunctional out arc It is related il rrrlgL' vehiclespecds. t() oi

.4

AASHTO--G{tontet'.ic Detign of flighu'av., and Streets

F n H i.q, hwa -t; Lt ct i ons

can seryeas a collecting hierarchy In short,eachelementof the functional The same principlesof designare also relevantto terminalfacilitiesrhat only where mustbe present but an element -adjgin distributor anerial.s col.lector.s. functional de.s,ign the faci.lity facility fo1the nexthigherelement. or The of and ihe to satiafy spacing trafficvolume is collection necessary the intermediate i n c l u t e se a c hn r o v e m e n tt a g e w i t h i n t e r n ac i r c u l a t i o nn t h et e r m i n ad e s i g n s , l i l and volume of requirements the next higherfacility. By definingthe spacing to accommodate orderof movement. necessity designing all stages the The of fbr it in possible determine which cases to it element. is for requirements a system of the movementhierarchyvarieswith the size of the traific generator. For mav elements interrnediate andin whichcases to is necessary usethef ull system relativelysmall generators, or more stages two ma)-be accommodated rhe on be bypassed. sameinternalfacility.For Iargertrafficgenerators, eachrnovement stacemust havea separate functional facility. To determine nurnberof designcomponents the necessary. customary the Functional RelationshiPs volumes traffichandled publicEreets dift'erent of by tunctional of caregories can be compared. volumerange privateinternal The on facilities be related the can to and highwaysaccordingto the thus groups streets Functionalclassification comparable rangeon publicstreets. Thesevolumesmay nor be direcrlycomparecognizes of character servicethey are intendedto provide.This classification rable,inasmuch thephysical as space available within a private facilityis smaller Rather'most do that individual roadsand streets not servetravel independently. and thestandards operation necessarily of are quite different.However.the same principles tlow specialization movement travel involves movementthrough networks of roads and can be categorized of and hierarchy can be applied. relativeto such networksin a logical and efficientmanner.Thus, functional Somefurtherexamples may demonstrate how the principlesof movement with categorization travel. of is of classillcation roadsand streets alsoconsistent hierarchyare relatedto a logicalsystemof classification traffic generation of of illustration this basicideais shownin FigureI-2. In Figure A schemaric intensity.At the highestpracticallevel of traffic generation singlegenerator a trip linesconnecting originsanddestinlare I-2A, linesof traveldesire straight fills an entirefreeway. and fbr thiscondition,intermediate publicstreets could of the The relativewidthsof the linesindicate relativeamounts tions(circles). not be insertedbetween generator the and the freeway.so the variousmovetrip the ofthe circlesindicate relative generating sizes The relative traveldesire. ment stagesntust be accommodated internallywith appropriate designf'eato it shown.Because is intpractical provide power of the places and attracting t u r e s A t t h en c x t l e v e lo f t r a f l i cg e n e r a t i o a s i n g l et r a f f i cg e n e r a t oc o u l df i l l . n r on tbr connections every desireline. trips nlust be channelized a direct-line a singlefieewaylane:it is thenappropriate construct freewayrampfor the to a road network in the manner shown in Figurc l-2B. Heavy tral'cl limitcd e x c l u s i v eu s e o f t h e g e n e r a t o w i t h o u t i n t c r v e n i n gp u b l i c s t r e e t s A t s t i l l r . arc are ntovements directlyscrvedor nearlyso; thc slnallcrmovclnents chltnsmaller volumcs it becomesdesirableto cornbinc the traffic trom several local in Thc facilities FigureI-2 arelabclccl paths. into somervhltinciirect ncled g c n c r a t o r w i t h n d d i t i o n atlr a f f i cb c f b r ct h el ' l o wa r r i v c s t a f ' r c e w u e n t r a n c c s y a and arterial,which are temls that describctheir functional tccess.collector. r a n r p .T h c r o l d p c r t i l r r r t i n gh i s f u n c t i o nt h e n b c c o n r c s c o l l e c t o rf a c i l i r y . t a to to is hicrarchy alsoseen be reliltcd ln retationships. thisscherlctheiunctional a c c u r n u l a t i ntg c s c n r a l l l o r v su n t i l a t r a f f i cv < l l u r n t h a tr v i l l f i l l t h e f r e e w a - v h s e by served the nctwork. tiistances of the hierarchy' trip ranrpis rcuchcd. rural trctrvtlrkis classifiecl illustrationof a functionally A store cornplete S i m i l a rp r i n c i p l c s a nb e a p p l i e d t t h ed i s t r i b u t o lrr t r . r i a ll e v c lo f s c r v i c e . c a The arterialhighwaysgcnerallyprovidc dircct servicc shown in Figure I-3. I f a g i v e n t r a f f i c s e n c r a t o ri s o f s u f f i c i e n ts i z e . a n e x c l u s i v ei n t e r s e c t i o r r ot' a and whichgencralc attract largeproportion citiesandlargertorvns. bctwecn d r i v e w a y b r t h a tg c n c r a t oir . j u s t i t ' i eId .o t h c ' c u s c s r ni n t e r m e d i a tce l l c c r o r t s n r r o (collccclltcgorv f'unctional of thc intcnrtctliatc longcrtrips.Roads tftcrclarivelv s t r c c ts h o u l dc r > m h i n s n t a l l e rt r a f f i c f l < l w su n t i l t h e ) ' r c a c ha v o l u n r ct h a r c nctwtlrk.Roatls tllclttto thc artcrirll directly.connccting t()wns st'nlrll tors)scrve w a r r a n t s n i n t e r s e c t i oa l o n st h ed i s t r i b u t o rT h c s a n r c h e o r v u n b e a p p l i c d a n . t c whichscrvcindividualtanlls thelocalrtlads, tiont collccttral'l'ic ot'rhis clrtcgorl. r e g a r d o t h cc r i t e r i a i r r d i r e c a c c c s so t h ec o l l e c t ( ) r s t r e e t .n r o t l c r a t c l y t t t t A "vith ond othcr rurll land uscs or distributctral'ficto thcsc loclrl rortdst'rtlnl thc sizcd trafl'icgencratoru.suall,v warrantsa dircct conncctionto the colJector rr'nalswilhout inrcrmeiji.rlercccss stccll howcvlr. in tl disrricr ofsinglc-trmily residcncesirk'cirl]ccessstreetshouIdtNsemblclherratTicfrornigroupo}Al(hou8hthiscI.lmp|ehailllur]lsctti|l'thcsalncbl Fcr;idsee{i{nd le.d ir+r $-{+lleror $!ree+it-.1+i+r*fc peifr Lree.{-h prac|ice.dircctccesslo,rrtdriatsMdco||ectorsmustbcProvidedfromhowuvcr.bccluscoFth.Ir;@ commer-ia|nd.csidcnIilpropcrIies'panicul.lr|yineslJbIjshedneighhor'sc'lcruti.)nc.ntcN[cmdr htconrc morc xldirioo.rl .onsidcr ir)ns.ruch .r\ thc sprcing ol inlcrsccti(nrs.

Individuol Villoge

IOWn

(A) Oesire Linesof Trovel

Locol Roods Collector Roods

I

(8) RoodNetwork Provided Figure Channelization l-2. of trips.

i m p o r t a nitn d c f i n i n s l o g i c aa n de f f i c i e n n e t w o r kA s c h e m a t iicl u s r r a t i oo f a l t . l n a f u n c t i . n a l l y ' c l a s . s i tsiu b u r h u s t r c e t e t w o r ki s s h o u , nn F i g u r e - 4 . ' cd n n i I A l l i c d t o r h ci d c l o t ' r r a l ' l 'ccl t c s o r i z a t i o s t h ed u a lr o l er h a t h eh i g h w a v n d ii in r a s t r c e n c t w ( ) r k l a - r sn p r o v i d i n e l ) a c c e s s o p r o p e r t v n d( 2 ) t r a v c 'm o b i l i t y . t p ( i t a l A c c c s ss a l ' i x c d c r l u i r c n r eo lr' t h c c f i n e d r e aM o b i l i t yi s p r o v i d e d t v a r y i n g i r n d a . a l e v e l s f s e r v i c c\.l o b i l i t y c l t ni n c o r l l t l r u tse v c - r a l u a l i t l t i v e l e m e n t s .u c ha s o c c s ridin{ comtbrt an(l rlbscnce spcc'd of changcs,but the most basic tacror is operating specdor trip traveltinrc. FigurcI-2 sh.'u'u's thc c.nccpt rt'trafl'iccatcrlorization that leuds l.qisxlly ncl1 t l n l Yt o a t t r n c t i o n lh i c r u r c h vt f r o u dc l u s s c s u t u l s ot o a s i r r r i l ah i e r a r c h o f l r b r v rclativctravel distanccs scrvctlt'lvthcseroad classcs. Thc-hierlrch-v travel of distilnces cln he relrrrccl logicllll- to t'unction;.rl spc'cializaticln meeringthc in propenvilccL'ss rnrvelrnohilitvrcquirements. rnd Lrlcalrurll trcilitiesemphas i z c t h c l u n d l c c e s s f u n c t i o n . . \ r t c ' r i a l s r m a i n n r o v c r n c no r d i s t r i b u t i o n o t c m p h a . s i z h c h i s h l c v c l o f n r o l r i l i t v b r t h r o u g hm ( ) v c m L . n (o l l e c t o r s l ' f ' c r tc t c. o lpprorinrlrclv hlluncc.d servicctirr borh functions. This scheme illustratecl is -an-Ffurtll \' ritFi gurr.I r,5._

LEGEND Ciliesond Towns Villoge Arferiols Colleclors Loc ol s

Figure l-3.

Schematic illustration of a functionally classified rural highway network.

..\ccess Needsand Controls t r v o n r a . j oc o n s i d c r i . l t i ( )in sc l u s s i l v i n g r g h w a ya n d s t r c c tn c t w o r k s r n h tunctionlllr' ;.rre acccssand rnobilitv.Thc conllict bet,,vccn scrving through l l l o v c n r c nltn d p r o v i d i n gi l c c c s s o a d i s p e r s e d a t t c r r o t ' t r i p o r i g i n sl r r d p r t tlcstinlttions necessitates dil't'erences gnulations thevaritlus the and in tirnctional t_vpcs. Rcgulated lirnitltirtnof lccc.ss nccessary artcrials enhancc on is to their prirnlrr t'unction mobilitv. Crtnvcrscly. prirnaryt'u ot tlrc ratls r t t r d t r c c ' tis t o p r o v i d c c c e s ( i n r p l c r ] r c n l a t io fnw h i c hc a u s eis l i m i t a t i o n t o s u s l o r n t l b i l t t) . T h c e x t c n t ; t n dl c g r c c f ' a c c c sc o n t r o l s t h u sa s i g n i f i c i l nttl t c t o r n t t o s i l r l c l ' i n i n t h c l i r n c t i o n l c ; r t c g o r( ) t ' as l r c o t t r h i { h w a v . g l v 'fltc

AASHTO--lieometric Desigtt r{ Highu,av-s ,Srreet.s ancl

Highu'av Func'tion.s

cation Highu'av Func'tional Classification Concepts, Criteria and (ll. Proc'edure.s

Definitionsof L rban and Rural Areas Urbanand ruralareas havefundamentally differentcharacteristics re_eard with to densityandtypesof landuse,density street of and highwaynerworks, nature of travelpatterns. theway in whichthese and elements related. are Consequently, urbanand rural functional are systems classified separately. Urban ereasasdiscussed hereinareconsidered within boundthoseplaces aries set by the responsible Stateand local officials having a populationof 5,000 or more. Urban areas are further subdivided into urhanized areas

l l l

PROPORTION SERVICE OF

M obi l i ty LEGAND := Arteriol Slreel ';..,-i'ICommercio I Areo L o c o lS tre e t

Figure l-4.

C o l l e c t oS t r e e i r @UE Public Areo

Schematic illustration a portionof a suburban of streetnetwork.

[ ; u r t l r c rt l i s c u s s i r l n r t ' t h c ' i r r i ( ) u s t l c s r c c s t l f a c c c s sc ( ) n t r ( ) l ( opl)r()ps0tc o t s t r e c ti l n d h i g h r v a vr l c l c l o p r n t n t i s p r o v i t l c d i n t h e s e c t r o n . . . . \ c c c s s control" in C h : r p t u rl l .

LondAccess
F Li\ C]'I0 )i..\L S}'S1'F] C H,\ R.\ CTIiR ISl'ICS }I
:{+isjscc'lion conr chlrilctcnsticsrll highrvuv tlcilitic's irr

Lc c ol s

u r b l r n : r n tr u r : r ls c t t i r r q h l s c i l o n t h c i r f i r n c t i t l r r a c l u s s i l ' i c r r t i r t n s . l s l lt prcscnts
i t t l t t r t t t : t l i o n u l l ( ' \ t \ c ( l l o l r i l . l ' r r r r rlrl t c [ : c t l e n r l . l l i g l r r ,r"r . r , \ t l r n r r i s t r aito n p u b li i

Figurel-5. Relationship functionally of classified systemsin servicetrafficmobilityand land access.

AASHTO--CeometricDesign of Highv,aysand Streets

I
i i I
j
I

hu' H i g, at: Func:iott s !

II

(population of50'000 and over) andsmail urban oreas (population'berween 5'000and50,000)'For des.ign purposes, population the forecast thedesign for be used.(For Iegaldefinitionof irhan areas; seeSecdon l0l of {tout! T i t l e 2 3 , U . S .C o d e . ) Rural areas are thoseareasoutsidethe boundarie s of urban areas.

m i l l t h e - m a j o r i t o f s t a t e st,h e p r i n c i p a a r t e r i a s y s t e m n c l u d e s o s t ( i f n o t a l l ) y r e x i s t i n g u r a lf r e e w a y s . types: into thefollowingtwo design system stratified is The principal arterial ( I ) freewaysandQ) otherprincipalarterials.

Functional Categories The roadsmaking up the Functionar systems differ for urbanand rurarareas. The hierarchy f the functionar ystems onsists o s c o f p r i n c i p a r r t e r i a r sf o r a ( main movement),minor arteriars(distributors), coilectors.and Iocar roads and streets; howeve in urbanareasthereare rerativerymore r, arteriars with further functional subdivisionsof the arterial category; whereasin rurar areasthere are relatively more collectorswith further functional subdivi_ sionsof the collector caregory.

Rural llinor Arterial Svstem The rural minor arterialroad system.in conjunctionwith the rural principal characteristics: forms a networkwith the fbllowing service arterialsystem, l. (suchas Linkageof cities. larger towns, and other traffic generators travelover similarly long of thatarecapable attracting majorresortareas) distances. interstate and intercountyservice. Integrated with populationdensity,so that all developed Intemalspacingconsistent distances arterialhighways. of areas the stateare within reasonable of with items (l) through (3) with trip consistent Corridor movements by served greater thanthosepredominantly lengths andtraveldensities or ruralcollector local svstems.

2. 3. 4.

Functional Systems Rural Areas for Ruralroadsconsist facilitiesoutside urbanareas. of of The names providedfor the recognizable systems principalarterials are (roads). minor arterials (roads). major and minor collectors (roads), and localroads.

routes.the designof which shouldbc constitute therefbre Minor arterials ancl high travelspeeds minimum intert-erencc expected providetbr relatively to to throughnrovement.

Rural Principal Arterial System The rural principalartcrial systclllconsists a network of ol' routc-s wlth thc tbllowingservice characteristics: l. l' C o r r i d o r o v e m e nw i r h r r i p l e n g t h n dd e n s i t y u i t a b r e m t a s tbrsutrsrantral slatervide intcrstate or travel. l v t o v e m e n tb e r w c c n i l . o r v i r t u a i l ya l r .u r b a ' a r e a s i t h s a w popurati.rrs o v e r - i 0 . 0 0 0a n d a l a r g e m a . j o r i r y f t h o . s e i t h p o p u l r r r i o n s . r v c r o w Rural CollectorS1'stem 'Ihc r n o g t s r u r a c o l l e c t or o u t e s en e r a l l y e r v e r a v e l i p r i m a r li y i nt r u c i o t t v r a t h c I ol' thoserotttes which lregartllc'ss on and thanstatervide inrportance constitute routcs. thanon arterial arc traveldistances shorter trlffic volunte)predontinant r l. m tl a r, C o n s e q u c n t l v n r t r c o d e r a t c ' s p e er ns yb e t - v p i c a T o d e f ' i n e u r a lc o l l c c i tt o r s r n o r c c l c a r l _ n h.i s s v s t c n ri s s u b c l a s s i t ' i ca lc c o r d i n gt o t h c l i r l l o * i r r g c r it c r ia : . Ilajor Collectrlr Roads. Thesc routcs (I) scrvc cotltlt! sciltstl()t ()ll rttttl l;rrger torvns ilircctll scrvctlby thc highcrsvstu'ttts. not :rrtcrillroutcs. gcncftrtors cquivalcntirttfttcoutttv such lts ilnp()nilncc. ol' othcr t1lll't'ic rnillirlr lnd countvplrrks. inrportant points. shippinrr school.s. consr'rlidatcri o s i l n dl g r i c u l t u f t ta r c l s :( 2 ) l i n k l h c s c ' p l a c cw i t h n c a r h l ' l l r g c rt o r v n s r l rr ) r t c i t i e s .o r r . r ' i t ho u t e s l f h i g h c rc l a s s i f i c l r t i o nls : d ( . 1 s c r v ct h c m ( ) r L ' r i n r p o n a r r n t r a c ( ) u n t va v c lc o r r i d t l r s . it

15.(xx).
l

l n t e g r a r e m o v e m e n w i t h o u ts t u bc o n n c c t i o nc x c c p t, , v h c r c d t s unusuur r e o g r a p h i c r r r a f f i ct - l o w o n d i t i o n s i c t a t e t h c n v i s c c . r I . . o c d o ( internat r ( ) n a b o u n d a r v . n n e c t i o n s r c o n n e c t i o n so l c o t c o a s t ac i t i c s ) . r

l n trg nr, re tl c nselyp.pu l :rlc.d.s{a thiseJasso Fh tc-s. igh*- aJ-irrc-bde.s (xl [bm n o t a l l ) h c l v i l v t r a v e r c do u r e s h a tr n i g h tw a r r . n tr n u r r i r l n e r t inrprovcr'cntsn r:

l2

AASHTO4eoqqry!9 Dqttstt oJLtjgfiryay; S-tteet., qnct - M i n o r c o l l e c t o r R o a d s .T h e s er o u t e s h o u l d( s l) bespaced t intervals a

c o n s i s t e n t i t h p o p u l a t i o n e n s i t y o a c c u m u l a tt r a f f i cf r o m l o c a lr o a d s w d t e a n d b r i n g a l l d e v e l o p e d r e a s i t h i n r e a s o n a b ld i s r a n c eo f c o l l e c t o r a w e s (2 r o a d ' s . ) p r o v i d e e r v i c e o t h er e m a i n i n g m a i l e r o m m u n i t i e s ,n d( 3 s r s c a ) l i n k t h e l o c a l l vi m p o r t a n t r a f f i cg e n e r a t o rw i t h t h e i rr u r a lh i n t e r l a n d . s

Highu'uS'Futrt'tions

t3

Svstems Principalarterial system P r i n c i p aa n e r i a p l u sm i n o r l i arterial svstem Collectorroad Local road system

Percentage of Total Rural Kilometers

1A :.7

Rural Local Road S_ystem The rural local road system,in comparison collectors to and arterialsvsrems. primarilyprovides access Iandadjacent the collectornerworkonj ,.*., to ro traveloverrelativelv shondistances. localroadsystem The constitutes rural all roadsnot classified principalanerials, as minor anerials, collectorroads. or

6 - 1 2 .w i t h m o s tS t a t e s falling in 7-10 7c range )o-)\

65-15

Tablel-1. Typicaldistribution ruralfunctional of systems.

Extent of Rural Systems The functional criteria roadsystems for havebeenexpressed herein primarilyin qualitative rather thanquantitative terms. Because varyinggeographic of condit i o n s ( e . g . ,p o p u l a t i o n e n s i t i e ss p a c i n gb e t w e e na n d s i z e so f c i t i e s . d , and densities pattcms roadnetworks), and of criteriaon sizesof population centers. trip lengths, rraff'ic volumes, routespacings not applyto all systems all and do in States' However. results classification the of studies conclucted many States in shclw.considerable consistency (whcn cxpresse<j percenta_ges the total in of l c n c t ho f r u r a lr o l c l s ) n t h e r e l a t i v e x t e n t s f t h e l u n c t i o n as y s t c m s . i e o l F I i s h * a vs v s t c md c v c l o pd b y u s i n g h e s c r i r c r r . r eg e n e r a l le x p e c t e dn s e t c a v i. alLStates cxccptr\laskaand lJawaii.to f all within the percentage ranges shorr.n in Tlble I- I . Thc highcrvarues the ranges .f given in Table- i appr-v Srarc,s Ir. h a v i n gl c s sc x t e n s i v eo t l l r o a dn e t w o r k s e l a t i v e o t h c p o p u l a t i o n e n s i t y . t r t d In Stateshaving more extensive total road networksrelativeto the population clensity. the lower valuesrrc applicable. The rangeof percentages rural of collectors represents rotallcnsthof borhmujorandminorcollector the roads antl l p p l i e s r o r h e s t l t c w i d c r u r a l r o a d w a vt o t a l s :t h e p c r c c n t a g eis p a r r i c u l u r n ctlunticsma-v vrrv considerably tiom the sratcwidc average. Areashav,nsan e x t e n s i ' cr e g u l a r : r i d p l t t c r n o f r o a d su s u a l l ' r a v c a s m a l l c rp e r c c n t l : : c h oi collcctorsthan areaswithin which geosraphicconclitions havc.imposcti a rcstrictcd lc-ss or rctultr pattern roaddcvelofrmcnt. of Functional Highway Systems Urbanized Areas in The four functional highway systems urbanized for areasare urbanprincipal (streets). (streets), arterials (streets), localstreets. minor arterials collectors and The differences the natureand intensity development rural and urban in of in areas warrant corresponding differences urbansystem in characteristics relative to the corresponclingly namedrural svstems.

U r b a n P r i n c i p a lA r t e r i a l S y s t e m In everyurLan environment. system streets highways be identitled one of and can asunusually si,cnitlcant terms thenature composition travelit serves. in of and of (population In smallurban area.s under50.000), these facilities maybeverylimited in numberand ertcnt, and their importance may be derivedprimarily tiom the serviccprovidc'd throughtravel.In urbanized to areas, their imponance llso derives fiom senice to rurallyoricntcdtraffic,but cquallyorevcn moreimportantly. tiom scn icetbrmajorcirculation withinthese movements urbanized areas. The urbanprincipalanerialsvstemservesthe mqjor centers activitvot of urbanized areas. highcst the trafficvolumccorridors. the longest desires and trip andcanies hirh proportion thetotalurban a area traveleven though constitutes it of a relativelysmalIpercentage the toralroadwaynetwork.The system of shouldbc rntegrated botn lnternallyand between nralorrural connL.ctrons. The principll ri"terial s-vstcnt carriesmostof the trips enteringand leuving w t h c u r b a n r e t ,r r s c l l a sm o s to f t h et h r o u g h o v c r n e n tb v p a . s s i nh ec e n t r a l a m s tg s c i t y . I n l t l t l i t i o n . i g n i f ' i c i l nn t r a - a r cta a v e l s u c hu s b c t w c c n e n t r ab u s r n e s s it r , c l

I'
I

t4

AAsltro---lj eonetrjcDe I I | I I

ll
| I f I |

*sricrs ana ourtying residenriat berween areas. major inne.-ciry communilies. andbelween major suburban cenrers. served rhisclass faciliry. is by of Fre_ arredal syslem -Ently rheprincipal canies imponant intra_urbanwellas as mrerciry busroutes. Finally. urbanized rhis in a.reas. sysrern prcvides conrinuiry for all rural aneriats iini""piii" *0"l) -""c"O. rhai 'rraver Because lhenalur the of of servea theprincipal by arreriar srslem, .

urbancollector slreetsvstem service raffic and prolidei borhlandmcess sys(em *" co ecrorsrreer and nishborhoods comme'cid indus'rial aod circularion--within residential in on collectorsysern li from anerialsynemlhatfacilities the lhe areas differs

deveropedurbanrrinses.

cipal arterial shouldbe stratified follows:( I ) interstale. ;ther as (2) .syslerh freeways, (3)orher and principal anerirts(wirhparliat noconrol ofaccess). or The spacirgofrlrban principalnrteriars croselyrclatedb the rripnd ii . dcnsiry chanctlrisdcs ofpanicular ponionsofrhe u$an arcas. Althoughn; firm spacingrulc appliesin all or evcn in most circumstances, spacingberween thc principal anerials(in larger urbanareas;may vary from less rhan I km in thc highly dereloped cnhal businesiareasro g km u'Ixru'c u'cspamrv or more xr the sparsly in

i:i:"jx;ili"tiiJ[i;iiil"11],""T,i!t"":,,liJ.:;l:;",1J,""1:i$iil: | *nt",:ml;f*xt,n*:m:ftT,jln:r*:T:",#
I may include the fte system simirar deveropmenr ratic densiry. collecror and system mayalsocarrylocalbusroutes grla he collector strcet entircstreer I I I I I urba,. Local streel sJsam

;:;"fm':f:Hfffi*frffiili"l:t#:.:T:Jll,tl,:i:#:; :iT:,,::l':lll."yt-*l,lr.::1,1"'no,ccessraciririesareusuarypanorrrris I

shouldbe purelyincidental theprimaryfunctional to responsibility thisclass of of roads.

r'.i'.i""ipJ"i"'i'J".**iceroabunins landissubordinare service rohver orotherprincipar l:Tj?:'j:tr:::'"]:T:1':-o,:tj"_"1:l'1::_11 to land, and arterials capable providingany direct!1iry:ubcrass such service are of access

I
r I |

In"l::"1,::':"1:1.*I::ilT::g"l::lryYll,":"-r^'L"l'if:,Y:':^T^":
1'JlllllJTi':.::::.'j:^:".:j":::'.j':T:'::,',i:::::::::l'::'":*:::tl: contains bus no ordersysrems. offersthelowesllevelofmobilityandusually Ir discourased. movement is .out"". s".i"etorhrough-rramc usualyderiberarery

Length of Roadwayand Travel on Urban Systems

Urban Minor Arterial Stfeetsyslem srreer sysrem interconnecrs and augmenrs urban J!! ninor .rneriat wilh rhe principal ancriat system. accommodares of moderareiength a some_ tr rips ar
hiehersystem.

' l

volume ]ength ofroadwa)' I ion lnd lhcl ypicJ dislribul oftravel I::]: il.:".t:insI sys \ for urb nizedllrellsSyrtems loprdfor urban iTed deve ol thci'ncl ionrr lem percenlagc shown ranget hctcinu\uallyf',ll within the arcrsusingthccritcria

p,l":,.p"r meriars dorhk sysrem ::*l:,::i.i:".: ,"^tj:::i:::rlly lh"1 than those identifiedwith the distributes rravel to geographic areassmaller
p,i""rp"r. rr'i"
system andotfer$ does "y",".tower rriffic rnobitity. Such facititymaycanytocaabus ;l

.r.-ype as, Desisn runcrionar crassincarion

rheminor.,neriar s,vstem al aneriars crissined srfeer incrudes not "" ;;; ;ili.*';ia,J";:ili;:';:;r:; fi"""*

I I
i

ll.il"llT:"'l'':".1:Y.,':T,'l:11i,:li1':i:1:i.ivxTa:::::1"-:r,-T efor. rh tsr mriorpmbrem hishwrv. major rwo dificuhies in rhis erisr
involvs rhr trccwrv. Th!.lrcewav is not r luncdonal cliss in it\lf but is

;:,f:"i1."'j::l:ll,:1..,'.1r"i,y connecdons identi'abre neishborhoods. incrudes rhis """'ii,iiv'r", sv\tem urban rorurur collcror
*,i*tt*r"iro.rdswheresuchconnecrions - have not beenclassified.$ urban pr;nc rneriatsrirrinrem"t;;;.iprt -Thr.\p cingof minor,lncdalsrr.ers may varyfrom0.: km ro l.0kminthe

ia."rr-i ;;" #;;;

I I
I

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"-.,..,_-,.. The".,.,,,,^-of the on collec()rs. locdlrordsandstrels *- iddition^.,.and chnplen .rncriils. N nE universullvturniliar tcnn "tieewav" to the basic tunctionalclassesseems "ccwd!

ilil:i|.:1il:iiilJi.*.'"*1.:',,J,::::*.1;"::1,$ffi"1i::i:' il;:ffi:il1;#:ffi1,ffifi:i:1ff-"';;1ffi;:iffi;;;J;
oti t'"t'!bli'ro r!-rdoPrion co'nple4|y'\.pt'ratc-svstcr'.oracsignrvlcs-

n()tmorc thln 2 km in fully developed areas.

i#; ."'su;"a;]ile.; i;i i" ;;;iii

]
i

AASHTO--Qeometri(. De.rignof Highn.avsand Streetj

fli;q lnn r F uil c ti /r,I.t

Range Travel Volume (Vc)

Systems
Principal arterial system P r i n c i p aa r r e r i ap l u sm i n o r l l arterialstreet systems Collectorstreet system Local streetsystem

Length (Vo )

.10-6_5 65-80

5 -r 0 t5-25

s T h c I ' i r s t t e pi n t h ed e s i - ep r o c e s \ s t o d c f i n et h e f u n c t i o n h a tt h ef a c i l i t l n i t t o s e r \ ' :T h e l e v e l o f s e r v i c er e q u i r e dt o f ' u l f i l l t h i s f u n c t i o nt b r r h e is v a n t i c i p a t c d o l u m e a n d c o m p o s i t i o n f t r a f ' l i cp r o v i d e sa r a t i o n a la n d o c r . l s t - e f f e c t i v e s i sf b r t h e s e l e c t i o n f d e s i g ns p e e da n d g e o m e r r i c r i r e r i a ba o w i t h i n t h e r a n q e s f v a l u e s v a i l a b l co t h e d e s i g n e r . h e u s eo f f u n c t i o n a l o a t T c l a s s i t ' i c a t i oa r l d e s i g nt y ' p es h o u l da p p r o p r i a t e l vn t e s r a t e h e h i s h \ . \ a r n i t p l a n n i n g n dd e s i g n r o c e s s . a p

RI,]}-ERENCES

5 -r 0 l0-30

5 -l 0 65-80

of Federal U.S.Department Transponation. HighwayAdministration. H i g hx'ut'F un(tionul C ltts.siJ'it'ation ortcept Cri teriu and Proce: C s. Washington, r/ro'r,s. D.C.: U.S.Government PrintingOffice. 1989.

Tablel-2.Typicaldistribution urbanfunctional of systems.

The second majordifficulty is that in the pastgeometric desi_en criteriaand capacity levels havetraditionally been basecl a classification trafficvolume on of ranges. Under such a system,highwayswith comparabre trafric vorumes are constructed the sanrestandards to and provirle identicallevels of service, although theremay be considerable cliff'erencc thc tirnctionrhevserve. in ljnder a functional classification systcm. stanclartis levelof service antl vary qccqdingto thefunction thehighwaylirciliry. Volunres of serve f'urther ne to refl the standards eachclass. lbr Arterials expcctcd providca high dcgrce are to ol'mobilitr. the longerrrip lbr lensth.Thereibre.they shourdprovicre high operatingspeed a and reverof service.Since access abuttingpropertyis not their major to functi'n. .some degree access of controlis tlesirable enhance to mobility.Tlic collectors serve a dual functionin accommodating shorter the trip and t'ec:ding arrerials. rhe Thev rnustprovide somedegree mobilityandalsoscrvcabutting of property. Thus.an tntermediate designspeed lnd lcvel of scrviceis appropriaie. Local road.s antl streets haverelative shorttrip lengths. becausc and propc.rty access rheirmain is f u n c t i o nt.h e r e s r i t t r e e e d o r m o b i r i t v r h i g hn p " r r r i n g . i p e e d s . i n t o T h i st u n c t i o n is ret'lecred useof a rowcrdesig. sieed and rcveror'servicc. by Thc tunctional c'nccpt i.s imponuntro thedesigner. E'c,nthoughnrany oithe geomctrlcstandards could be determine<i without retcrence thc tuncrional to o r h i g h w a yi s i n t e n d e do s c r v e . h i s c o n c c p t s c o n s r s r c ,w irt h t T i n a svstematrc l p p r o a c h r th i q h r v e v l l n n i n ga n dd e s i g n r p

II Chapter

DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA

INTRODUCTION pedestrians, traffic and of those characteristics vehicles, discusses This chapter in or optimization improvement designof the various thatact as criteriatbr the classes. functional highwayand street

DESIGN VEHICLES

General Characteristics of and the proportions variouslysizet| of The physicalcharacteristics vehiclcs Theretbre. dcsign. in controls geornetric are vehicles usingthehighrvay's pt'rsitive g l a a t , to i t i s n e c e s s a r y e x a m i n e l l v e h i c l c y p c s s el e c tg e n e r ac l a s s r t l u p i n g s .n d u . t s e c siz v e e s t a b l i srh p r e s e n t a t i v e l l e d e h i c l e r v i t h i n a c h l a s s o r d c s i g n s e D e s i g n and with theweiglrt. dirnensions. operating ntotorvehicles vehicles selectetJ are designcontrolstor accomntodating highrvav usetlto establish characteristics design'cachdesigrt of classes. purposes geometric For vehicles designated of r t n an p l v e h i c l e a sl a r g e r h y s i c ad i n r e n s i o n s dl a r g e r l i n i m u mt u r n i n g a d i u s h a n h l T t i l h o s eo f a l m o s ta l l v e h i c l e sn i t s c l a s s . h c l a r g e so f l l l t h c s e v e r ed e s i g n in vehiclcs usualll acconrntodatcd thc dcsigntlt'I'rccrvavs. are passcnger cars. narnely, havcbcensclccted, of Threegencrll cl:.tsscs vchicles car contvchiclcs. Thc passcngcr classincludes lrucks.and buscsirccrcational ( t a s p u p a c r s n ds u b c o n r p a c t ls sa l l l i g h tv c h i c l e a n dl i g h td e l i v c r y r u c k s v a n s n ( l a t s i p i c k u p s )T h e r r u c kc l l r s s n c l u d c s i n g l c - u n ittr u c k s . r u c kt r a c t o r - s e m i t r : r i l c r . n n s o c o n r b i n a t i o na n dr r u c k s r t r u c kt r r c t ( ) r w i t h s e m i t r a i l c ri s c o m b i n a t i ow i t h s. inclu+lc-singk+nir buse-+-anrcul; I tr-*iL=s,.3u*tVrs.rr:afi{}n+l vehic.lss
cilrs ()r tnrltor hontes pulling buses.school buses.nrotor httmcs. and llit.sscntlc'r trailcrs or bttlts. ln ltlditiorr. rvhcreprovision is rtrldc lilr bicyclcs ort u hirthwal . I t h c b i c y c l c 's h t r u k la l s o b c c o n s i t l c r c d t l c s i g n v c h i c l c . -I-hr. v , l i r r r r . r r r i r \ rtr' \r r r I i r l c s i r r t r ' c l t i t ' l c rr t ' n r t ' s t ' n l i l t g t ' h i c l c s w i t h i n l h c s c

AASHTO--Geometrit. Design of Highu,aysanclStreets

Design Contols and Criteria

___-_." J that racility t r r rconsiderabre w rrequency t or :::::::::lfl J:ll:f ]li:ly,ro,use r q L r r r r ywiths o n s t o e r a b l e r e q u e n c yo r characteristics rhar ylil,:9.:'rl must taken accounr be inro in :,i.j::::l::': thefacilityis ioning

l:lfllldereined be rm

l:rersecrions radii rurnin-e and of roadways, Desi

veh profiles can from ;n.;H;: li# H:i:ff ffn ff ; :r" icre
,VIinimumTurning paths of Design Vehicles

usedtoderermine designofsuchcritical the fearures

=Qa

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l;rrscrrractor-scnritr.ircr grrndfutheretr serectecr on hishwavs by the Surtacc

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Figures I throughII- l-5present IItheminimumtumin_e path.s the l5 critical tbr designvehicles. The principardimensions orte.ting designare rhe minimum turningradius,the treadwidth, the wheerbase, and the pathof the inner reartire. Effectsofdriver characteristics (suchas the rate at which rhe driver approaches centripetalaccereration) and of the srip angles of wheels are minirnized by assumingthat the speedof the vehicre tor tire-minimu* ,uaiu, (riorp.r,r tui, lessthan l5 km/tr. The boundariesof the tuming paths of the several design vehicreswhen making thesharpest tu-r or..rtobtished by the outertrace of the front overhang andthepathof the innerrearwheel.This tu- urru*., thattheouterfiont wheer fbllows the circurararc crefining the minimumiu.ning radiusas determined by the vehiclesteering mechanism. The minimum radii of the outsicre and inside wheelpathsaregiven in Table II_2. Geometric designrequirements trucksand fbr buses much more severe are thantheyarc fbr passcnger vehicres. Trucksandbuses widerandhaveronger are wheelbases grcatcrminimum ancl turningraciii. Theseare trr-.'principal charactcristicdimensi.nsaffcctinghorizontar.highw.y design. The-longer single_unit t r u c k sa n d h u s c sr c q u i r c ' g r c i l t e r m i n i m u r nr u m i n g r a o i i t h a n m o s t v c h i c l c combinations. bur because their greaterofftracking, of the ron_9er ' vehicre combinations al.so require greater widthsof tuming puttr-. A semitrailer combination a trucktractorwith a semitrailer, is eitherwith or withouta f ull trailer. truckwith ora oneormorefull trailers. Because.semitrailerc.mbinati'n sizcs and tuming characteristics vary wideru.ih.r" are several scmitruirer ciesisnvehicrcs(A, whecrbase. wB. rengthtiesignatrons in arc rnctric units' meters'in this and in future editions of-ttpolicv ott (icontctrit. l)e'ri.qn tl'Hitltwot's untl sraet.s.):()a design | ..ir"..,n,o,,u. of medium rnlctor-.semitrailercombinations ".rli.r. 1 W B -I 2 ) .C ) a d e s i g n e n i c t ee p r c s e n t a t ro fe u r v Iarrrcr tractor-semitrlirer cornbinations comm.nr,v use1wB- r.5 (l) a design in ). vchiclc represcntative a larger of tractor-semitrailcr trailer combinati'ns full c.tntnonl-v use(wB- ltt). ('1)a in tlesign vehicle representarive a rarger of tractor$Ilulltlilcrc'omhifrltir;nallo','crj on selectr-d hiorrumh., rr..-c..J--,-^ T

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AASHTO--Ceametric Design of Highways and Srreers

n Desi.e Controls cud Cr iteris

23

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Act Assistance of 1982(WB-20),(6) a designvehiclerepresenTransportation (triples)selecfull tativeof tractor-semitrailer trailer-fulltrailercombinations of tively in use(WB-29).and (7) a designvehiclerepresentative largertractorn ( s d t s e m i t r a i l e r - f u lrIa i l e r t u r n p i k e o u b l e ) e l e c t i v e liy u s e( W B - 3 5 ) .A l t h o u g h on and triple trailersare not permitted many highways'their turnpikedoubles doeswanant inclusionin this publication' occurrence shownarefor turnsat lengths The minimumturningradii andthe transition larger andrequire curves the lengthen transition less thanl5 km/h.Higherspeeds minimumfor thisapplication. The radiiareconsidered radiithantheminimums. skilleddriversmight be ableto reducethem. although lrendsin dimensional take into account of dimensions designvehicles The currently of a and vehiclemanufacture represent composite the vehicles motor the mustrepresent values the however, designvehicledimensions in operation: geometricdesign and are thus greater than nearly all vehicles critical to vehicleclasses' to belonging thecorresponding by IIshownin Figures I throughII- l5 werederived The turningdimensions or plotsfor combination articulated andcomputer models both the useof scale that will give can be usedto computethe dimensions units.Altematemethods t s li g h t l yd i f f e r e nv a l u e s . shown and with thedimensions turningcharacteristics vehicle, The P design car the fbr representing passenger class. the in Figurell- l. satisfies requirements trucks are The SU designvehiclecharacteristics suitablefbr all single-unit tbr its rninimumturningpathsufficeibr the smallbuses: controlctimensions lunci ( no a o a n u m b e r f b u s c s n dt r u c kc o r n b i n a t i o n s w i n o p c r a t i o n .S e eF i g u r eI I - 2 ' ) or large buses.however.the desi-en Orr rnost tjrcilitiesscrvins truck trat'iic s l or c l v c h i c l c i t h e r i l r s c n r i t r a i l c ro r n b i n a t i o n s l a r g cb u s e s h o u l cb c c o n s i d e r e d e in dcsign. bus A se.panrtc design vuhiclc is requircd bccauseof' thc' trend tou'arcl v S w l l u i n t c r c i t y n t lt n t n s i b u s c s ' i t h o n g e r rh e e l b r l s e.r \ d c s i g n eh i c l cd c s i g n a t e d i o f l 2 . l r n .a s s h o r v n t t " B U S " w i t h 1 7 . 6 n t r v h c e l b a sa n c il t n o v c r a l ll e n g t h e o a p p l i c a b lte r u b b e r d s . I . b F i g u r e I - - 1h r t s e c ns c l c c t e dT h c s e i r n e n s i o na r ea l s o n l t . t t i r c dc l c c t r i c r o l l c vb u s c sA l t h t r u g hh ct r o l l c yb u s e st r eo n l y 3 . - r r h i g h 't h c y -5.(r rcrluircultproritttlttelr ttt tli ovcrltcltl clcltrancc' 'l'hc rltavnotcontilnnto thcdilllcnstons urhln rrrea \,cr\iltg, purticullrr il buscs l d i . I t r y u r ] n F i g u r cI I - . 1 . . \ t tc x l t t t t p l cs t h e l t r t i c u l l r t cb u s t t 6 w s c r y i t t !c c n a i r t i theccrltcr h tr c i t i c s .L o n g c rt h J 6 c o l l v c n t i t l n a l t t s c si.t s p r 3 m l a l l c n ti n g en c l r r h . ; r l l t l r v r l u n e u r c r l b i l i r yF i g u r cl l - J d i s p l a ; *ts c c r i t i c a lt l i t n c n s i t l t t is r t h c , - \ s r BLI.S csign .chiclc d the v d c s i s n c rt n u s ll t lsrlheuwarcthatlbr ccrtainbuscs cornbinatlvcrlrltng.;ttttlrtladrvltvr crticltl Cur!'llturcmllv prcsent tittn ttt'grtluntlclclrrltncc. p r o h l c r n si n l t i l l r r t r c l t s .

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AASHTO--Geometrie Design of Highways an(t Sffects

Dei i i n Conii'ols aidC i:iti iia

.1, )

ILq CURVE, l5ll HOWEVER, PATH^L:n SHOWN. ITS ^ IS NOT

EAASH DESr N ro G J: HLU$' 1gI :yt*lq.s]lgws_rH j:F_oJ1MELEFrFAoNiovEhiiiib-mb:ii'd X.,_Tf jISLlTlj.sH9.TI.4.l r wHE ror_r_ows li"; E_E-L FRoN E r_ g*

E_rRNNG u I pArH o FrH s

;i{; ; rn il; ;ir

THISTURNING TEMPLATE SHOWS THETURNING PATHS THEMSHTO DESIGN OF AREFOFTHELEFTFRONT VEHICLES.THEPATHS SHOWN OVERHANG ANDTHE WHEEL OUTSIDE FEARWHEEL.THELEFTFRONT FOLLOWS THE CIRCULAR ITS IS CURVE, HOWEVER, PATH NOTSHOWN.

-a '-a

't -ta-

R\

"-s\'-

lc^TE T'ETEn!

|.*TET

Figurell-1. Minimumturning path for p design vehicle.

Figurell-2. Minimumturning path for SU design vehicle.

AASHTO---Ceometric Design of Highwaysand Steets

Desipn Controls and Criteria

27

,i;"N;"fi IlSrJJLr,rHglli,gF-ol1lE!EF_r;ioNi;'iE;ffi E plJ:,li:#tgxF_11;..S.ql:nrnoxr-wxell'ililjws'iift.;ffiiil; CURVE,HOWEVER,ITS

PATH IS NOT SHOWN

I:yiHli,x.?y^s^rj-El!$!r!G_pArHsoFrHEMsr{roDEsrGR

TH|sTURNINGTEMPLATEsHowsTHETURN|NGPATHSoFTHEMSHToDESIGN ANDTHE OVERHANG AREFORTHELEFTFRONT SITOWX VETIICiES.THEPATHS THE FOLLOWS CIRCULAR WHEEL WHEEL.THELEFTFRONT REAR OUiSIOE IS ITS HOWEVER, PATH NOTSHOWN. CURVE.

EM
Figure ll-3. Minimum turningpathfor BUSdesignvehicle. vehicle' turningpathfor A'BUSdesign ll-4. Minimum Figure

AASHTO__CeometricDesign of Highways and Streets

ll"i.l:l.,y_uls. m andtheourside,uA]r, radius 5.9 of lq-side

t,,|"e ,? ffi

com nations wn bi r rh u :'?:::l-,'^.::lTller desisn sho in Figuresr_5 ro gh r;criticf many. purposes. for
off+.L,,i"rfa

I I
TEMPLATE THETURNING PATHS THEMSHTO DESIGN OF SHOWS THISTURNING AND THE SHOWN ARE FOHTHE LEFTFRONT OVERHANG THE PATHS VEHICLES. OUTSIDE REAR WHEEL. THE LEFT FRONT WHEEL FOLLOWS THE CIRCULAR ITS CURVE,HOWEVER, PATHIS NOT SHOWN.

Design Contrals and Criteria

29

F;s;; i;6 ,h";H fi.

O.;ffi;#;

plots(l), thedeiigner determi the j:rived offtracking can ine charac:lTlur.ror teristi cs

design. F i g u r e sI I - 1 2 . I I - 1 3 , I I _ 1 4 ,a n d I I _ 1 5 i n d i c a t e r u m i n g p a t h sf o r typical recrearionar vehicles thatshourd considered thosevehicres. be for In additionto thevehicres shownin Figures l through 15,othervehicres IIIImay be used for selected applications appropriate. as With the advenrof

rhe serecre, JJ' Ji,,,#:: T::J:rK'f ;fi ;:;f

Vehicle Performance

Accelerationand decereration ratesof vehiclesare ofien criticar parameters in determining highway design. These rates oftengovem thedimensioning such of designfeatures intersection^s'-freeway as ,u*pi crimbing or passingtanes, and tumout bays for buses'The fotowing data are not meant to depict average vehiclesfor the designtypes,but rather the low_power(compact) or the car Ioaded truck or bus. Basedon its accereration decereration and rates,the passenger serdom car conrrors design. From Figures 16and II- I7, ir is obvious IIthatrerativery rapid accererations decererations possible, and are arthough theymay be unconrfbnabrefor the passengers unnecessary.. and Also, due to the rapidchanges being mide in vehicle operatingcharacteristics, current <'lu,u on'u.aareration ancl -deceleration ma.ysoon becomeoutdatc,d. FigureII- I 6 is theoriginalfigurefiom the I 984 eclition rhe..creenBook,.. of with new research datasuperimposed over it fiom NCHRP 270(32\. when a highway is locatedin a recreational area.compensation the for pertbrmance characreristics recreation of vehicres shourdu. 1"0..

V e h i c u l a rp o l l u t i o n Thc pollutants cmitted riom motor vehicresand their impact on lano u.scs adjacent highwavs t.crorsaffbcting ro arc rhehighwaydesignprocess. each A.s vchiclerravers alongrhe highway.it ernitspo,irants inro thc armospherc and

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designvehicle. turningpathfor WB-12 lt-5. Minimum Figure

: ;
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and Design ControLys Crtteria

FoLLows iiniuui riE :lF!l SXOWN. lnoNrwHEEt ts NOT

YS-TJ{-E TUFNINGPATHSOF THEAASHTODESIGN ARE FoR THE LEFTFRoNTovERxllc IHoJI'E

SHOWS THISTURNINGTEMPLATE THETURNING PATHS OFTHEMSHTO DESIGN VEHICLES. THE PATHSSHOWN ARE FORTHE LEFTFRONTOVERHANG AND THE OUTSIDEREAR WHEEL. THE LEFT FRONT WHEEL FOLLOWSTHE CIRCULAR ITS CURVE,HOWEVER, PATHIS NOTSHOWN,

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Figurell-6. Minimum turningpath for WB-1S designvehicle.

designvehicle. Figure ll-7. Minimum turningpathlor WB-18

AASHTO-Geometric Design of Highways and Street.s

untl D9qlgnQonyy'ols Ct'ireria

33

OUTSIDE REAR WHEEL.THELEFTFRONT WHEEL FOLLOWS THECIBCULAR oUJVE,HOWEVER, PATHtS NOTSHOWN. tTS

THISTURNING TEMPLATE SHOWS THETURNING PATHSOF THEMSHTO DESIGN VEHICLESTHE PATHS SHOWN ARE FORTHE LEFTFRONTOVERHANG AND THE

DESIGN PATHS THEAASHTO OF SHOWSTHETURNING TEMPLATE THISTURNING AND THE OVERHANG SHOWNARE FORTHE LEFTFRONT THE PATHS VEHICLES. OUTSIDE REAR WHEEL. THE LEFT FRONT WHEEL FOLLOWSTHE CIRCULAB ITS CURVE,HOWEVER, PATH IS NOT SHOWN.

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Mlnimum turningpathfor WB-19 designvehicle. (lnterstate Semitrailer)'

Figurell-9.

designvehicle. turningpathlor WB-20 Minimum (lnterstate Semitrailer)'

AASHTO-Ceometi(

Design of Highv,al,.rand Srreers

De;ien Conl1o$ qnd Cyireria

35

TEMPLATE SHOWSTHETURNING E{IS TURNING PATHSOFTHEAASHTO DESIGN VEHICLES. THE PATHSSHOWN ARE FORTHE LEFTFRONT OVERHANG AND THE OUTSIDEREAR WHEEL. THE LEFT FRONT WHEEL FOLLOWSTHE CIRCULAR UflVE, HOWEVER,ITS PATH IS NOT SHOWN. ,v1 . ,'tU"

OESIGN PATHS OFTHEAASHTO THETURNING TEMPLATE SHOWS THISTURNING A O A S V E H I C L E ST H EP A T H S H O W N R E F O BT H E L E F TF R O N T V E R H A N G N DT H E . FOLLOWS THE OIROUL-AR OTJISIOEREAR WHEEL. THE LEFT FRONT I^/}.{EEL ITS CURVE.HOWEVER, PATHIS NOT SHOWN.

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[ilimum turning path tor WB-29designvehicle. (TripleTrailer)

Figurel-11. l

designvehicle. Minimum turningpath for WB-35 (Turnpike Traller) Double

rHE LEFT ovERxrruc rxe aNo xF,T^glE_s^Il: ?.1T!:.sHg'{l,4lE_FoF FRoNr E REAR WHEEL. THE LEFT FRONT
WHEEL FOI-LOWSTXE CTNCUUN CURVE,HOWEVER, ITS PATHIS NOTSHOWN.

TIIISTURNING TEMPLATE SHOWS THETURNING PATHS THEAASHTO OF DESIGN

PATHS THEMSHTO DESIGN OF SHOWS THETURNING TEMPLATE THISTURNING ANOTHE . OVERHANG ARE FORTHE LEFTFRONT SHOWN THE PATHS VEHICLES. OUTSTDEREAR WHEEL. THE LEFT FRONT WHEEL FOLI-OWSTHE CIRCULAR ITS CURVE,HOWEVER, PATHIS NOT SHOWN.

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Figure ll-12. Minimum turningpathfor MHdesignvehicle.

turningpathfor P/Tdesignvehicle. ll-13. Minimum Figure

AASHTO--Ceometric Dg!!g!t ol HJglUqy; qnd Steets

g!! C te Qr t,Sl Co!!r o!1 lt rya

39

!!I]SIOC REARWHEEL. THE LEFTFRONT WHEEL rOr.r-OWS rXE CINCUUAN CURVE, HOWEVER, PATH NOTSHOWN. ITS IS

THISTURNING TEMPLATE SHOWS THETURNTNG PATHS THEAASHTODSIGN OF VEHICLES. THE PATHS SHOWNARE FORTHE LEFTFROXTOVEhXNHCIr.rOrXE

THISTURNING TEMPLATE SHOWS THETURNING PATHS OFTHEMSHTO DESIGN VEHICLES. THE PATHS SHOWN ARE FORTHE LEFTFRONT OVERHANG AND THE OUTSIDE REAR WHEEL. THE LEFT FRONT WHEEL FOLLOWSTHE CIRoUIJAR CURVE,HOWEVER, PATHIS NOTSHOWN. ITS

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AASHTO--Ceometri(. Design of Highv,ay.s and Streets

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I

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ueceterationdistances for passenger vehicles approachingintersections.

Pollutionfrom vehicles the form of noisemust alsobe recognized the in by h i g h w a yd e s i g n e r . o i s ei s u n w a n r e d o u n d a s u b j e c t i v r e s u l t f s o u n d sh a t N s , e o t i n t r u d e n o r i n t e r f e r w i r ha c t i v i t i es u c ha sc o n v e r s a r i otn ,i n k i n gr.e a d i n g , r o e h o sleeping. Soundcan existwithoutpeople-noise cannot. Motor vehiclenoiseis generated the functioning equipment by of within the vehicle,by its aerodynamics, the action of tires on the roadway,and, in by metropolitan areas, the short-duration by soundsof brakingsqueal, exhausr backfires. homs,and sirens emergency vehicles. of Trucks and auromobiles are the major noise-producing vehicleson the nation's highways. Motorcycles a factortobeconsidered are because therapid of increase their numbersin recentyears.Trucks, particularlyheavydieselin poweredtrucks,present mostdifficult noiseproblemon the highway.The the development morepowerfulengines generally of has increased noise.Modem automobilesare relatively quiet, particularly at the lower cruising speeds, but existin suchnumbers to maketheirtotal as noise contribution significant. steep A gradehaslittle influence the noiseof automobiles can cause increase on but an in noise levels for large trucks. Noise producedby automobiles increases with speed.Unlike the automobiles, dramatically truck noise levelsare less influenced speed by because factors(includingacceleration the noise)that are not at-fected speed by directlyusuallymake up a major partof the totalnoise. For passen,eer cars.noiseproducedunder normal operating conditionsis primarily tiom the engineexhaustsystemand the tire-roadway interaction. Under high-speed cruise conditions,the dominant source is from the tireroadway interaction. For conditionsof maximum acceleration, engine the system noise predominates. atconstant cars highwayspeeds givemuchthesame noise reacling whcthcr or not the engine is operating,because noise is the principallvproducedbv the tire-roadway interaction with sonreaddedwind noisc. Truck noisehasseveral principal components originating from suchsources as exhaust. enginegears, tans.and air intake.At higherspeeds, tire-roadwar' interlctionand wind noiseadd to the problem.As in passenger cars.the noise produccd largcdicseltrucksis primarilytiom theengine by exhausr system and thetire-road*lv interlction. trucks.however. For engine exhaust noisetends to dominate tirc-roldwavinteracrion tirrmostoperating conditions. This is panicularlv truedurinsrlccelc'rrltion.major source the noiscof largetrucksis rhe A of c x h a u ss t a c k . t Thc'qurlin ot'thenoisevarieswith the numberand opcratinrconditions ot' t h e v c h i c l e st;h ed i r e c r i o n a l i r vn d a m p l i t u d e f t h e n o i s ev r r l w i r h h i r h r v a l a o dcsignteatures. highwaydesigner The must therctbrc concerned be wirh ho* rghwty locations dcsignintluence vehiclcnoiseperccivcd persons and the by r e s i d i n u r q o r k i n qn e a r b r o

AASHTO-4]eometric Design of Highu,aysand Street.r

I
I

De+ign eontrols and eriteria

43

I
DRIVER PERFORMANCE
The Driving Task Introduction An appreciation driverperformance essential properhighwaydesign of is to and operation. Designsuirabiliry resrs much on the abiliry of rhehighwayro be as usedsafelyandefficientlyason anyothercriterion. when driversusea hiqhwav designed be compatible to with their capabilities and limitations. ttreirferroimanceis aided. when a designis incompatible with theattributes drivers. of the chances fordriverenors increase, accidents inefficient and and operation often result. At the stan of the 20th cenrury,approximately percentof America's 4 population was 65 years of age or older. persons 65 years of age or older accounted I 5 percentof the driving agepopulationin 1986andwill increase for to 22 percentby the year 2030. Elderly driversandpedesrrians a significanrand rapidly growing segment are of thetraffic streamwith a varietyof age-related sensory-motoiimpairments. As a group, they havethe potentialto adversely affect the highway system'ssafety and efficiency.DataareIackingon theextentof theseimpairments andon design and operational standards. Basic policy decisions also 1acking. are However, thereis agreement elderlyroadusers that requiremobility,andthattheyshould be accommodated thehighway's by design andoperational characteristics the to greatest extentpracticable. Thus.designers engineers and shoul6be aware ofthe plqQlemsand requirements the erderry, of and considerappryingapplicable measures aid their performance. to Transportation ResearchBoard Special Report218' entitledTranspol'tdtio;n an Aging Societv,lntproving itt lvltltbitit, and SafetyFor older persons,Volunre I (35), providesa reference publicai i o n T o r t h e n e e d .o f o l d e r d r i v e r s . s This section provides intbrmation aboutdriver perlbrmance usefulto highway engineers the designand operation highways.It describes in of driversin termsof performance-how they interactwith the highway and its intbrmation systemand why they make error.s. The materialdrawsextensively iionr A IJsar':; (juitlatrt.e Guide ttt posttit'e (2)' which containsintbrmationon the attributes of drivers.on the tasksot' driving, and on intbrmation handlingbv the <Jriver. When positiveguidance is applied design. to comperenr drivers. usingweil-designed highways wirh appropriatc informationdisprays. can pertbrmsateryanciefficicntry.properrydcsignedand operated highwaysin rum providepositiveguidanc:e crrivers. t. In addition.Transponation Research Record l2tll enritledHunwtr f at'torsand prov rct-erence lilrnratittn. in T h e d r i v i n gt a s kd e p e n d o n r e c e i v i n g n du s i n gi n f o r m a t i o n . h e i n f o r m a t i o n s a T receivedin transitis comparedwith the informationalreadypossessed by drivers.Decisions are then made and actionsof control performed. Driving encompassesnumberof discrete a andinterrelated Whengrouped activities. by performance. activities into threelevels: the fall control,guidance, navigaand tion.These activities ordered scales complexity taskandimportance are on of of for safety. Simple overlearned steering and speedcontrol are at one end of the scale (control).Road-following and safe-parh maintenance response road and in to trafficconditions at midlevel(guidance). are Trip planning and routefollowing areat the otherend of the scale(navi,eation). The driving task may be complex and demanding,several individual activitiesmay be performedsimultanenously, requiringsmoothand efficient handlingand integration information. of Driving ofrenoccursat high speeds, undertime pressures, unfamiliarlocations, in and underadverse environmental conditions. The driving taskmay at othertimesbe so simpleandundemanding thata driver becomes inattentive. The key to safe,efficientperformance is error-freeinformationhandling. Driver errorsoccurbecause driversdo not know what is required. because situations may leadto taskoverload inattentiveness. because or and deficient or inconsistent designor inlbrmationdisplaymay cause conlusion. Drivererrors also result from pressures time, complexityof decisions, profusionof of or intbrmation. Controland guidance errorsmay directlycontribute accitlents. to Navigational errorsresultingin delaycontribute inef't'icient to operations and m a y i n d i r e c t l ye a dt o a c c i d e n t s . l

T h e ( i u i d a n c eT a s k l-lighwa-v clcsign traffic operations and hlve thc rreatest eft'ect guidancc. on .,\rr rtppreciation this task levcl is nccdedb1,thc highwaydcsigncrro aid driver of pertbrmancc.

l-ane Placement and Road l'ollowing

lls arctrasrgtt

stcerintandspecd control.judgements rcpresenting nra.jorclernents. A t'ced-back proccssis used to fbllow alinemcntand grade in kccping ',r'ithroad and c n v i r o n n l c n t a l c o n d i t i oO b s t r r c l e - l v o i d a n c c ' d c c i s ir ei n t c { r a t e i n t ol i l n c ns. a ons d

I I

placemenr road-following and activities. This portionof theguidance tasklevel is continually performed-when no othertrafficis present (singularly), when or it is shared with otheractivities (integrated).

Traffic Control Devices Traffic conrroldevices provideguidance and navigation information thatoften is not otherwise available apparent. or Thesedevices includeregulatorv. warning. and routeguidance information. Traffic controldevices. suchas markings and delineation. alsodisplayadditional informationthat augmenrs someroadway or envrronmental feature. These devices in thereception information aid of thatmight otherwise overlooked difficult ro receive. be or Information relative to thepropertraffic controldevicesis availableintheManual on tJniformTrffit Control Det,ices(3).

Car Following car-following decisions more complexthan road-following are decisions becausethey involve speedcontrol modifications.In car following, drivers constantly modify their speedto maintainsafe gaps.They have to assess the speed ofthe leadvehicleand thespeed and positionofthe othervehicles the in traffic streamand continually detect,assess, respondto changes. and

The Roadwa-vand its Environment Overtaking and Passing overtakingand passing decisions still more complex,requiringmodificaare tions in road and car following and in speed control.In passing, driversmust judge thespeed andaccelerarion potential theirown vehicle. speed the of the of leadvehicle,the speedand rateofclosure ofthe approached vehicle,and the presence an acceptable in the traffic stream. of gap selectionofspeeds pathsis dependent thedriversbeingableto view the and on road. Drivers must see the road directly in front of their vehiclesand far enoughin advance predictwith a high degreeof accuracythe alinement, to grade'width,andrelated aspects theroadway. of The view of theroadincludes its immediateenvironment, Such appurtenances obstacles shoulders. and as sign supports,bridge piers, abutments, guardrail,and median barriersthar a f f e c tt h e d r i v e rm u s rb e c l e a r l yv i s i b l e .

Othcr Guidance Activities O t h e rg u i d a n c ea s k - l e v e lc t i v i t i e i n c l u d e e r g i n gl.a n ec h a n g i n g , v o i d a n c c t a s m a ofipeelestrians. response trafficcontroldevices. and to lvlostof these activities rcquirecomplcxdecisions, juclgnrents, pretlictions. and

! I

Information Handling Driversusemanvof theirsenses gatherintbrmation. to They detect change.s in vehicle handling through instinct.They f'eel road surfacetexture through vibrations thesteering in wheel.Thev hearthesirens ernergency of vehicles an<j scealinement. markings, and signs.Most infbrmationis received visualry. Throu-ehout drivingtask. the driverspertbrmseveral functions almost simultaneously. The."look at intbrmationsources. make numerous decisions. and pcrtirrmnccessarv controlactions. Sources inlbnnation(some of needed. others n()t competc theirattention. ) titr Needed intbrmation rnustbe in thcireltlof vrcrv. b c a v a i l a b l e h e nn e e d e db c ' i n a u s a b l e b r m . a n t l b e c a p a b l e i w . f o c e t t i n ct h c tlrivcrsattcntion. ' Bccausc dri'ers can only attendto one visual inlbrmationsource a time. at thcy integrate variousintbrmation the inputsand mainrain an:rwureness the of cnangrng environment throughan attention-sharing process. Driverssamplc lrtlm'nc sourccto another. Thev makesomedecisions imme<Jiatelv delay. antj o t l t c r st:h c v r c l y o n j u d g m e n te s t i m l r i o na n d p r e c l i c t i orn f i l l i n , . o lapr.

The Information System Eachelement thatproviclcs intbrnration parrof the informltion sl,srem rhc is of highway.Formalsources intormation thc tral'ficcontroltlevices of ure speciticullv desicned displayintbrmation. to Intbrmalsourccs includesuchelemenrs itsdesignf'eatures, joints.rrcelincs,and traffic.Toscther. pavement thc'tormal lnd inlormalsources displavthc inlormation driversnecdto pcrtilrmtheraskof driving sat'ely and efficicntly.Formaland infbrnrar sourccs infbnnationrrc of intcrrelatcd and mu.st reinforceand For cvcry dccade atier agc 25. drivcrsneecl twice thc brightness ni{hr ro ar rcceive visualinlormation. Hencc.by age7,5, somedriver.s nravneerl-Jl trmcs t h e b r i g h t n c sts c yd i d a r a g e2 - 5 . h

I I
I
I L I I I I | I I I I I

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I
ReactionTime

\ASHTO__Ceometric Designof Highways and Streets

Design eon#ols and A.iret ia

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Ilfgrmation takestime to process. Drivers' reactiontimes increase a function as of increas.ed decisioncomplexity and information conrent.The longer the reacrlontime, the greater the chance for error. Johannson and Rumar (4) brakereactiontime for expected and unexpected signals. Their results Teasured th^owtla.t when the signal is expected. reactionrime averages about0.6 s with rew drvers taking as long as 2 s. with unexpected signals,reactionrimes : tncreased 35 percent.Thus, for a simpre,unexpected by decisionand action, rome cr.versmay takeas rong as 2.7 s to respond. A comprexdecisionwith may take severat seconds longer than a simpledecision. ::veral-alternatives II- I 8 showsthisrelationship median-case for drivers,while FigureII- l9 itgure this relationship 85th-percentile for drivers.The figuresshowinformation :hows tn bits.A bit is a term usedto quantifytheamountof information needed make to a oeclslon'Long processing time decreases time availableto attendto other the information and increases chances error. for Designsshouldtakereactiontimesinto account.It shouldbe recognized that drivers vary in their response and take longer to respondwhen decisionsare complexor features unexpected. are Clearsightlinesandadequate decision sight distanceprovide marginsfor enor.

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Primacy Ftimacy relatesthe relativeimportance saf'ety competing to of iirformation. ntrol and guidance int'ormation is important becauss the ielated enors contribute directly to accidents. Navigationintbrmationassumes lower oria macy becauseerrors lead to ineftlcient traffic flow. Accordingry, ,h. J.ri-nn shouldfocusthedrivers'attention the.safety-critical on elements orhigh-priority infbrmation sources. Providing clearsightlines goodvisualqualityu.f,i"u., and rhisgoal. i

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.spced and accuracvof their responses.

Figurell-18. Median driverreaction time to expected and unexpected information.

I
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Reinforced expectancies ririvcrs help responcl rapicll"v- correctl.v. and Unusual. u n i q u e . r u n c o m m o n i t u a t i o n sh u t t ' i o l a t e x p e c t u n c i e s a v o s t e m c a u s el o n g e r response times,inappropriate responses, errors. or Most desisnf'eatures sufficienrlv are similarto create expectancies related to commonseometnc, operational. routecharacteristics. example, and For because mostfieer"a' interchanges risht erits.dri'ers generallv have expect exit from to therighr. Thisaids performance enabring by rapidandcorrect responses whennghr exitsareto be negotiated. Thereare.however. instances whereexpectancies are violated. For example. an exit is on the lefi. thenthe ri_eht-exir if expectancy rs Incorrect. response and timesmay be rengthened errors or commltted. T h e p r o d u c t i o o f d e s i g n sn a c c o r d a n cw i t h . p r e v a l e e x p e c t a n c i e s n i e nt isone of the most importantwavs to aid performance. Unusual or non-standard designshouldbe avoided, and designelemenrs shouldbe appliedconsisteritly throughout highwaysegmenr. a care shourdbe takento maintainconsistency from one segment another.when driversget the information to they expecr from the hi-ehrvay its traffic controldevices, and their perfbrmance tendsto be error free. When they do not get what they expect,or get what they do not e x p e c te r r o r s a y r e s u l t . . m

Driver Error

'./

A c o m m o n h a r a c t e r i s oifcn r a n y i s h - a c c i c l el n t a t i o nis t h a tt h c , y c r h oc s p l a c ea r g e l t l r t t n u s u atl l e t t t a n c r st r t l t c i n l o r n r u t i o n - p r o c e s s cn e a b i l i t i e s ll i ap of drivcrs. I r t c f i' c i c n t P g l ; 1 1 ii1t1 1 t c c i t l c t t t s r u r l lo c c u r u h e r ch . j c l t r r r c c s f o t t tl 1 us v r t filrinltlrmlt i t t n - h a n d l i nc r r o r su r e h i g h . A t k r c u t i o n sr , . h etn c d c s i g ni s s r h cleficient. c. h p o s s i b i l i t o f c r r . r a n d i n a p p r o p r i u t cr i v c r r f i r r r n a n ciec . r c u s e r r ' s. lre

23 4 lnforno+lon Conton+ ( g l t s )

Iirror Due to Driver Deficiencies i\lunv errorsarc cuusctl dct'icicnccs l tlrivcr's caplbilitics()r bv in tcrnporrrv s t l t t c s v h i c h , r r c t l n . j u n c t i t r v i r hl t t t i n r t t l c q u u t l c s i r t n r r i tn c 6 r l i i f i c L r ls i t u a t i o r r . t p r o t l u c c h e f r r r l u r cF o r e i u r n p l e .i n s u l ' t ' i c i t n {. x p e r i c n c c t . c lnd rraining ttc.n o c 0 n t r i h u t c0 t h c i n a b i l i t v o r c c o v c r ' r ( ) r a \ k i ( 1 . s i r n i l u r l -in - . p p r o p r i i ' r t e t t t n na isk l l t k i n g n r r n ' l c r r t t o L . r r o r st ) q u p i t c c c p t l t r c c h i l c p : r s s i n gS ) . p o o r l i ( w ularc l ' c c ( ) v c r0 l . t \ c l l u 5 c l t l c r l vt l r i v c r s 0 r n i s si n t i r r n ] . r r i .ln n i g h t( 6 ) . \ c r t ..\dvt-'rsc psvchophvsirlktgicul alsrllc:rtl tlrivcrlirilures. starcs to These includc, hasbc'cn cleurlvcsrahlishcd. cl'fi'crs rltisuc, causcrl slcepdeprivltion Thc tlf bv lrrlrrt cxrcndcrl pcrirxls driving,,vithtrLrt ,rt. tlf ,"rt. proltlntctlcrpbsure monor()lo

Figure ff-19. 8Sth-percentite driver reactiontime to

unexpected information.

expectedand

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AASHTO--Ceometric D:!:gl

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ffH::f:|:i::j:::ffTjjest n i a , r . n " r o r rstate.Fatigued u l t i m a t e l yr e a c ha l e s s - t h a .r,,r.p.l,;, drivers representa srzable nnri^- ar rL., long-trip r^_ of the _ . , ,an_competent
design. l;;;o,' Because state-of-the-art knowredge about the erderry,s impairmen.,is incomplete' giventherack.of and agr.rr.n, on poricymatters, is not it feasible to m4ke specific recommendations n,,..rur", on to aid the erderry.However, the following have beensuggested design as and traffic contror measures with the potentialto aid rhe elderly <Iriver: Assess standards <Jetermine feasibiliry all to the of desisni tbr the95th rgning or 99th percenrile driver (i.e.,theelderly). Improvesightdistance modifying by deiignsand removing obsrru'ions. particularly intersections interchanles. at and Assess sighttriangles adequacy. tbr P r o v i d e e c i s i o n i g h td i s r a n c l s . d s rnlormalron receplionand procc.s.sing. . C o n s i d ea l t e r n a t e r d c s i g n .ts r c d u c e , , n l l i " c t s . o c - Frovioep-ot-Cted rnovements. particuIarly, lefi turns fbr . E l i m i n a r e i e l ds i t u a t i o n s . y

Y::'1."1::i:i,.-o',';::'the,atrriburesanosr<iirs;;i;;;;;;;J;;###J; stan ,.t;;. :txteno lr'j:1*::r,:1;:":lil'*".datthe oftheir fi;;;;;, ";#:il'je breaks.driver prorongedr u u s ' they or - ' v v r v r v r l S r uperiods, y rbr tn Pcr
driving population sh"oul<tie.;;;ti;;;ffi;"; ana

thcse kindJof c,lreetd'i ;';;; l;-,:;; ;of ffiil:: L"ifaitu...err"r, j: operation. t n ;. nd ::: ::,j:3I I : ;#:::,::::"^1':o]:j",.":sen

driver deficien.i.r. Ho*.u.,", oJrt*"lri""io'i.",1 :::::,:iT::^?LJ,i.^1,: theconsequences

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for or procedure reduce l":poss.ible a design operariontrl ro

I
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v i g i l a n c e n w h i c hd r i v e r sf a i l t o d e t e c t r e c o g n i z e . r r e s p o n d i . o t o n e w .i n f r e _ quentlyencountered, unexpected or elements informationsources. or

Speedand Design Speedreduces visualfield, restricts rhe peripheral vision,and limits rhe rlme availableto receiveand process information.Highwaysbuilt to high design standards help compensate theselimitationsby simplifying control and for guidance activities, aidingdriverswith appropriate by informarion, placing by thisinformation wirhinrheconeof crearvision,by eliminating muchoithe need f o r p e r i p h e r av i s i o n ,a n d b y s i m p l i f y i n gt h e d e c i s i o n s e q u i r e d n d l r a spacing them further apartto decrease information-processing demands. current freewaydesignhasapproached goalof ailowing driversto operare the at high speeds comfbrtandsafety.Designstandards in utilizing controlof access havereducedthe potentialfor conflict. Drivers are given a clearpath. obstructions have beeneliminated made forgiving, and a clear roadside or has been provided.The modernfreeway has provided featuresof alinement and profile that' when takentogether with otherfactors, encourage high operating speeds. Although improveddesignhas producedsignificantbenefits,it has also created porential problems. Forexample, drivingat nightathighspeecls lead may to reduced forwardvision because rhe inability oi headlightito illuminate of hazards sutTicient fbrsomedrivers respond In addition, sevenry in time (9). to the of accidents generally i.s greater with increased .speed. Finally' the veqy faet thal freewayssucceetr providing saf'e. in efficienr r r a n s p o r r a t i o n n l e a dt o d i f f i c u l t i e sT h e I n s t i t u t e l ' T r a f f i c E n g i n e e r(s1 0 ) ca . o inclicated "Freeways thlt. encourage driversto extenci customary the lengthand d u r a t i o n f t h e i rt r i p s . h i s r e s u l t sn d r i v e rt a r i g u e n ds l o w e rr e a c t i o n s r v c l l o T i a a a s a r e d u c t i r tin a t t e n t i o a n d v i g i l a n c e . " n n Thus.extended periods high-speed of drivin-rr hi-uhways rorvdemancl on with fbr intbrmation processing may not arwaysbe conducive propcrinfbrnration to handling tlrivers bv andmay theretirre leltl to clriver tirrigue. Design shsultitakc thesc pos.sible adversc eff'ccts account into andlesse theirconscqucnces. n Thesc problenrs implv thi.rt longscctions of'tlar. rangenr roadway shouldbcal.oiticd antl tlat.curvingalinement that tbllowsthe natural contours theterrain of shttulti be u.sed whenevc'r ptts.sible . lVell-spaced areas rest also provehclptll.

liinllf,

andredesign inrersecriorrs inrerchanges r e q u r r e and rhar mul-

Error Due to Situation l)emands Driversrfien crmmit errorswhcn tht'y haveto pcrtirrmscverar highrycomprcx tasks thesametirneundcrc.rtrenrc at rimepr.rr,,r" (tt).This t-ype error of usuailvl hrppensin urbanr.cari.ns wirh crosc'ry spaceri decisionpoinrs.inr.nri*]ln,r use'complexdesignt'eaturcs. hclvv and traffic.RcsuItanrIntb.r.,inn_pro..rrrngdemands beyond trriv.ers' thc capabilities may cause confuscd inadequare or untlcrstanding ovc,rloaded or thoughtproccsses. locationspresentrhe oppositesiruati.ns and are a.s.sociatcd n ....^t'tn"r ( r { . l u t g ( ] wrth wlI diffcrcnr rypesof errors.Theserypically rural ltrcations mav havewrdql-ylpilsed

ratherrhln bcing overrcirded. trrivers.rhoughl proccsscs nra1', undcrrtxrdcti. bC Er*rrs arc caust:db,v a statc of dccrcascd

s r1c g, *..i *un, Iin.'n";;, ; ;il; ;ffi ; Ian h ;; rnfo arion rm ,,i::::l"l are Il1 ua : dcrnands I trrusrninir'ar,an. "

Assessment 'lhi's scctionhas described way drivcrs usc intbnnationprovidedbr the the highwlr antjitsappurtcnrtnces hasshownthcintcrtlcpcntlelce and bt twecntles ign

AASHTO--Ceometric Design Highways Slreers of and

Design eontotrand

riterta

53

and information display.Both shouldbe assessed the designstage. in Because drivers"read" the roadand the environmentand believewhat they appear be to (even traffic rndicating if control devices makingup theformalinformarion system are indicating somethingcontrary), a highway segment rhat is inadequatelv designed may not oprare safelyand efficiently even with the conectly compensatingcontrols. Conversely. adequately an designed highwaymay not operate properlywithout an appropriate complementof tratfic controldevices. Designers shouldconsider their designof a particular segment it will be as whenconstructed. Theyshoulddetermine how thehighwaywill interact with irs environment, what its information systemwill be like, and the extentto which its information sysrem will complement and augment segment. the The design should be considered from rhe point of view of drivers unfamiliarwirh the ' highway to determinehow the segmentwill appearro rhem and what effectsit will have on their performances. consideration should be given to the visual quality of the road. Locations wirh potential for overload or underloadof informationshoutdbe identifiedand the situationrectified.The adequacy the of sightlines distances and shouldbe assessed. Finally,a determination shouldbe madewhetherunusual vehicle maneuvers willbe required whetherprevalent and driver expectancies be violated. may Potential driverproblems be anticipated can befbrea facilityis built by using intbrmation aboutthedriving tasksand possible driver errorsin an assessment of design. when trade-offs necessary canbe madewith theatrributes are they of drivers in mind to ensurethat the resultanr design is compatiblewith them. Properly designed operated and highwaystharprovidepositiveguidance rhe to driversoperate an unprecedented at level of safetyand etficiency. one of rhc primarveftbrtsof thedesigner shouldbe to ensure thatthis standard always is maintained.

T r a f f i c d a t af o r a r o a do r s e c t i o n f r o a dg e n e r a l l y r ea v a i l a b l e r c a n b e o a o easily obtained. The datacollectedby Stateor local a_eencies includetraffic v o l u m e s o r d a y so f t h e y e a ra n d t i m e so f t h e d a y ,a s w e l l a s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n f o f v e h i c l e s y t y p e sa n d b y w e i g h t s . h e d a t aa l s o i n c l u d ei n f o r m a t i o n n b T o trendsfrom which the designer may estimate traffic to be expected the rhe in future.

Volume Average Daily Traffic The generalunitof measure fortraffic on a highwayis the averagedaily traffic (ADT), which is definedas the toral volume during a given time period (in wholedays), greater thanoneday andlessthanoneyear,dividedby thenumber of days in that time period.The currentADT volume for a highway can be determined readilywherecontinuous traffic countsareavailable. Whereonly periodiccounts taken,ADT volumecanalsobeestablished adjusting are by the periodiccountsaccording suchfactors theseason, to as month,or day of week. Knowledge ADT volumeis importantfor manypurposes, of e.g.,determining annualusageas justificationlbr proposed expenditures for designof or s t r u c t u r a l l e m e n t o f a h i g h r v a yb u t i t s d i r e c tu s ei n t h eg e o m e t r i c e s i g n f e s , d o h i g h w a y s s n o t a p p r o p r i a t b e c a u s et d o e sn o t i n d i c a t e h e v a r i a t i o n n t h e i e i t i t r a f f i co c c u r r i n g u r i n gt h ev a r i o u s o n t h s l t h e y e a r ,d a y so f t h ew e e k ,a n d d m o hours of the dly. The amount bv rvhich the volume of an averageday is c x c e e d e d n c c r t a i nd a y s i s a p p r e c i a b l c n d v a r i e d .A t t h e a v e r a g e u r a l o a r l o c a t i o nt.h ev o l u n r e n c e r t a i n a y sm a y b e d o u b l e h eA D T . T h u s .a h i g h w a y o d t dcsigned thetraflic on an averase tbr day would be required carrya volume to qreaterthanthc'designvolume fbr a considcrable portionof the year.and on m l n y d a v st h ev o l u m ec a r r i e d o u l db e m u c hg r e a t etrh a nt h ed e s i g n o l u m e . w v

TRAFFICCHARACTERISTICS (ieneralConsiderations
T h e d e s i g no f a h i g h w a y . r a n y p a r t r h e r e o f . h o u l db e b a s e d p o n l l c t u a l o s u i n f o r m a t i o ni n c l u d i n gt a c t o r sr e l a r i n gt o t r a f f i c . A I I i n t b r m a t i o n h o u l db e s o c o n s i d e r ejd i n r l . v F.i n a n c i n gq u a l i t yo f f b u n d a t i o n s . v a i l a b i l i t y f m a r e r i . a o a l s ,c o s to f r i g h t - o f - w a y a n do r h e rf a c r o r s l l h a v ei m p o r t a n t e a r i n g n t h e , a b o d c s i g n . b u t t r a f f i c i n d i c a t c st h e n e e d f o r t h e i m p r o v e m e n r n d d i r e c r r y a a t ' f c c t s h c g e o m e t r i c ' c a t u r e o f d e s i g n ,s u c h a s w i d t h s .a l i n e m c n t sa n c l t f s , g r a d c s l t i . s o m o r er a t i o n a t o d e s i e na h i g h w a yw i r h o u rr r a f f i ci n f o r m a t i o n . n l t h a ni t i s t o d c s i g na b r i d g ew i r h o u tk n o w l e d g e f t h e w e i g h t . a n d n u n b c r s s o o f v c h i c l c si t i s i n r e n d e do s u p p o r r T r a f f i c i n f b r m a t i o n e r v e s o e s r a b l i s h r . s r t h c l o : r d s o r { c r t n r e t r i c i g h w a vd e s i g n . f h

Iteak-Hour Traffic volumestbr an intervalof'rime shorrcrthana day more lppropriatc'l_r' rctlcctthc'operating conditions thatshouldbc uscdtirr dcsisnif rrafficis to be propcrlysc'ncd. The brielbut tiequenrlv periods sicnitjrepeatcd rush-hour arc cantrn thisreglrd.ln neurlyall cascs. practical adequatc and rimeperiodis onc a The trlffic pottcmon anv highwlv showsconsitlerlble vlriation in traltlc vtllunres duringthedil'tcrcnt hoursof rhcdav andin hourlyvolumes throughout thc vcar.It mustbe dctcrmined which of these hourlvtrelfic volurncs shouldbe 'frrt'flc

I I
I I s4 qf 44!4!o {:prS!!!, ee.stsn Alehws+ ana-Stuex
Design Contrals and eilrcri<t J5-

u s e dr n d e s i g n I r w o u l db e w a s t e f utlo p r e d i c a t t h ed e s i g n . e o n t h e( m a x i m u m ) traff p.uk-.hou.r rc of theyear,yet theuseof theaverage hourrytraffic would re.surr 'n an tnadequate design. The hourlytraffic volumeusedin design shouldnot be verf often or by very much.On the orherhand,it shouidnot be so high :j:..:!"t' rarely be greatenoughto makefull useof theresultingfacitirt. Ytllftlt:","1d guidein.determining hourlytrafficbestsuited use the for in design u cu*. i, Y"e rnolrng variarionin hourly traffic volumesduring the year. frgrr. II-20 showsthe rerationship between higf,esr tne hourryvolumes and ^ l on ruralarterials' This figure wasproduced from an analysis traffic count of I 1" .ara coveringa wide rangeof vorumes and geographic conditions. The curves chTr were preparedby arrangingail of the hourry volumes for one year, I li lne ex.pressed a percentage ADT. in a descending as of order of magnitude.The curve rhe averagefor ail rocationsstudiedand represents a highway I :l:,011 5 wrth averagefluctuationin traffic flow. A review of thesecuryesleadsto the conciusionthat the hourly traffic used in designshould be the 30th highesthourly volume of the year, abbreviated as 30 HV' The reasonableness 30 HV as a design .ontroi of is indicatedby the change thatresults from choosinga somewhat higheror Iowervolume.Thecurve. in FigureII-20 steepens quickly to thereftof thepointshowingthe30thhighest hour,indicating muchhighervolumes theinciusion only"a for of few moreof rhe higherhourryvolumes. The curveflarrens theright,indicaiing to manyhoursin w h i c h t h ev o l u m ei s n o t m u c h l e s st h a n3 0 H V . on ruralroadswith average fructuation traffic frow,30 HV approximates in l-5 percentof the ADT. whether or not this hourly vorume is too low for adequacy design in canbejudgedby the29 timesduringlhe_year is e.rceeded. .... _T-h.rn&\irnum it hourryvorume,whiitr is approximately p"...n, orthe ADT, zs exceeds HV by about 67 percent.whether or not 30 30 HV is too high for practical economyin designcan bejudged by the trendin the hourly vorumes l o w e r t h a nt h e 3 0 r hh i g h e s h o u r .T h e m i d d l ec u r v ei n F i g u r e t I I _ 2 0i n d i c a r e s thatduring I 70 hoursof theyearthetraffic volumeexceeds I 1.5percent the of ADT' The rowcstof this rangeof hourlyvolumesis about percent 23 lessthan .10HV. I I I | I I I

l6

32 2B
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020

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120

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Number of Hours in One Yeor Greoter thon thai Shown

Hourly Volume

Figure ll-20. Relation peak-hour average between and dailytratfic volumes ruralarterials. on

t n i n c t l W h c r es u c hm c l s u r c m e n tl n n o t h e m l d e a n dt h eA D T o n l y i s k n o w n . . c uscshoLrld rnltlc of -l0th-hour bc' pcrcenrage factors sinrillr highwavs the tilr in s a m e o c u l i t l 'o p e r a t i n g n d c rs i m i l a rc o n d i t i o n s . l . u On thc averi.lse rurll artcrial,-10FIV is ubtlut l-5 perccntof .\DT, and the

I rl
| .AAsl|T0--lieonelrietas+snaJHishwaysandSte"ts
discLrssion crireria for designapply to most rurat t* preceding and t ic t 'uys. Ttre." ligh *ays, however. whichrhere unusuat nigtty lrc on ii or stolcnui nu"ruarion in-rrafficflow, suchas resonroadson which weekend riffic auringa few months far in excess is ofany rmfficduringrheremaining monrhs tie year.Seasonal of flucruation resutti in high peak-trour volumei relarive ADT, highpercenrages high-volume to for hours, low percenrages and for low-volume hours. The percentag 30HV may nor be ftuch differ;nr for from thepercenrage 30 iv on m-osr for rural roads, rhepercerrage but crirerion may not ha; applicarion. Economydiclaresa designthar resuhsin somewhat sarisfacrory less r.affic operation during seasonal peaksrhanon ruralroads wirhnormalfl ucruarions, rhepubticgenera wi accepr ind lly such condilions. rheoiherhand, On design should besoeconomical severe nor rhar congestion resulrs duringpeakhouis.lt maybedesiBble. thereforc, choose ro an hourly volume for aisign, which is about 50 prcenr the volumes of expcred occurduringa viry few hoursofthe design ro yearwherheror it nor is equalto 30 HV. Some congesrion would be erpeneniedby rrafficduring peakhoursbut thecapacity wouldnot be exceded. checkshoutd made A be

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oiolbr recreatidnal conceniiaiad areisorlocationiwhere u" *""t"".y inrhose can locations rcsultin a of rravelexisr:duringsomeseasons the year.Such grcatci lhari are where hourlyvolumes somuch th of raffic volume disrribution mustbc considered and be rhe30 Hv tharftey cannot tolerated a highervalue and be volumes should made analyzed' of meeturement such specific in design. arerlsuaxy and streets highways of used Tra-ffic esdmares forthedesign urban derivedfrom the urbanransponaionPlantrng as expressed ADT volumes givntorhedeveloPhts considemtion been years. however, tn prccess. receni in traffic assignments lieu of ADT by tuakjngpeak-hour rnenrof DHvs loumey-to'worx of the 1980and l9m census The assignmnls. availabilily on hav inf;arion is undoubredly ing a majorinfluence this.latkrapproach' lhroughlhe urban is tmvel demand determined furure ln rhe usualcase, lo of in process terms totaldaily tripstha!ateassigned planni[g rransponadon publicandpnvate ofthe splitbetween Considerarion system. tl" trun.ponorion rips assigned then These inio the process. r-"ponudon is alio incorporated network and stree! highway on b."o." uolumes linksofrhe fulure rhesevolums(ADT) are providedto lhe highway In someinstances

ro ensure rheexpected rhar maximum hourlyrrurt" ao"r noi

capaciry. (DHV),rhercfore, Thedesign bourlyvolume should 30 HV of thefuture be yearchosn iordesign. Exceptions be madon roads may wirh highsasonal trafficfluctuarion. where differcnt volumemay need be used. lo,HV a to The crirerion applies general urban also in ro areas, where flucluarion traffic bui rhe in now mayre raaicatty differenr lromrhaton ruralhighways. orher retations may +av to beco.sidered,
In urbanareas. appropriate an hourly volume may be cletc'rmined fronr the stu?[of traffic duringthe normaldaily peakperiods.Bccause the recurring of ntorning ancl aftcmoon peak traffic tlow, thcre is usually little <iift'erence between lOth highest the hourly volumeand the 200thhighest hourlv volume. For the usualurbancondition,the highesthourly volume is tbund during the afternoon work-to-home travelpeaks. one approach determining suitable tbr a hourlvvolumetirr uscasa basis design to select highest fbr is rhe afternoon peak traffictlow tilreechwcekandthcnaverage thesc valucstirr-jl rvecks the_v-elr. of 'l'ltis *'ould be usedas thehourlyvoiume tbrdcsignpurposcs. all the averase If ntorningpelk-hourr.olumcs less are thantheafiernoon peaks. average the the ol -5Jw'cckly peak-hour afrernoon volumes wouldhaveaboutthesamevaluel.srnc3 6 t hh i g h c s h o u r l vv o l u m eo f t h ey e a r .l f t h e m o m i n { p e a k s r ee q u a lt o r h e r a lt'tcrnotln pcaks. avcrage theaftemoonpeakswould be lbout equalto the the of lure sul'l'icicntlv n()t dift'crcnt irttm the -10HV valueto irlttct dcsiqn. Thercfbre. i n u r b a nd c s i g n t h c - l 0 t hh i g h c s h o u r l yv o l u m cc a n a l s ob e t s s u m e d o b e I , t t r c a s o n u l r r c p r c s c n t a t i o n' d a i l yp e a kh o u r s u r i n gt h ev c - u rE x c e p t i o nrs a v l l d . n

"^"""a

i;;

hour to-dsign directional they in direcrtyi orhers, areconvend designers

standstudyslaff.Froma praclical transponadon ol;es by rheoprational lhal because transportatron desirable maybethemor poinrfte la(errpprcach lhat rheassLrmpl'ons the to posirion evaluate effects :tudy slaff is in a belrer volumes theresultanldesign wouldhaveon process in inhe;enr fie planning mavbe HV or its eQivalent. ). n"rten ltoutiy'oru.." nwo-w.ry i.e.,the30 in (usutrlly to I 2 percenl 8 prcentage x by derermined .rpplyrng representrrive obtained based dala on thls lo areas) rtleADT.Inmanycases percen!4ge. urban
cases in and is countprograrn. developed appliedsysternwide: other in a trat't'ic of facility or areas the urban of classes tbr iactorsmt). he tleveloped dift'erent onehi'shrvar At approach' least a regionor both.This is probably morcdesirable bethe relationships representing c.quations regression og'.n.y hls devclopctl on depending the are tiecn pelk tlorv lnrl rtot. niiterenr equarions applied. rnd the rangeof the ADT vtllumes' of lanes number

I ) i r e c t i o n a lD i s t r i b u t i o n s i n b o t hd r r e c t i o no t t. r F t t r r w r t - l l n c u r l l h i g h r v a v s h eD H V i s t h c t r l t r l t r a l f i c whcre t r v o - l a t tr t l i t d s e .s t r a v e l .o n h i g h $ , 1 1 w i t h m o r c t h l n t w o l a n c sa n d o n or tre r'nc()trntcretl whcre lddititlnal llnes are to hc lmportantlntcrsecrr()ns

tll pcovided ll,1.1i knorvletlge ttf the hourly traffic volunre in c'ach directitln t r a v e l i s c s s c ' n t i l ll i r r t l e s r g n ' in rlultillnc highwav rvith l high pcrccntagcoi trlffic For thc :rrllc .'\D'f ;.r l a t t c st h l n a h i g h r r l t r onc dircctiort tlurintl the peuk htlurs tnav r c u u i r e t t t t l r c

AASHTO1j eometr i<: sisLol HtS! Aa):; S!4 S!!:eels Ds

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Design Controls and Criteria

59

Duringpeakhourson most percentage. havingthe sameADT but with a |esser beingas traffic is in onedirection. of from 55 ro70 percent the ruIa[highwavs. c h i g h w a y s a n y i n ge q u a l :ent il :h mucn as 80 pcrcento c c a s o n a l l y .F o r t w o m u l t i l a n e than the other one may havea one-waytratfic load 60 percent traTfic. Sreater fbr:1.000 designed a consider ruralroad duringthe peakhours.As an example. h p v e h i c l e s e r h o u r r v p h )t o t a lt b r b o t hd i r e c t i o n sI.f d u r i n gt h e d e s i g n o u rt h e s s d d i r e c t i o n a l i s t r i b u t i o in e q u a l l y p l i t .o r 2 . 0 0 0v p h i s o n ed i r e c t i o nt,w o l a n e s of If may be adequate. 80 percent the DHV is in onedirection, in eachdirection tbr would be required the 3,200vph: and if at leastthreelanesin eachdirection criterion is rigidly applied, four lanes in each the 1,000-vehicles-per-lane directionwould be required. c d T r a f f i c { i s t r i b u t i o nb y d i r e c t i o n s u r i n g p e a k h o u r si s g e n e r a l l y o n s i s r.ni tiorn yearto yearand fiom day to day on a given rural road,excepton some directionaidistributionmay The measured areas. highwaysservingrecreational to to be assumed appl.v the DHV fbr the future year for which the facility is excepttbr urbanhighways. designed, o T h e d i r e c t i o n a d i s t r i b u t i o n f t r a f f i c o n m u l t i l a n ef a c i l i t i e sd u r i n g t h e l on hour (DDHV) shoukl be determinedby field nieasurements the <lesign . l c o n s i d e r a t i oo r o n p a r a l l e a n d s i m i l i a rt a c i l i t i e s I n t h e l a t t e r n f a c i l i t yu n d e r be case,the paralleltacititiesshouldpref'erably thosefrom which traffic, tbr t p a r t .\ \ ' o u l db e d i v e r t e d o t h e n e w h i g h w a y 'T h e D D H V a p p l i c a b l c t h em o s t t b l f t i r ru s e9 n r n u l t i l a n ca c i l i t i e sn a yb ec o m p u t e d y m u l t i p l y i n g h eA D T b y t h e e o f t h e A D T , a n d t h c n b y t h e p e r c e p t a go f t r a f f i c i n h p e r c e n r a gte l t . l 0 H V i s t h e d e s i g nh o u r . - T h u si,f t h e D H V i s l 5 d c ih-predonrinanr lirccrion uring thc -+r!!r<:enr rhc ADTancl thc directionaldistributionat lhllt hour is 60:'10. of A t 9 p e r c e no t ' t h cA D ' f . I l ' t h ec l i r e c t i o n a l D ' l r D D H V i s 0 . l - 5x 0 . 6 ( ) A D ' f , o r 'is i a k R l l w nt i t r o n l t o n ed i r e c t i o nt.h cr \ D ' l ' n e a r l y l w a v s s t w i c et h ed i r e c t i o n a l AD]" to it lnd at-snldcintcrsections intcrchanges is nccessary know l1 designing hour.This intbrmaduring the clcsign occurring the volumcsof rrll nrovenrcnts the tion is rcquiredt'or both the rnorningand eveningpcaksbecause tral'l'ic a o t h e r .N o n n a l l y . o ' p a r r e r n a v c h a r r r ls i g n i t ' i c l n t lty r o r n n e p e t k h o u r t c lt h e c m t h cr n o n l l n g ccr i i l t l c s i g n s b a s c ro n r h cl ) t t V . r v h i c h s t o b c a c c o m r t t o t l a td u l i n g d r t ; t d r u s h o u ri n o r r c i r c c t i o nr n d l u r i n g h ec v e n i n g u s hh o u ri n t h eo t h e r i r c c l i ( ) n . h -ftltal p c a k sb u tt h c . d ( t r v o - * u \ ) \ ( ) l u n t c s r r a v ' r c h c s a n t c u r i n gb o t ho f t h c s c i t r . ni p c r c c n t a go t ' t r l l ' i i ci r rt h c p r e t l o m i n r r r l t r e c t i o tits r e v c r s c dA t i l l t c r s c c t i o n s c to trlftic thatturnsto thc rightancl thc lcli on cuch ot'upprolclring rhc pcrccntagc s y t i n t c r s c c t i o l c g r r r u s b c d c t e n n i n e d e p a r a t e l f o r t h e m t l m i n ga n t l c v c n i n g n l'ronl counts. bc dcte nnincd frotnon-thet o r i g i n l r t t l t l c s t i t t u l i r r nl u t l t .o r b o t h .

Compositionof Traffic Vehiclesofdifferentsizesandmasshavedifferentoperatingcharacteristics. whichmustbeconsideredinhighwaydesign'Besidesbeingheavier'trucks impose andconsequently space g.n.ratty areslowerandoccupymoreroad*ay The overall do' vehicles traffic eftecton the highwaythanpassenger a greater one truck is often equivalentto severalpassenger of effect on traffic operatron and on cars passenger is dependent the gradient The numberofequivalent cars. Thusthe largerthe pt"O:"1::,,::j::tOt 'n available' sightdistance the passing the highway capacityrequired' a traffic stream,the greaterthe traffic load and as typically found in rural areas'the various tralfic flow' For uninterrupted can operation be groupedinto two of sizesandmass vehiclesasrheyaffecttraffic generalclasses: l. 2. trucks' cars cars-all passenger includinglight delivery Passenger the except andtruckcombinations trucks' single-unit Trucks-all buses, trucks' light deliverY truck'suchasa vanor pickup'with size A light deliverytruck is a single-unit car of to.those a passenger andcommonly si'i.tilo' characteristic' andoperating light deliveryservrce' usedfor short-haul. gross having4000kg or greater are in thetruckclass normallythose Vehicles vehiclenrass(GVM)ratingofthemanutacturerandvehicleshavingclualtires on the rearaxle. Herein.thesedefinitionsapplytotheterms.'passengercars.'or..passengcr " t r u c kt r a f f i c . ' ' c a rt r a t f i c . 'a n d" t r u c k s " o r operatlns h cra r c l a s s 'm t l s t o f t h e v e l r i c l e s a v e s i m i l a r In the passenge characteristics.Inthetruckclass.characteristicsvaryconsiderabll-'particularl} i n s i z e a n d m a s s / p o w e r r a t i o . A l t h o u g h t h i s v a r i a t i t l n m a y b e s i g n i f i c ais t b e t r v e c ' n n and canbe evaluated of t'he rrucks. eft'ect all trucis in a trafficsrream ;";i;. conditions'Accordingly'tbr the similaron most highwaysundercomparable in trat'iicdataon vehicles t0 designof a nilrrwav it is essential have geomerric -I.hese gencrally of trucksitndbuscs tvpes thc intlicatc rna.ior crrtir rhcrruckcllss.

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m a j o r t r u c k a n d b u st e r m i n a l st,h e s c h e d u l i n g f r e g u l a r r u c k a n d b u s r u n s o t may resurt in concentration f trucks during certainhours of the o iay. H o w e v e r b e c a u s o f t h e d e l a y s a u s e d y o t h e rt r a f f i cd u r i n gp e a kh o u r s , ' e c b the schedules generallyare made to avoid thesehours. For designof a particurar highway.dataon composition traffic shouldbe of determined trafficstudies. by Truck traffic (exclusive light deliverytrucks) of shouldbe expressed a percentage total traffic during the designhour. as of of total two-way traffic in thecaseof a two-lanehighway; andof total traffic in rhe predominant direction travel,in the caseof a multilanehighway. of under urban interrupted-flowconditions the criteria differ somewhat. At important intersections, percentages trucks during borh the moming and of evgning peaks should be determined.variations in truck traffic between the different movementsat intersections may be substantial and may appreciably affect the geometriclayout.The percentage trucksduring a particuiarhour of of the day may vary considerably; is advisableto count trucks for severar it peak hours that are considered representative the 30th highestor designhour. A of convenientvalue thatappears reliableis the average the truck traffic percentof agesfor a numberof weekly peakhours.For highway capacitypurposes, local city-transit buses mustbe considered separately from othertrucksand buses.

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Future Projection of Traffic Demands N e w h i g h w a y s r i m p r o v e m e n t sf e x i s t i n gh i g h w a y s s u a i l y h o u r < i o t b c o o u s n on currenttrafficvolumes alone, consideration but shouldbe givento the futuretrafTicexpected usc the trcilities. A highwayshouldbe designed to r0 accommodate traft'icthat might occur within the lit'eof the facility under the rea.sonablc maintenancc. It isdifficult to detinethelife of a hiehwaybecause majorsegments have mav different lengthsof physicallif'e. Each segmentis subjecrto variationsrn estimated expecrancy lit'e because int'luences readilysuhject analysis of not to such as obsolescence. unexpected radicalchangesin land use.and resulting changes traffic volumes, in partem. and load.Right-.f -wav lnd ara<Jing rniuhr bc considered havea physicallit'eexpectancy l(X)vears. ro of minordrainagc structures basecourses years. and 50 bridges25 to l00 vears, and surfacingl0 to 30 years. rssumingadequate all maintenance no allowance obsolcsand tbr c c n c c .B r i d g e l i t e m a v v a r y d c p e n d i n g n t h e n u m b e ro f h e a v y ,r e r r e t i t i o u s o krads. Surfacinglil'evarics widely.<lepending lar_qely inirialexpcnditures on and T h e a s s u m p t i . n. f n . a l l . w a n c er o r f u n c t i ' n a l . b s o l c s c e n c es o n c n t o i s e n o u s u c s t i o nT r " o o f t h ep r i n c i p aq a u s e o f o b s o l e s c e n c eer c t l u c r i r l in q . s l ar n thelevelof scrvicc'providcd increase accidcnts to roarlsitle and in due intcrt'crcncc.

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increase numberof at-grade in intersections. increase traffic volumes and in thereon. Fortunately, principalcauses minimizedon freeways, the are which have full accesscontrol and no grade crossings. On highwaysother than freeways these are sources obsolescence muchless of in common ruralareas than in urbanand suburban areas. I t i s a m o o t q u e s t i o n h e t h e r e s i g ns h o u l db e b a s e d n l i t ' ee x p e c t a n c y . w d o The decision greatlyiniluenced economics. highwaymight be designed is by A for traffic 50 years hencewith the expectation that the surfacingwould be restored 25 years. in However,if the addedcostof sucha design over one for a 25-year expectancy appreciable, might be imprudent maketheadded life it is to investment. savings The couldearninterest 25 yearsbeforethe morecostly for highway is really needed. saynothingof thecostof increased to maintenance for the larger highway fbr 25 years.Also, most highwaysare adequate traffic for expectedto develop much later than the design year because traffic volumes higher than design volumescan be accommodated with some inconvenience, suchas reductionin speed, with an even and because highway is designed a numberof lanesand without fractionallanes.For example, designADT of a 10,000 15,000 will require four-lane or highwaythatcan handle a two or three times that volume depending severalfactorsas laterdiscussed. on Thus, this highwaywould be adequate traffic long afterthe designyearand in many for cases indefinitely. In a practical the sense, design trafficshould a valuewhichcanbeestimated be with reasonable accuracy.Many highway engineers believe the nraxrmum pcriodis in the rangeof t 5 to 24 years. periodof 20 yearsis rr idely usedas a A basistbr design.Estimatingtraffic beyond this period on a specificfacility usuallyis not justified because probablechanges the gene.ral of in regional c c o n o r n vp o p u l a t i c l a n dl a n dd e v e l o p r n e n t o n gt h eh i g h w a y w h i c hc a n n o t . n. al '. bc predicted with any degree assurance. of Evenestimating traffictbr a 20-year pcriodmaynot beappropriate design for nranvreconstruction rehabilitation projects. or The projccts mav be developed o n t h c b a s i s oa s h o r t e r d e s i g n p e r i o d ( 5I 0 y e a r s ) b e c a u s eto fe u n c e r t a i n t i c s f h to ol'predicting trlffic as rvellas fundingconstraints.

Speed .Specd one of the most important is to tactors the travclerin selecting alternatc ()r routcs transportation modes. The valueof a transponation tacilityin carrying rclatcd its speed. to s_vstem a nc\r of or Thc attractivencss a publictransponation Itigh."vav eachweighedby the travelerin tcrmsof time.convcnience. ere and rtl()ncv suvcd.Hcncc,the desirability rapid transitmav ',vellrest with horv of

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rapid il actuallyis. The speedof vehicleson a road or highway depends, in a d d i t i o nt o c a p a b i l i r i eo f t h e d r i v e r sa n d t h e i r v e h i c l e su p o n f o u r g e n e r a l s ,

cooditionsr physical the charactristics oflhe highwayand its roadsides. the wealhe.thepresence other of vehicles, thespeed (eirher and limharions legal or because cottrol dev of ices). Ahhough oneof rhese any maygovem. effecB rhe ofthseconditions usually are combined. The-objeclive design anyengineered in of facilityto beusd thepublich by to salisfy demands seflicein thesafest mosteconomical the for and manner. The facility shouldtherefor accommodate nearlyall demands wirh reasonable adequlcy and alsonot lail completely underthe sever extreme or load.In applying principle rhedesign this to wirh parricular ofhighways, rcfrence ro sped demands, should madefor a speed satisfis be lhar nearly Provision all -{rive.s Onlva smallpercentage drivers of ravel at exlremely highspced. and ilis rcteconomically feasible design thm. to for Theycanusethehighway,of course, bulmusttravel atspeedssomewhat lessthan considerdesinble. rhey On lhe.olherland. sped the chosen design for should be thatused drivers not by underunfavomble conditions. asinclement such wearher, bcause highway ihe lhenwouldbe unsafe driversunderfavomble for condirions, would. and not salisfyreasonable demands.

s i b l e ,b u t i n v i e w o f t h e n u m e r o u s o n s t r a i n t s f t e n e n c o u n t e r e d . r a c t i c a l c o D values should be recognizedand used. Some features,such as curvature,

cfficiency rvhile underthe con.straints environmcntal of quality. econornics. a e s l h c t i c sn d s o c i a lo r p o l i t i c a li m p a c t so n c e s e l e c t e d . l l o f t h c p c r r i n c n r l. . a t'cxturcs thc hi{hwav should be related to the dcsign spcedto ob(rin ir nl' h a l a n c c d c s i { n . . ' \ h o * c - r n i n i r n u d e s i s nv a l u e ss h o u l db e u s e dw h e r ef ' c l d m

superelevarion. sighr and disrance, direcrlyrelared andvaryappreciably are ro, with,des speed. ign Oiherfearures. suchas widrhs lanes shoulders of and and clearances walIs andraits.arenordirecrlyrelatedto design ro speed, rhey bur affecivehicle speed, highersrandards and shouldbe accorded rhese fearures fbr the higherdesign speeds. Thus.whena chaage madein dsign is speed. r manydesign elemenls thehighwayaresubjecito change. of -Ine aesign speed chosen shouldbe consisrenr wilh rhe sped driver is a I wherea difficuhcondirion obvious, likely toexpecr. is drivers moreap!ro are i accept lowerspeed operarion whererhereis oo apparenr rhrn reason ir. A for I j ttlgtr*"y ofhigherfunctional classificarion jusrifya highcrdesign may speed I thana lessimtonanl faciliry in simitar ropogriphy,paniiulartyw-herc the savings vehicle in oprarion orheroperaring and costs sufficient offs! arE ro rhe increased coslsof right-of-way and consruction. low designspced. A ; however, should beassumed where topography suchthaldrivers not the is are likely to rmvel ar high speeds. Driversdo oot adjustrheir speds rhe ro i I importance oflh highway, to theirperception bul oflhe physicat limiralions andrrafficrhereon. Thespeedselctd fordsi8n should rherraveldesires habirs fil and ofnearly alldrivers. Wbe.e trafficandroadwaycondirions suchrhar are driveni tmvet can operating Speed at thirchosen speed. lher alwnys widerange rhespeeds whichvarious is a in ar individuals operate theirvehicles. cumularive A distriburion ofvrhicte speeds petadngspeed lhe hiShesl is overallspeed whicha ddvercantravlon . at hasrhetypicalS pnrrem whenptotted perccnr vehictes as of venius observed under frvorable weather s ivcnhighway conaidons under prevailing and rafiic spceds. design The speed chosen ld ba high-per!'entite in lhisspced shou vatue : condilions without.rt.rnylime exceeding safespeed derrmined lhu thc as by disrr'burion curvc.i.e..nearlyall inclusive rhc rypica y desired of speeds ot dejiign speed a scction-by-section on basis. drivcrs. whcrever is teasible. this Thespeed disrriburiofl curves Figur l-l I il:usrrme ru gein speed in I rhc rhar shouldbe considered a determin in tion of assumcd speed. design design A Design Speed spced I l0 krn,hshould mainrained treeways. of be on enpiessways. orher and major highways. This speedwill ensurc:rn adequare desisnii rhe speed Dtsign spccdis the maxinum sale speedthat cln Lrmaintained rcstricrion rcmoved. over ir is Also.r hrgerpercent ohhc vehiclcs lrrlcling rr rhcf.rsrer spccificd section oahighwrywhenconditions so lrvonble rhqrrhedcsign are rprcdswitt b': $fcty nccommodarcd. 'fhcsedrrale lt.ttures thchighwly 8ovem. of ThetNsu des speed med ign shou ber logical ld l roI hcconclusion whcrcphysical thar ta.{urcs rhehi8hwJl of oDewiIhrspectrothct0po8rphy'thc.ldjacenrlanduse'udthc|unctional.lrctheprincipllspeedcontrolsJnwherm0$drive classific.rlion highwry. Ej{cept localstreets of for wherespeed conrrols kr operare thespecd arc ncllr limir,.l ropdesign speed I 20 k'Df $ ouldfir r vcr! oi licquenrlvincluded intentionllly. everyeffon shouldb made useashigh to high-perccnrile spced. r highwrydcsi8ned On tbrrhissprcd, smr plG-cnr a of trdcsiSn speed pructicable attrina desired as to degree safery. ol mobiliry,and drivcB ftighr slill opcnreri hiSher spee'lwhenvolumeis low d l oth,:r
ctlntlirions favorlblc.Horl:cverJorldc.s are p c r t i r m r a n c e u l db e e x p c c t e o n l v t t n c e r t a i n i t h w a v s .W h c nt h c r n i n i m u r r r co d h t l c s i g ns p c c di s u s c da s t h c c r i t c r i o n . t i . si r n p t l r t a ntto h a v c r h e s p c e dl i m i r i c n l o r c c d u r i n qo f f - D e a k o u r s . d h

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O n m a n yf r e e w a y sp a r t i c u l a r l iv s u b u r b a a n d r u r a la r e a sa d e s i g n p e e d , n n . s of 100 km/h or higher can be providedwith little additionalcosr abovethat r.Uuiredfor a designspeedof 80 km/h. The corridorof the main line may be relativelystraightand the character and locationof inrerchanges permit hightp.ed design.Under these conditions designspeed ll0 km/h is desirable. a of Flat curvature and amplesighrdistance usuallyresultin saferhighwavs. G e n e r a l l yt,h e r ei s n o d e s i g n p e e d i s t i n c t i o n e t w e e n g r o u n d - l e v e a.n s d b l a elevated, a depressed or freeway.However,the operatingcharacteristics on elevated freewaysdiffer somewhar from thoseon depressed freeways. an on elevated highway.traffic exits the facility on downgrade rampsand enrers on u p g r a d e a m p s .T h i s c o n d i t i o ni s l e s sd e s i r a b l eh a n t h e o p p o s i t e n e o n a r t o A"pressed highway because vehicles. particularlyloadedrrucks,enteringthe elevatedfreeway on an ascending graderequirelong distances reachthe to runningspeedon the freeway(seesectionon "Running Speed"), Moreover, vehicles leavingtheelevated fieewayon a descending graderequire additional brakingdistanceto reachthe running speedof the arterialstreetand consequentlymay tend to slow down on the through-traffic lanesin advance the of ramp terrninal.Paralleldeceleration lanesor longer ramp lengthsand lesser

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g r a d e s r e f r e q u e n t l y s e dt o r e c l u c t h e p r o b l e mo f ' e h i c l e ss l o wi n g o n t h c a u e m a i n l a n e s . e v e r t h e l e s r u n n i n gs p e e d s n e l e v a t e dr e e w , a ya r ea p t t o b e N s, o f s s l i g h t l y l o w e r t h a n t h o s e o n d e p r e s s e dr e e w a y so f t h e s a m e s t a n d a r d s , f e s p e c i a l l y h e n a c c e s s o i n t sa r e c l o s e l ys p a c e d I n n o r t h e r n l i m a t e s e l w p . c . e v a t e d t r u c t u r ea r es u b j e ctto r a p i df r e e z i n g f p r e c i p i t a t i oa sa r e s u l o f t h e i r s s o n t e x p o s u r e n d m a . v - q u i r e h e u s eo f l e s s e s u p e r e l e v a t i o n t e s w h i c h a f f e c r a re t r ra , b o t hr u n n i n g n dd e s i g n p e e dA l t h o u _ e h e e do n v i a d u c t s r el e s s h a nr h o s e a s . sp s a t on comparable depressed sections, diff'erence the probablyis small.Theretbre. t h e a p p r o p r i a rd e s i g ns p e e d s f 8 0 t o l l 0 k m / h a p p l y t o b o t h e l e v a t e d n d e o a depressed freewavs. with an overallrangein designspeeds 30 ro 120km/h, it hasbeenfound of desirable useincrements l0 km/h. smaller incremenrs to ol show little distinction in designelemenrs berween one designspeedand the next higherdesign speed,and larger increments 25 ro 30 km/h causetoo lar_se differencein of a design dimensions features of between two design any speeds. someinstances, In theremay be an advantage usingintermediate in increments effectchanges to in the designspeed.Increments l0 km/h also may be pertinent designof of to turningroadways, ramps, and low-speed roads. The useof r0 km/h increments in design speed below 120km/h doesnot preclude useof smaller the increments fbr traffic controlpurposes, suchas speed-zone srgns. A l t h o u g ht h e s e l e c t e d e s i g n p e e d s t a b l i s h e s e m i n i m u mc u r v er a d i u s s e th a n d m i n i m u n rs i g h td i s t a n c c e c e s s a rfy r s a f ! . p e r a t i o nt.h e r es h o u l db e n o n b o r e s t r i c t i o n n t h e u s e o f f l a t t e rh o r i z o n t ac u r v c so r g r c a t c rs i g h t c l i s t a n c e s o l r v h e r c u c hi r n p r o v e m e ncs nb e p r o v i d e d sa p a r to f c c o n o r n i d e s i g n E v e n s ta a c . in ruggedterrainan occn.sional tangcntor llat curvc nray be de'sirable. Thesc. r v o u l dn o t n c c e s s l t r i le n c o u r a q d r i v e r st o s p e c du p : b u t . i f a s u c c c s s i oo l ' y e n t h c r n i s i n t r o d u c e dd r i v e r sr ' i l l n a t u r a l l l r e s o r tt o h i g h e rs p c c d s a n d t h a t , , s c c t i o n f h i s r h r v a v o u l d ed e s i g n e t b r a h i g h e r s p e e d . s u b s t a n t i ac n g r h o sh b d A ll o t ' t a n c . c n te t r v c es e c t i o n o f c u r v c t a l i n e m c na l s oi s a p tt o e n c o u r a qh i q h b n s i t e s p e c do p e r a t i o n l.n s u c h c l s e s a h i g h c r s p e e ds h o u l d b e a s s u m e d n d l l l a t c o n t c t r i ct ' e a t u r ep a r t i c u l a r l vh l t o f s i g h td i s t a n c e n c r e s tv e r t i c ac u r v L ' s . s. t o l s l r r l u l rh e r e l l t c d t o i t . l .\ pr'rtincnt consirlcratitln sclccting in tlcsir:n spc.cds thcuvcrasc length. is trip 'l'hc klngerthe rrip. thc greurer desiretirr cxpeditious the rnovcnrcnt. tlcsign ln o l l t s u b s t a n t i ac n g t ho f h r g h r v r v t i s d c s i r a b l c h c r c l ' e l s i b l c r l A s . s u r n c ll i w t u c o n s l l l l l c s i g n p c e dC h a n g eis t c n l i n u n t lo t h c rp h y s i c a l o n t r o l sn l y d i c t a r c d s . n c r ;t clrrtngc tlcsir:n in specdon ccrtainsc'ctions. It'so. the intrtltluctron l lervcr of t l c s i t ns p e c d h t t u l d o t b c d o n cl b r u p t l vb u ts l r r l u l d ec f l c c r e d v e rs u f f i c i c n r s n b o
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t r l ' h i r r h t v urlv i r ht h e l o r v c r e s i g n p c e d . ' d s ,;pectl, Whcrcit is ncccssttrv rctlucc to design rn:rnv clrivc.rs n()tpcrccire nti.rv l l t c l o r , ' es p e c tc o r r d i t i o a h r ' a dr.n d i t i s i r n p t l r l a n h l r t h c vb c r , , a n r cr 'l, c l li n r l n tt

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a d ' a n c eT h ec h a n g i n g o n d i r i o n h o u l d e i n d i c a t e b y s u c h o n r r o l s ss p e e d . c s b d c a z o n es i g n sa n dc u r v e - s p e estil_ g n s . on arterial streets. designspeed the controlapplies a lesser to degree thanon o t h e rh i g h - t y p e i , e h w a v s . r u r a lh i g h w a y s r o n h i g h - r y p e r b a n a c i l i t i e sa h on o u f , percentase vehicles ableto travelat nearthesaf'e certain of are speed determined by geometric designelements. on arterialstreets top speeds several but the fbr hoursof the day are limited or regulated rharat which the recurringpeak ro volumes can be handled. Speeds governed thepresence othervehicles are by oi travelingen masse both in and across throughlanesand by traffic control the devices ratherthanby the physical characreristics the street. of During periods of low-to-moderate volume,speeds govemed suchfhctors speed are by as limits, m.idblock turns. andintersectional rurns, fic signalspacing signaltiming traf and fbr progression. when arterial streer improvements beingplanned, design are the speedshould be considered with factorssuch as speedlimits, physicaland economic constraints. the likely runningspeeds canbe attained and rhat during offpeakhours,which would influence selection the speed the of design. Horizontalalinementgenerallyis not the governingfactor in restricting speeds arterial on streets. Proposed inrprovements generally patterned the are to existingstreetsystenr, anclnrinorhorizontal alinernent changes commonly are madeat intersections. eft'ect thesealinement The of changes usuallyminor is because operationthrouqhthe intersection regulated the type of traffic is by controls needed handle volunrc to the ol'cross turningtrafl'ic. and Superelevation bur is dcvclopctlin a different TLly be providedAr curveson arrcrialstreets t'nanner thanfbropenroadruralconditions. wicle The pave mcntareas, proxirnity ot-itdjlcc'nt development. controlot'cross slopeantlprol'ilc'lbrtlrainage. tlre and frequencv ttf'crossstrcetsand cntrances contributcto the neecl all fbr lower s u p - r c l c v a t i orn t c s L i k c w i s c . h cr v i c l t h f l a n c so fi . \ e t o c u r b s p r o x i n r i t v f a . t o . . o polesand treesto thc trave wav. prcsencc pedestriuns lcd of rvithinthc right-ofw ' a v . n d n e l l n t e sts l ' b u s i n e so r r c s i d c n t i a l u i l d i n g ss i n t l y a n d i n c o n t b i n a a t s b . tion. otien nullil,vspcecl charrcteristics a highwlv with gootlalinenrent of an<J tlat profiles.Yet. gootlalinenrent tlat profilcsshoulcl lnd rrlways strivecl be tbr in thedesignof lrrtcrirrl strccts. becluseslf'ctvantiopcruting charactcristics are i r n p r o v c dp c r t l c u l a r l d u r i n go t ' t - p c a p e r i o d s . . v k Topographycan rnaterilllv aft'ectthe choice ot' tlcsignspeecl arterial ori strccts. iVlanv our citieswcreilevclrlpcd of alongwatcrcourscs includclnd arcas varvingI'romgcntlv rolling to mountainous terrain. l-he strccts originallvwcre ctlnstructccl nrinorgradinuto l'itthe topography. with Bccuusc ancrialstrect thc u s u l l l v i s d c v e l o p e t . f i t a n e r i s t i n g t r e e rb o t ht h r o u c h u s i n e sa n dr e s i d e n _ d s . b s spct'dis tlctcrrttincrl, propcrsiqhtdistance thc shouklbe lssuredat all crests. P r o l ' i l c .o n t l i t i t l n u i t h k t n g ,c o n t i n u ( ) ug r a d c s h o u l dr r l s o c c l c s i g n ew i r h c s s s b d p r o p c rc r l n s i t l c r l t t i o t t ' s p c c d s l t ' o p c r a t i o n l ' r n l s s t r a n s i t r n t lc r t r n m e r c i a l r r o l

vehicles. ExtraIanes the upgrades on may be needed thatthis portionof the so routecanmatchotherportionsin capacity vehicles andenable thatcanproceed at reasonable speed passslowermoving vehicles. to Arterial streets should be desi_ened control devicesregulated. where and feasible. permitrunningspeeds 30 to 70 km/h. Lowerspeeds this range to of in areapplicable localandcollector for streets throughresidential areas for the and arterial streets the whilethehigherspeeds through morecrowded business areas. apply to the high-type anerialsin the outlyingsuburban areas. the arterial For throughthecrowdedbusiness streets areas, coordinated signalcontrolthrough generally necessary permiteventhelowerspeeds. successive intersections is to Many citieshave substantial lengthsof streets at controlledso as to operate runningspeeds 25 to 40 km/h. At the otherextremein suburban of areas. is it commonexperience preferredstreets adoptsomefbrm of speedzoningor on to speedcontrol to preventhigh operatingspeeds.In theseareas.the infiequent pedestrian occasionalvehicleson a cross streetmay be unduly exposedto or potential accidents from throughdrivers.Suchthroughdriversgraduallygain speed the frequency urbanrestrictions left behindor suchdriversretain as of are theirspeed theopenroadastheyenterthecity. Thus,although of through traffic should be expeditedto the extent feasible,it may be equally importantto a potential establish certainspeed reduce to hazards and to servelocal traffic. A posted speed lirnit asa matter practicability, not thehighest is speed of that might be usedby drivers.Instead. usuallyapproximates 85-percentile it the speedvalueas determined observing sizablesampleof vehicles. by a Such a valueis * ithin the"pace"or l 5 km/h speed rangeusedby nrostdrivers. Speed properly' arbitrarilydeternrined selee zones cilnnotbe madeto operate ted. if or w I n a d d i t i o ns p c - ez o n e s u s tb c c o n s i s t e n t i t h c o n d i t i o na l o n gt h L ' s t r e etth c , cl m s . selected cross-section thestreet of tiom engincering studies. mustbe sub.ject and to reasonable entbrcement. With running speeds 30 to 70 km/h.it fbllowsthatpertinent of design spceds for arterial woulJ range streets highways and tiom -50 100krrr/h. to The selected design speed an urbanarterial tbr highwavwoulddepend largely thespacin_s on oi signalizecl intersections. selected type of mediancross-sccti(rn. at-grade the whether n(x curbandgutteris usc'd or alongthe street, andthecmountrrndn.pc o f ; r c c e slsl o u e d t o t h e s t r e e tA s a d e s i r a b l m i n i r n u me l e m e n t o t ' a r c c o n . l c . s structed speed urbanarterial highwayshoultlbe designed a safeopcrcting tbr ot' at least-50 km/h. parrgraphs The preceeding the considcrations describe blsis tbr. andvarious w t h a tn c ' e do b e e x a m i n e d h e ns e l e c t i n a d e s i q n r r e e d . r o r n h i sd i s c u s s i o n . s s F t t

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Figure ll-22. Relationof averagerunning speed and volume conditions.

Traffi c-Fkrw Relationships il r T r a l f i c t l o * o n r o a c l w l t v iss m e a s u r c c n l c r t n st t f t r u t n b e o f v e h i c l c sp e r n p il h o u r .o f u v e r a u s p e e c n k i l o r r r c t e r ser h o u r .a n do f t r a f f i cc l e n s i tiy v e h i c l c s e p e rk i l o m e t e rT h e s e h r c ev a r i a b l c sv o l u n r es p e c da n cd c n s i t l ra r ea l l i n t e r . . . . l . t relationsltips. trafl'ic-t'lttw rclltcd lnti arc uscdto describcthc prcdictitble t o D c n s i t l , t h c n u r r r b c r f v c l r i c l c sp e r l c n r : t ho f r o a d r v r t vi,n c r c : . t s crs s v c h i c l c s c r o r v d c l o s e r a n d c l o s c r t o g c t h c r .. ' \ s F i g u r c I l - ] J s h o * s . t h i s c p s a t i n c r c l r s cc r o r v d i n gu k c s l l c c r r l r e n p c e d l c c r c u s c sn dd r i v c r s a nc t t t n t i r r l d t F u l a b l v t i r l l o r v l o s c rb e h i n t o t h c r v c h i c l c s , i s u r c l l - l . l t l i v c ' s n i n t l i c l t i t l no l ' c
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I
Design e ontrols and e rircria 73

ALsHLo.=4eotrietdc

Design of Highways and Seeets

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Figurell-24. Average speedsrelated vehicte to densities.

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a i i d r o a d w a y s e x c e e d ea n dt h ec o r r e s p o n d i nrgs ei n d c n s i t ya s t h ev e h i c l e s r e c r o w d e dt o g e t h e r . vehicles travel to to to Interferences traffic flow causespeeds be reduced. by may be caused weather Interference and to closerto-gether. density increase. br cross traific. a disabledvehicle.an accident. other marginal conditions. the As conditions. one or more of theseconditionscausemore interference. in but limitscanstill be mantained with furtherreduction volumewithincertain When intert'erence becomes density. and closervehiclespacing, greater speed. speed rhe density average closer vehicle spacing greater and sogreatthatdespite in to dropsbelowthatnecessary maintainstableflow. thereis a rapiddecrease setsin. congestion and tralfic tlow, and severe speed the that interference limits or reduces When trafficon a highwayencounters If in the capacity a singlearea. resultis a bottleneck. theflow entering roadway this bottleneckdoes not exceedits capacity, f'low remains stableand no problemsarise.However,when the upstreamsectioncanies more vehicles the familiar breakdownof traffic than the bottleneckcan accommodate, results.Speedsare reducedto crawling and vehiclesbegin to queue and To flow againfallsbelowtheoutflowcapacity. avoid until incoming accumulate a situations, caremust be takento clesign roadwayrvith consistent bottleneck in conceptdiscussed the next capacity. The level-of'-service volume-carrving t i a s c c t i o ns a r a l u a b l e i d i n o b t a i n i n gh i sc o n s i s t e n c y . The capacityon the bottleneck. is An intersc'ction otien an unavoidable e s a p p r o a c h i ntg e i n t e r s e c t i ou s u a l l y x c e e d t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n n h roadwal'section by is This rccluction acutewhen the intersection controlled becomes capacin'. aniving duringthe red sisnals. a tral{ic signal.vehicles stopsignsor traffic At tilrm a queue until bottleneck. Thesevehicles phasc a encountr'r zero-capacity If *hen therestraint removed ancl queueis discharged. the the pha-se is thegrc'en vehicles thequeue canbe discharged volunre too high.not all the in is incorning p . b d u r i n gt h eg r e e n h a s ea n dt h e r ei s a c o n t i n u i n g u i l d u p o f t h e q u e u e . wherethe predictable urban in ttreas are Arrival.s thc intersection somewhat a! suburban rural or signals.In vc'hiclcs platoonecl upstream by approachinr are be recogmust r'ehiclc' rtrrivals ot'tenrandom. This randornncss Irlcutirrns. rrre lnd storllqc lcngths, ltpprtlach trt turn-lanc nizcdin dc'sign rrdcquatc cyclc tir.ncs. c:rplcin. elch vchiclelrnd or rvhcre trafficmustslow drlrvn storl. i\t all bottlcnccks the i i t so c c u p l n t s u t l i ' ra c c r t a i n e l a y . c l a yr c s u l t sn t i t n el o s s{ h c n c c ' m o n c t a r \ s D d ( a I o s s ) r o h c r c h i c l c ' s ) c c u n r n t sn c r c a s c f u e lc o n s u m p t i o n .n r ll d d i t i o n l l l i r i, d t nrlllution.

V.hH.L.*y

Figure ll-25. Traffic volumes related to vehicle densliles.

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i4lUf94gprgtttt

Delipol4is!1!+:s)s strelL an(t

varies n rheI mffic dara ui redfor these eral r req sev Thedegree exactness of in uses. raffic opemtion For analyses. whichthesuccess minor improveof of men maybemeas rs uredin rermsof a tew vehiclesperhour, a high degre precision desirable. highwaydesign inuhlowerorderofprecisiot is For a for sufficesbecause rraffic daraare frequently rhe estimaled a period l0 ro 20 years rhefurure involvenoronly approx in and 'mations trafficvolumes of imarions suchfactors lraffic composir andmovenenr of as ion buralsoapprox hereinis intended in parcms.The discussion toprovide information suftr, for cienr detail to ensurea reasonabl balanc between srandards the rhe
a f h i g h w a y b e i n gd e s i g n e d n d t h e e s t i m a t e du t u r et r a f f i c . S u c h a n a n a l y s i s insuresthat future operatingconditions will not fall below an acceptable level. Those who need a greater accuracythan that obtainablefrom the contentshereinshouldrefer to the severalreportson the subject,especially t h eH C M ( l l ) .

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HIGHWAY CAPACITy cneral characreristics The lerm "capacity is usedlo exprcss maximumhourly rateat which the persons veh or iclescanreasonably expecled traverse pointor unifo.m be ro a sclron a laneor a roadwryduringa given time periodunderprevailing or roadwayand hffic condilionsln fte genericsense term encompasses the broader relalions blween hiSh$ay characleristics condirions, and trafficcom-

position andflow pattems, therelative and degree congestion various of at traffic volumesthroughout rangefrom very light volumesto thoseequalingthe the capacity ofthe facilityasdefinedabove. The subject discussed thegeneric is in sense herein. The following sections a brief review of the principlesand major factors are conceming highway design capacityand summarizedesign values for the severalbasicrural and urbanhighway types.To determine capacityfor a the particularhighwaydesign,the designeris ref'erred guidanceto theHighw,ay fbr CapacityManual (HCM) (ll), which hasbeenusedas the basicreference for t h i ss e c t i o n .

Capacityas a DesignControl

DesignServiceFlow Rate Versus DesignVolume Application Highway capacity intbrmation servcs threegeneral purposcs: I t i s u s e ciln t r a n s p o r t a t i o na n n i n g t u d i c s o i l s s c s sh c a d c q u a c v r pl s t t o sufficienc;- existing of highwavnetworks servicc to current traf'f andro ic estinrate tinre in thc future when traft'icgrorvthnury ovcrtakethc thc capacitv thehighways pcrhaps of or rnayreacha levelsomewhat bclow capacity onethat wouldnevertheless but resultin an untJesirtblc dcurcc of congestion. 2. Hi-uhrvay capacity intilmration is of vitrl concern in rlrc dcsiun rlf' hir:hrvays. knowledge hirhwav capacitvis esscnrial thc propcr A of to f i t t i n go f a p l a n n e d i g h r v a vo t h c r e q u i r e r n c nos t r l f f i c . b o t hi n r h c h t rf s e l e c t i oo i t h eh i r h w a yt v p ca n di n d c t e r m i n i nd i n r c n s i . n a l c c t l s u c h n g n a . s u m b e r f l a n e s n dm i n i l n u n r c n g t h sb r w c a v i n g c c t i ( ) n s . n o a l l s -1. l-iighwav capacity inlirrmari<ln utilizedin rralficopc.rilrion is lnlrysc.rlirr r n a n vp u r p o s e s ,u t c s p e c i a l l t i r r i s o l a t i n g o t t l c n c c ko c u t i o r r(s i r h c r b y c b l cxisringor pr)tential) and prcparing cstimatcs opcrttionalirnprovcof lrlcrlts thot nrav bc expccted accruefrom prospectivc to tnrl'l'ic c()ntr()l
rncil.\urcs frrtnr spot lrltcnrtitlnsin thc highw.lrvtc()nrcrry ttr

l.

typeof tacility of to Designvolumeis thevoh.rme trafficestimated usea certain y e a r w h i c hi sa y e a ru s u a l l y 0 t o 2 0 y e a r sn t h ef u t u r eD e s i g n . i . t l d u r i n g h ed e s i g n of volumeis a protluct the plannincprocess. of The derivation the designhour e v o l u m e ( D H V ) i s d i s c u s s e d a r l i e ri n t h i s c h a p t e ri n t h e s e c t i o n" T r a f f i c " and Characteristics Florv. f r D e s i g ns e r v i c e l o w r a t e i s t h e m a x i r n u n h o u r l y f l o l r , r a t eo f t r a f l i c t h a t w d a p r o j e c t e d i g h * a 1 ' o fd e s i g n e d i m e n s i o n s o u l d b e a b l et o s e r v ew i t h o u t h f l t h e d e g r e eo f c o n g e s t i o n a l l i n g b e l o w a p r e s e l e c t e de v e l a s d e s c r i b e d here inatier. values design to create tacilitywith dimensional is The objective highway in a such lnd alincmcnt characteristics thattheresulting dcsignsewicetlow'rateis at perirxl thcdcsign of lcast greirt thc' as ils trafflcllow ratcduringthepcakI -5-minutc greatcr to represent ()r hour.but not enough as extravagance wtstc. Whcrethis will sl,stern highrva-uobjectiveis acconrplished. well-bllanced. a cconomical resu lt.

iltea.sures Cr of l n t h e t r i p l r t i t e s v s t c mi n v o l v i n s t h c r o a d w l y . t h c t r a f l ' i cu s i n g i t . r r n dt h c t l c r r c co l c o n r l c s t i o n , c f i r s tt w o v a r i a b l c s r cr n c a s u r a b l c c x a c tu n i t s .F t l r u in th

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ZA

AASEIO-4eometric Designof Highwaysand Streets

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. ^ a m p l e .t h e r o a d w a y i t h e ri s o r i s n o t a h i g h w a yw i t h f u l l c o n r r o o f a c c e s s : e l i t s c r o s s - s e c t i od i m e n s i o n s a n b e e x p r e s s e dn m e t e r so r o t h e r u n i t s o f n c i *"a'sure; the sleepnesses the gradesare measurable of slopesexpressed in percent meterpermeter.Likewise,traffic flow canbe expressed numbers or as of vehiclesper unit of time; traffic composition can be expressed termsof in p.rcentages vehiclesof eachclass:its peakingcharacteristics direcof and tional distributioncan also be described. scaleof valuesfor expressing A the d.gree of con-Qestion however,a much more elusivemeasure. is, Numerous indicators ofoverall service havebeensuggested, includingsafety, freedom to .uneuver, the ratio of traffic volume to capacity (v/c), the highestoverall tp.ed at which a driver can travelunderprevailingtraffic conditionswithout exceeding the design speed for individual sectionsof the highway (i.e., average runningspeed, and orhers. the caseofsignalized gparatingspeed), In lntersectlons, stopped the delayencountered motoristsis a commonlyused by measure congestton. oI For uninterruptedtraffic flow, i.e., flow not influenced by signalized intersections, traffic operationalconditions are defined by three primary measures: speed, volume(or rateof flow), and density.Densityis the critical parameter describing traffic operations. describes proximity of vehicles It the to one another, andreflects freedomto maneuver the within the traffic stream. As density increases from zero, rate of flow also increases because more vehiclesare on the roadway. while this is happening, speecl beginsto declinc ( d u et o t h e i n t e r a c t i o o f v e h i c l e s )T h i s d e c l i n e s v i r t u a l l yn e g l i g i b l e t l o w n . i a densities and ratesof tlow. As densitycontinues increase. to however. poinr a at declines -!! Iq.lqhed which speed dramatically. The maximumrateof flow i.s reachecl whcn thc productof increasing densityand decreasing speedresults in reducedflow. The maxirnumrateof flow tbr any eiven tacility is irs capacity. The densiry at which this occursis ret'erred as critlcai dansitv,and the speedat which it to occurs is called c'riticalspecd.As capacityis approached. t'low becomes more unstable because available in are At therc .eaps thetrafficstream ferver. capacity. are no usablegaps in the traffic stream.and any perturbation t'romvehiclcs entcringor leavinq the tacility. or from internallane changingmaneuvcrs. creates disturbancc a that cannotbe eft'ectively dampedor dis.sipated. Thus. ilperationat or nearc:rpacity difllcult to maintainfbr long periotJs tirnc i.s of without the fbrmationof upstream qucucs,and tbrced or breakdownflorv becomcsalnrttst unavoidablc. this reason. For most tuciliticsare dcsirnctllo opcratcat volumeslessthancapacity. For interruptedtlorv. such a.sthat occ on streetswhere traffic rs control s i g n a l st.h eh i g h w a v s e r s n o ts t .m u c hc o n c e r n c w i t h l t t u i n i n g u i l d a h i g h t r a v c l . s p e e ds t h e m o r o r i s ti s w i t h a v o i d i n g l c n g t h y s t o p s o r : l l s u c c e s s i o ort s t o g r ls i n t c r s c c t i ( )a l ' t e ri n t e r s c c t i o n . v c r a g es t o p p e d - r i r r r c r t n A d e l a yi s t h e p r i n c i p a m e a s u r e f e f f e c t i v e n e s ss e di n e v a l u a t i n g i g n a l i z e d l o u s i n t e r s e c t i o n s .t o p p e d - t i m d e l a y i s u s e db e c a u s et i s r e a s o n a b l e a s y t o S e i y m e a s u r ea n d i s c o n c e p t u a l l y i m p l e . I t i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t io f i n t e r s e c t i o n , s c o p e r a t i o nw h i c hi s c l o s e l y e l a t e do m o t o r i s t e r c e p t i o n sf q u a l i t yo f t r a f f i c s t r p o flow.

Relation Between Congestionand Traffic Flow Rate Congestion doesnot meana complete stoppage traffic flow. Rather can be of it thoughtof as a restriction interference normal free flow. For any given or to classof highway, congestion increases with an increase rateof flow until the in rate of flow is almost equal to the capacityof the facility. at which point congestionbecomes acute.The gradua.l increase congestionwith increase in in rateof flow is apparent matterwhat measure usedasan indexof congestion. no is The relationship betweenaveragetravel speedand traffic flow rate per lane on a freeway high-type of designis illustrated FigureII-23.The average in travel speed decreases the traffic flow rate increasesto approximately 2,200 as passenger perlaneperhour.At thisflow rateanyminordisruption thefree cars in flow of traffic causes traffic on the freeway to operateon a stop-and-go basis, with a resulting decrease traffic flow ratethatcan be served. in Highwaysections wherethepaths substantial of volumes trafficmustcross of within comparatively short distances are called weaving scctions. Average runningspeed. hence degree congestion, a functionnot only of the and the of is volumesf trafficinvolvedin the weaving(crossing) ntovements alsoof the trut w t l i s t a n c r v i t h i n h i c ht h c w e a v i n g a n c u v c rm u s tb c c o n r p l e t c d . c a v i n gi s e W m s covered undera separate subsection laterin this chapter. On arterialstreetswithin the urban environnrent, averagerunning speed varies onlv slightly with changesin traftlc tlow rate. However, delay ar signalizedintersections may increasedramaticallyas florv rates approach cupucitv. greaterdeqrees congestion Theretbre. of, result in reducedoverall truvelspceds lnd higherilverage traveltimcs.

.\cceptableDegrees Congestion of l:ronr the standpoint the highrvrv user it would be pret'crablc each of tirr i n d i v d u a lu s e rt o h a v ce x c l u s i v ei g h tt o t h e h i g h w a y t t h e t i m e t h em o t o r i s r i r l htthwaysbt'of tvpcsthat would permitspecds in excess thosenormallt' lllr of ;rl'lirrdcd urhansurt:rcc br strL'cts. Howevcr,uscrs recoqnizc thatil'othcrslrrcto r h r t r c h cc o s t s f t r a n s p o r t i l t i oin c i l i t i c s , c vl r c l l s o c n t i t l c d o s h u r c n t h e i r t o t r th t i

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I I l I | I I J. e a t t u s e T h e yw i l l r e a d i l v c c e pa m o d e r a ta m o u n o f c o n g e s t i o n u s tw h a td e g r e e . willing to acceptas reasonable remains a the ofeengestion motoringpublic is but mlttei of conjecture, it is known to vary with a numberof factors. way thatcorrective measures in motoristunderstands a general The average thanin others and congestion may be morecostlyin someinstances ,o alleviate in will generallyaccept a higher de,eree con,{estion those areaswhere of more alsoaccept only at a substantial cost.Motorists i-provementscanbe made if willingly a high degree restraint tripsareshortratherthanlong but arenot of that occur when the volume of traffic satisfiedwith the type of operations the approaches capacityof the facility. pointof view, thedegree congestion of that Froma highwayadministrator's highway usersmust be cailed upon to endure is gearedto the availability of and Historically,fundshaveneverbeensufficientto meetall needs, resources. it has been a severe strain to advance the highway improvement program rapidly enough to preventmany facilities from becoming loadedbeyondtheir capacity. to ofcongestion be usedin planningand designing The appropriate degree of by is highwayimprovements determined weighingthedesires the motorists availablefor'satisfying thesedesires.The degreeof againstthe resources during the designyearon a proposed that shouldnot be exceeded congestion of by determined the following: ( I ) determination the highwayis realistically conditions that the nrajorityof motoristswill acceptas satisfactory. operating ( 2 ) d e t e r m i n a t i oo f t h e h i g h e s t t a n d a r d f h i g h w a yi m p r o v e m e ntth a t t h e s o n j u r i s d i c t i o n a n s u p p o r ta n d ( 3 ) r e c o n c i l i a t i oo f t h e d e m a n d s , n c governmental generalpublic with the meansavailable meetthese to of'rhe motoristand thc demands. is with availableresources an administrative of This reconciliation desires of madeasto thedegree mustbe First,thedecision process high importance. of period. design Thenthe duringthedesign that congesrion shouldnotbeexceeded can be estimated of requirements a paniculartacility(suchas numberof lanes) in discussed the following sections. tiom the concepts rhat he L The hi?lrr'ut'shrtultl so tle.sri,qttct! u'henit is carrvingrhedesign v'ill rtote.rceed capacit'-of thefac'ilityeven the rolunte.thetraJJ'ic denrund inten'als of time. durin.q.Ehort intolerable the motoristwhenthetrafficdemand for can Conditions become whenstoppages of occur or exceeds capacity thestreet highway.Moreover, the (otherthanthose by the on hi-uhway's controlled signals), flow rateis drastically with trafficflowing at theoptimum reduced belowthevolumethatcanbe served will evenfor is speed of50 to 60 km/h.Stoppages occurifthe capacity exceeded a shortintervals time.Because of trafficdoesnot flow uniformlythroughout full hour,allowance shouldbe madefor peakingwithin the hour. is the For freeways, trafficflow rateduringshortpeakintervals not likely to cars exceedthe capacityof the freeway(usuallyabout2,200 passenger per lane per hour) unless demandfor the total hour exceeds about2,000carsper lane the flow, the per hour. For highwayswithout access control,underuninterrupted total hourly volumegenerallywill not exceed85 or 90 percentof capacity. cars may vary from aboutI,200 to 2,000passenger per laneper hour. Capacity depending a varietyof factors. on the Where traftlc is controlledby signals at intersections, relationship to bctween delayand capacity may be extremelycomplex.It is possible have wheretrafficdemand approaches 75 largedela,'"s longqueues unacceptabll' and approach an percent capacity. is to 8-5 of The reverse alsopossible: intersection rvhcre may havelow delaysif thesignalcycleis cqurlscapacity trafficdemancl progression favorable. is shortan(i/orsignal 'l'ltc the 2. dtsi.qn vtlunrcpcr lonc shouldtutt c-rcced rdtc ut *'hich traffic Jitr queuc. uttt dissiltttlr' rtnr u .standing .fi p a a T h c p r i n c i p l c ' i n d s p p l i c a t i o n r i m a r i l yo n f i e e w a y s n d o t h e rh i g h - t y p e f it s. evcnmomentarily. rrrultilane hichrvar If tralfic on a tieeway laneis stopped cars citnn()t rcco!cr rt il ratcot.1.200passengcr per hour,which is thc capacit;" of a lanet1o*ing freel,v'. thc trafficdemand exceeds rateat rvhichcarscan the If will increase lcngthrathcr in tlcpurttiom thchcedof a stlndingqucue. queue thc The rateat lhurrbc dissipltcd. is cvcn itt'tcr causcof thc stoppagc removed. thc which vchiclescrrl tlcpart tilrrt a standingqueue is estimatcdbv vltrious : r u t h r l r i t i c s l s b c i n g * i t h i n t h e e o fl . 5 0 0 t ol . S 0 0 p a s s e n g e r c a r s p e r l a n e p e r rrng l trltr r. ttJ's1tr:ed.The lutittulcin thrtiL't' chttit't' -j. 1)r'irt'r'.r .sltt,ullltL' tlJltnlcl stttttc tf hL' rtl'-sltettlsltttttl,t rcltt<'d ttt the lett,qth trip.
t\ nnncll]|c ts llpDlt(

I t-HI

and S#ets AASHTO-Gom*ri{'DesiBnef Highways

Design Control.s und Criteriu

79

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of Principlesfor AcceptableDegrees Congestion of No scientiticmethodexistsfor decidingthe maximum degree congcstion lendsitselfncithcr This decision which might be accepted a basistbr design. as into a computcr nor to the insenionof coefficients to a modelingtechnique p+ir+aple-s guidelines wlll aid in arrwr o+ @ome on Thescare itcmizedand discussed the followingpages. decision.

ot'l'rcctlorn shoultl lfti;rdcd is I subicctive If. bc dctcrmination. tbr exantple. thlt il rrouldhc dctcrrnined arrrverrrc spccdof abrlutl0O km/h is satisfactor\ that

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oJnf ghl-at'iandSiree|i

DesiPn eonh'ots-antl

by ratethatcanbe served a hi-eh-type lqry!,on freewuyrrips.themaximumflow cars 2.050passenger per laneper hour.The freewayis approximately -k-lane driver would be about25 km/h. and fastest the between slowest iang- of speed perhaps km/h l0 may be warranted. speeds rrips.hieheraverage For longer of speed I l0 areas. averase An developed tripsin densely higherthanfor short on freewayswith traffic volumes up to about 1.300 km/h can be achieved of passenger perlaneperhour.The high costofconstruction urbanfreeways cars usually uorks againstan neighborhoods and rhe impact on the surrounding furtherunder areasas discussed exceprin suburban speedthis hi_eh operating principle6. and andvolumeareapproxlmate speed between relationships The foregoing speedis usedand wheretraffic aply to typical siruationswherea high design of with the characteristics the tan"i ur. 3.6 m wide. They will vary somewhat and width of lane' numberof lanes, speed, highway,suchas clesign 4. Operating conclitionsshould be such that they will prot'ide a degree of v'ith theleng,th that elrit'erten.sion is relatedto or e'onsistenl ft:eerlomJiom of the triP. anc!durcttirtn This principle may appearto be a corollary of the previous principle' g H o w e v e r ,p r i n c i p l e3 h a d r o d o w i t h t e n s i o n s r o w i n g o u t o f i m p a t i e n c e . t h w h e r e a .ts i s o n e d e a l sw i t h t e n s i o n sh a td e v e l o pf r o m d r i v i n g i n a c o m p a c t too thatarerecognizably fhstfor safetybut over which at traffic stream speeds l I c o i l i h e i n c l i v i c l u as p o w e r l e sts e x e r c i s e o n t r o l . f t h ei n d i v i d u ar e d u c e s p e e d . the reducing gap cut othersto passancl in front. thereb}' -the,intlivitlual induces s l . t l t h ei n d i v i d u aw a ss e e k i n go e n l a r g eF r e e w a yr a v e la t s p e e d o f 6 0 t o 1 0 0 that e t i k r n / hu n t l e rv er v h i g h d en s i t vc o n d i t i o n ss a r a t h e r c n s ce x p e r i e l l c t o l n l t l l ) ' anrlisonerhatshouldnotheenduredifavoidable.Pre.sentli-nore.s. archdall e o a st t t s e x i s t s 1 1 u p p o r a n y r L ' c o t n m e n d a t i o n so t h c m a x i m u ml e n g t l t f t i r n et h a t . i d r i v e r sc a n o r s h o u l ce n d u r et r a v e l u n d e rh i g h d e n s i t yc o n d i t i o n sb u t i t i s e b r h a tt e n s i o n s u i l d u p w i t h c o n t i n u e d x p t l s u r e . c o m m o n l ya c c e p t e d cllrs per of rvith frcewry densitics 20 passengcr associated Driver tensions ti)r acceptablc trips rvithin nltlst urc gencnrllvconsidcrcd kilomcterpcr llnc and conccntrltionthat is requircd For metropolitlnrrrcas, long tripsthc rncntal r w h i l c d r i v i n g i n s u c h h c a v yt r a f t ' i c l r Lc \ c c s s i v c : t t h e t e n s i o n sh a t t l e r e - l g p frccultl'sthatscrvc shouldbc uscdtilr dcsigning voluntcs lg'uver conscqlcntlv. l r c l a t i v c l Yo n gt r i P s '
.shrttrldltt' tukt'n tl'pruclicu! 5. Rcr'rr(rriti,ttr tl.'alprccltulc lhL' lintiltt!irtrt's

or such as curyature lengthsof speed-change on economize certainfeatures In closerto eachotherthanwould be desirable' or lanes, to locateinterchanges freewaywith to it sense, is usuallyimpossible designa sectionof a practical uniform capacitythroughoutils length.Moreover,certain featuresthat are to definedas neces.sary fult'lll the definitionof the term "ideal" are still under investigation. is c'onditions influ6. The attitucleof motoristslou.ard adt'erseoperating, and rights-of-v'av costs of ent'eclby iheir au'areness the consffuction to necessarv provide betterservic'e. conditionsif they feel that the Highway userswill acceptpoor operating highway is the best design that can be reasonablyprovided at the particular in location.They recognize a generalway that highwaysareextremelycostly in developedareaswith high land values,in difficult terrain, and across densely they will or such as navigablestreams harbors.Consequently, major obstacles, poorer operatingconditionswhere highway costs are high than where accept there is no apparentreasonfor deficienciesthat can be correctedat moderate much higherin largecities costsarefrequently construction Because expense. resultis thatthis principletendsto offsetprinciple3 thanin smallcities,the net is areas concemed. developed of insofaras theeft'ect trip lengthwithin densely

of of Reconciliation Principlesfor AcceptableDegrees Congestion havea capacityof 2.200 underideal designand traffic conditions, Freeways. highwaysservingtraffic in two cars per lane per hour. Two-lane passenger cars of havea capacity 2,800passenger per hour in both directions. directions tiom flow, no marginalintert'erence consistof unintemrpted conditions Icleal shouladequate lanes, vehicles. 3.6-m no or vehicles pedestrians, commercial and passing. to and no sightrestrictions overtaking tlers,high designspeed. dependor abovemay not be obtainable desirable. mentioned The capacities point to the use ing on the designand desired of the highway.Theseprinciples in that conclu.sions aresummarized the tbllowing paragraphs' broadgeneftrl

Freeways extentbv to is to For shorttrips.tolerance congestion governed a considerable Theseconsiddriving.may bc intolerable. or complctcsroppages. stop-and-go should preterably crttionssulgcstthetthedensityof tratficon urbanfreeways p .i c c x c c e dl 0 p a s s e n g e ra r sp e r k i l o m e t e r e r l a n e .F u r t h e r m o r ef d c n s i t l nor

.-

fuigrn,farrfutectl fn cars pilssengcr pcr r;f of ,,\nitlcrrlscctirtn ticcrvlv is capable carrying2.2(X) ) ( ) t ' t c ltth l l r ln o t i t i s n c c c s s i l r t t l c t l t n p r o n t i s(c l l ( l c s i g l l v \ llnc pcr horrr. lorc t i , : l t l t r ( ' \ t , r l i t t h c l ' r c t '!r(,)rr;(rrrt l t L ' r l r r t c r i a l ) w i t h i n i t l l x i n i l h l c r i r l h t - o f - r r i l \ . ( ) r l ( )

I rl
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rl
I lI I I I I I I | I lI |

8,

AA+HTo=:G-(ometric'Desigrnffi ighn'arraftd Strcts

- Deslgn ortrols'anc! eritet'ia

83

rl I

U o e sn o r e x c e c dr h i s l e v e l , t h e r e w i l l b e l i t t l e d i i f i c u l t y f r o m m o m e n t a r y will have no noticeable clesignt-eatures srcppages. and minor substandard on conditions. odverse et'fect operating to moreimporlant theuser. metropolitan trips.traveltimebecomes for longer per with densiries 20 passenger per kilometer cars of nriver rension.s associared Thereare no criteriafor are unpleasant. tune.while not unbearable. decicledly re s f i x i n g u p o na n y d e f i n i t ev a l u e ,b u t i n d i c a t i o np o i n t t o l 5 p a s s e n g e r c a ps r This ciegree congestion. of tiro.i",.. per lane as resultingin an acceptabie travelspeed about 100km/h with a flow rateof of d.nsity willafford an average 1,440passenger per laneper hour on a typicalsix-laneurbanfreeway. cars On is consideration. the basis fo. rural fiee*ays, travelspeetl the clominant cars per kilometerper lane will of pastexperience, densityof 16 passenger a p"rmir an average travelspeedof about I l0 km/h on a typical four-lanefreeway *ith a flow rateof I, I 20 passenger per laneper hour. cars

I I I ; i i I I I I I !

ll
Other Multilane Highways measures congestion other of on Exceptwheretraffic is controlledby signals, Wherethe interference multilanehighwaysare similar to thosetbr freeways. that is wirh traffic fronrmarginal developrnent slight,the trafficdensities result congestion frcewaysmay also be servedby other on in acceptable clcgrees of In is This situation notablytrue in ruralareas. urbanareas, nultilanc highrvays. at hi-uhw,aysacceptable served othcrntultilane thatcan bc on thetrafficvolumes as gcncrallysornewhat lowcr thln thoselbr ticervays. l-tEla of congcstion arc e w i l l b c d i s c u s s cs u b s e q u e l y i n t h i sc h a p t r . nt d 'l'raffic VolunreThat Factors Other'l'han AfTectOperating Conditions 'l-he is cfficicntlyandettectively intluencetl abiliryof a highwly ro scrvctrafl'ic ot'the highway. by thecharactcristics and ot'thc trat't'ic by the f'catures

a o O n o t h e r c l a s s e s f m u l t i l a n eh i g h w a y st h e i n t e r s e c t i o n st g r a d e ,e v e n with the free operation traffic.Ribbon of often interfere rhoughunsignalized, with and driveways interference and fromtrafficentering development attendant lanes cause lossin efficiency a andleadto congestion the leaving through-traffic effect.althou-eh and safetyproblemsat relativelvlow volumes.The adverse is readilyapparent. particularlydifficult to quantify.Horizontaland vertical to necessary standard. it is sometimes and are alinements not alwaysof a hi-eh All conditions combineto dimensions. of these cross-sectional compromise'on thanwould be to cause effects congestion be felt at lower trafficvolumes the of with idealfeatures protected full control by and designed thecasefor highways of access. intervals, close the with signalized at streets intersections relatively Forurban volumesof traffic that could otherwisebe servedare reducedas a resultof loss of "go," or "green," time. and For a highwaythat is deficientin someof its characteristics wherethe cars of traffic streamis composed a mixtureof traffic ratherthanpassenger only, adjustmentfactors need to be applied to the traffic flow rates compensatory are These adjustments values idealhighwayconditions. for as acceptable design to necessary obtainvolumesof mixedtraffic thatwould resultin the minimum The operating conditions thehighwayunderconsideration. HCM on acceptable (ll) identifies on efl'ect significant highwayfeatures that may havean adverse procedures fordetemtining conditions. provides It fhctors outlines and operating the traffic volumesthat can be servedby highwaysthat are not ideal in all Features that could result in a highway being lessthan iileal in its respects. width.steep gradcs. includelanesand shoulders substandard of characteristics i n e fa s , l o w d e s i g n p e e da n dt h ep r e s e n co f i n t e r c h a n g e c i l i t i e sn c l u c l i nig t c r s e c Thc HCM (l l) shouldbe ref'errt-'d ramptcnninals. and weavinqscctions. ticlns. on conditions. theset'eatures thcir eft'ects operating and of to tirr a discussion weavingsecalinement. thereinrelative horizontal to the However, discussion is and tions.and ramp terminals supplemented amplifiedbelow.

Alinement the the For trlffic travelingat any given speed, bettcrthc roadrvalalinement. y t I n m o r et r a f f i ci t c a nc a r r v . t f o l l o w st h a tc o n g e s t i ow i l l g e n e r a l l b e t ' e l r t l o w e r i i s v o l u m e sf t h ed e s i g n p e e ds l o w t h r n i f t h ed e s i g n p e c ds h i g h .T h e h i g h w a r s i c g c s n m u s tb e s u b d i v i d e id t os e c t i o n o f c o n s i s t e n te o n r e t r id c s i g n h a r l c t c r i s t i c s w a u r r d e i n r n o t h c r w i s e c n t l ca l i n c r r r e n t i l l t h u sb c i d e n t i t i c d s t h e c r i t i c a l c of lirnitingthe capacity thc roadwar'. t'cature

Highway Factors characterpo.\.sc.s.,; requirerncnt.s the ultimatcin design lilr l:cw highwa,v.s all the weavingsection sions,rttanvtlll beltlrvthe idcal with rcspcctto dcsignspecd. w t is t I d c s i g n l n d n r r n p c n n i n l l d c s i g n . n a d e q u a c i en t h e s c ' c a t u r e si l l r e s u l ti n . i n c t ' t ' i c i c n t ct t l ' I h cr c r n l i n i r t g r t r t i o n o t ' t l t cl . r c c r v r l . us o s

oiiiin AASHTO-Geometric

if nign":avsaid 'Striet'i

Desig,nControls anelerircria

85

Weaving Sections where the patternof traffic entering are weaving sections highway segments e p c i o s s a tc o n t i g u o up o i n t s f a c c e s r e s u l t sn v e h i c l e a t h s r o s s i n g a c h a n dl e a v i n g is in where the distance which the crossingis accomplished relativelv orher. the short in relation ro the volume of weaving traffic, operationswithin e i S w i l l b e c o n g e s t e d . o m er e d u c t i o n n o p e r a t i n g f f i c i e n c y h i g h w a ys e c t i o n is if by can thioughweavingsections be tolerated highway users the reduction that accepted is of occurrence not high. It is generally minoiand the frequency of speed about l0 km/h below that for the highwayas in a reduction operaring a tolerable degree of congestionfor weaving a whole can be considered sectrons. are operating conditionswithin weavingsections affectedby both the length well as by the volume of traffic in the several and width of the section as later in this chapterand in the are Theserelationships discussed movements. HCM (11).

the At of combinations highwayandtrafficconditions. anentrance, total various of the the outsidelaneflow rate and the ramp flow rate can be comparedto the flow rate in the outside|ane of the freewaygiven for maximum acceptable in entrances TableIl-3.

Typeof Terminal
Entrance

Typeof Location
Urban Rural Urban Rural

Maximum AccePtable Flow Rate in Outside Lane of FreewaY

I,450 1,000 I,500 l,050

Exit

in flow ratein outsidelaneof freeway vicinityof Tablell-3. Service rampterminals.

from the HCM (11) Forthe exit. the the outsidelaneflow rate determined in flow rates TableII-3.When directlyto theappropriate is procedures compared from TableII-3. obtained rates are lanetlow rates lessthanthe flow ihe outside rates lanet-low if theoutside are conditions met.However' operating thctlesired but junction will operate. at a lorverlevel of the Table ll-3 tlow rates, cxceed conditionmay result. lnd a congested scrvice,

Ramp Terminals operatinS influence that can adversely are Rampsand ramp terminals features or if theirdesign if on condltions freeways theilemandfor theiruseis excessive somethrouglt at develops freewayrampjunctions. when congestion i.rcleficient. to thecongestion adding laneof the tieeway,thereby avoidtheoutside vehicles thc Thus, if thereare only two lanesin one direction, in the remaininglanes. or more l;rncs as efficiencyper laneis not as high on the average that fbr three in one direction. or of ncy is a function thevolumeof trafficentering leaving The lossin efticie geometrlc pointsof entry and exit. and the between at the ramps.the distance to variables. permit separate Too little is known of these the terminals. layoutat of assessment their eft'cctwhen taken individually.Thcir comil quantirative lgainsttheoutsidc for is accountcti by levyinga uniformasscssment binedeffect et or of llne. regardless the causes extentof intert'erence individuallocattons' on rhe eft'ect throughtraffic. the traffic that uscslhe rampsls Apart from itself to exposedto a ditterent tbrm of congestion.which docs not lend ol' The degrce delay,or clrivertension. in meesurement termsof travelspeed, in thc of is in congestion thesemovements relatedto the total vcllume traffic in the vicinity of the ramp junction: thxt is. thc oursi.lclane of the freeway volumeof throughtraffic using the out cornbincd tratticusingthe ramp.

TrafTic Factors cxrs' passenqer 9f is stream composed a ntixturegf vehiclcs: Thc usualtratTic Traffic llso vchiclcsand bicycles. recreatitlnal ttccasionally an<J rrucks, buscs. ltnd vcar' the hour, dav, se:tstln. docs nttt tlttrv at a unitbrm rate throughout trlttlc and of two vlriables.composition mustbe givento rhese Considerltion in llucruarions tlow. in dcciding upon volumesof traffic that will result in (servicc) llstl upontheperiodol timetlver and of Itcceptable degrees congestion which the tlow shouldextend. on and buseshavc in contributingto congestion Thc eftect that truck.s l p s id t h e F l c l l ( l l ) . D e t a i l e d r o c e d u r ea r eo u l l r n e o o r n h i g h w l v si s d i s c u s s e
c()nvcrling rolumes of ntixed trlrftlc to equivalcnt vtllumcs tlf pltsscn{tr clrs' l l j : r c t r r r rl i r r c t l r r rc n i n g r r u c k s , h u s c s .l r n d r c c r c r t t i o t t l tv c h i c l c s t t l c q u i v r t l e n t

H it"' cirrr1n i':: ::.: :::::':l'J:#|iI:::li;i:ff :l,:i:ll; :l':r., 1,'1: :::

I I
I I
|
I

86

AASHTO--Ceometic Design of Highways and Streets

A;rstCptupk444eryels

87

I
I
I I It
I

passenger tiaffic on multilanehighwaysaie given in Table II-4. These car u o l u e s r e a p p l i c a b l eo l o n g s e c t i o n o f h i g h w a y .F o r o p e r a t i o n n s p e c i f i c t a s o individual grades. reference shouldbe madeto the HCM (ll).

Levelsof Service Techniques and procedures adjusting for operational and highway factorsto compensate conditions for thatareotherthanidealarefound in the HCM (ll). procedures madeadaptable highway to that It is desirable theresults these of be design. o F o r a n y o n e o t i n t i m a t e l y a m i l i a rw i t h t h e l e v e l - o f - s e r v i cce n c e p ti,t i s n f levels-ofdifficult to visualize the operatingconditions that characterize a of serviceA throughF. Table II-5 presents brief description the operating characteristics eachlevelof service fbr andtypeof highway.The descriptions average levelsofservicein termsofflow characteristics, ofeachofthe several volumes presented andhigh and are for"ideal"conditions travelspeeds service flow characteristics In of arterials, designspeeds. thecase urbanandsuburban and stopped delay are presented.These should aid the designer and the which levelof serviceshouldbe provided. The in decision-maker determining (ll) presents more thoroughdiscussion the level-of-service conHCM a on A cept.The division pointsbetweenlevels-of-service throughF were deterfor mined subjectively.The HCM (f f) containsno recommendations the o o i o . a p p l i c a b i l i t o f t h el e v e l s f s e r v i c en t h ed e s i g n f h i g h w a y sC h o i c e f l e v e l y of serviceis properly left to the userof the HCM (ll). The guidancein the w f b r e g o i n gd i s c u s s i o n i l l e n a b l et h e u s e r o f t h e H C M ( 1 1 ) t o l i n k t h e The relationappropriate degrees congestion specificlevels of service. of to appropriate for highwaytypeancl shipbetween location andthelevelof service d c s i g ni s s u m m a r i z e dn T a b l e I I - 6 . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i ps d e r i v e df r o m t h e i i v , s tg c l c s c r i p t i o n st h e l e v c ' l o f e r v i c et h ea c c o r n p a n y i n r a f T i c o l u m e sa n dt h e ol , e i c o n t r o l s n dc r i t e r i a o r a c c e p t a b ld c g r c e s f c o n g c s t i o n so u t l i n e d a r l i e r n a f e o a a s t h i sd i s c u s s i o n .s m a yb e t ' i t t i n go t h ec o n d i t i o n s . eh i g h w a y g e n c y h o u l d t th A s t r i v et o p r o v i d et h e h i g h e s tl e v e l o f s e r v i c ct ' e a s i b l e . h e a v i l yd e v e l o p e d In s c c t i o n s f n r c t r o p o l i t aa r c a sc o n d i t i o n s t a yn e c e s s i t a t e eu s eo f l e v e l - o f o n n h . scrviceD tor freeways and arterials. suchuse shouldbe rareand at least but lcvcl-of-serviccC should be strive..lfor. For some urban and suburban D. hiqhrvavs. conditionsmay ncccssitlitc usc of lcvel-ot'-servicc' the

I
I I I Typeof Vehicle Level ferrain Rolling Mountainous

I
l-, . .

Vehicles Be..cleational

1.2

2.0

4.0

Tablell-4. Factorsfor convertingtrucks, buses,and recreational passenger vehicles equivalent to cars(multilane hlghways).

The accepted unit of time for expressing flow rate is a l-hour period.It is customary designhighwayswith a sufficient to numberof lanesand with other t'eatures will enablethe highwayto accommodate forecasted that the DHV tbr the designyear,which is frequently yearsfrom the dateof construction. 20 B e c a u s et l o w i s n o t u n i f o r m t h r o u g h o u ta n h o u r , t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n p e r i o d sw i t h i n a n h o u r d u r i n g w h i c h c o n g e s t i o ni s w o r s e r h a n a r o t h c r - r i m e s .T h e H C M ( I I o p c ) c o n s i d e r s p e r a t i n g o n d i t i o n s r e v a i l i n gd u r i n g t h e p r n o s tc o n g e s t e d - 5 - m i n u t e e r i o do f t h e h o u r t o e s t a b l i s h h e s e r v i c el e v c l l t t i l i t h e h o u r a s a w h o l e .A c c o r d i n g l yt.h e t o t a lh o u r l yv o l u m et h a tc a n b c s e r v e dw i t h o u t e x c e e d i n g s p e c i f i e d e g r e eo f c o n g e s t i o n s e q u a l t o o r a d i l e s st h a n4 t i m e st h e m a x i m u m l 5 - m i n u t ec o u n t .T h e f a c t o ru s e dt o c o n v e t r the rate of tlow during the highestl5-minute period to the rotal hourly v o l u m e i s t h e p e a k h o u r f a c t o r ( P H F ) .T h e P H F m a y b e d e s c r i b e d s t h c a r r t i o o f t h e t o t a lh o u r l yv o l u m et o t h en u m b e ro f v e h i s l e s u r i n gt h e h i g h e s t d l - 5 - m i n u t e e r i o d r r r u l t i p l i e d y - t . l t i s n e v e r g r e c t e rt h a n 1 . 0 0 a n d i s p b n o r m a l l y w i t h i n t h e r a n g e o i 0 . 7 5 t o 0 . 9 5 . T h u s , f o r e x a m p l e ,i f t h e maximum tlow rate that can be servedby a certain freeway withoul e x c c s s i v e o n g e s t i o ns . 1 . 2 0 0 e h i c l e s e r h o u r d u r i n g t h e p e a k l 5 - m i n u t c v c p i p e r i o d . n d f u r t h e r , f t h e P H F i s 0 . 8 0 .t h e t o t a lh o u r l yv o l u m et h a tc a n b c l i a c c o m m o d a t c d t t h a t s e r v i c el e v e l i s 3 . 3 6 0 v e h i c l e s o r 8 0 p e r c e n to f t h c a ,

DesignServiceFlow Rates 'l'ltc t r l f t ' i c f l o w r a t e st l r r t c u n b c s c r v e da t e a c hl c v c l o f s c r v i c eo r c t c r m c d s c r v i c c l o r vr l t c s .O n c cI l c l c l o i s c r v i c ch a sb c e ni d e n t i f i e d s a p p l i c l b l e a t l i l r t l c s i s n . h ca c c o n r p a n y i ns c r v i c ct l o w r a t cl o g i c a l l yb e c o m e sh c d c s t g n t t g s c r v i c cl l o w r l t c . i n r p l y i n gt h a t i t t l r c t r a f l ' i cf l o " v r r l c u s i n g t h c f a c i l i t l c r c c c d st h a l l r r l u c ,o p c r u r t i nc o n t l i t i o r r is i l l t ' a t lb c l t r wl h e l c v c ' lo t ' s e r v i c c ' v g
i . o rr v h i c h t h c i l c i l i t v * u s t l c s i c n c r l .

I
AASHTO-4eametric I)esign of Highaays and Stee|s
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O"* n*, sen;celr. ueen setecrea, is desirable alt etemeirrs ir rhar of "r " *e reaa*av arecons hrnilydesigned thislevel.Thisconsisrency design to ol leryice ftow rareresulrs n"ur"on"tunrtieedomof tlaflic movement in and ope inPrpeed. now intenuolions rar rnd fiom borrtenecks beavoided. can t* iiv ttty suppt;es lnrtyricat basefor designcatcularions the and i! dec ions. rhedes but igner mustuse or herjudgmenr selecr proper hrs to rhe level of service. designer possibty The may select design a service flow rateiess rhan rheanric ipated dmand cenainrecreational for rcures fo. environmenral of o tanduseplanning reasons. fie guidance givenin TableII-6 maybechosen or. for theaporoorirle vatues oanicilartocatrons. ;n Wlerirer designrng inrenecrion. inierchange, anerial, a frccway, cn an an or rte setection rtred;sirEd level of ser.vice of mu$ be carfully weighedbcau;e rheadequacy ofthe rordwayis dependenl rhischoice. on

WeavingSections and taffic sreamscross merging by weavingseclions o{cur whereone-way in sections illuslmied are types weaving of maneuvers. ptincipal The diverging so checked. adjusted thatth rnd are FigureII-26.weavingsctions designed. levelof with highwayThedesign levelofserviceis consisteflt theremaining of on serviceof a weavingsectionis dePendent its length.number lanes. volumes individualmovements. of ofcongslion, relativ and ceptable degree frictionand resultin considerable weavinS movem$ts usually Large-volume of is limit io theamount there a definite in of reducdon sped all traffic.Funher, without undue congestion. secdon on trafficthatcanbebandled a givenweaving This limiting volume is a function of the distribudon of tmflic betweenthe section, the numtrof lanes and of weaving movements, length weaving lhe meretr.
as may be considered simple or multiple. Figure II-27 Weavingsections junctionis followed in weaving section which a single-entrance showsa simple junction.A multiple-weaving of section consists two or more by a single-exit weavingsections. multiple weavemay also be definedas that A overlapping junctions entrance portion of a one-wayroadway that has two consecutive junctionfollowed junctions, oroneentrance by followedclosely oneor moreexit c l o s e l yb y t w o o r m o r e e x i t j u n c t i o n s ,a s s h o w n i n F i g u r eI I - 2 8 ' M u l t i p l e occur frequentlyin urban areaswhere there is need for weaving sections of of and collection distribution highconcentrations traffic.For furtherintbrmlthe operationand analysisof sirnpleand ntultiple weaving tion concerning reler to the HCM ( I l). scctions on baseti the shouldhavea lengthandnumberof lanes The *'eavingsection ( I I ) p r e s e n ta n s a e a p p r o p r i a tle v e lo f s e r v i c e sg i v e ni n T a b l eI l - 6 . T h e H C M ing of runningspeed wcavingandnon-weav the tbr equation predicting averagc criteriatilr Level-of-scrvice traffic basedon roadwayand traftlc conditions. runningspeeils. average on are weavingsections based these

Type nf Area and Appropriate Level of Service Highrvay Type Freeway Arterial Collector Locul C D
L

Rural Level

Rural Rolling

Rural Urbanand Mountainous Suburban

C C C C l) D

D D

( : N O T E : G c n c m lo p c r l t i n rc o n d i t i o n f i r r l c v c l so f s c r v i c c S o u r c cR c f . I l ) : s .\ - trcc tlow. rvith low volurncs and high spccds. B - rclsonublvlir:c tlow. but spccds bcginningto bc lestnctctl tral'fic by conditions. C - in stlblc'lbrv zortc,but rnostdrivcrsrcstrictcd fhcdom to sclcctthcir in ()\\'n spcc(I. D - lpprolchinq unstablc llorv,drivcrslravcliltlc frccrlorn mtncu\cr. to E - Lrnstlrblc tlo'uv. rnavltc shrtrtstoppiu.lcs.

!Vithout Control of Access illultilane Highrva-vs cre if Thesehigh*a).smcv be trettedas freeways majorcrossroads infrcqtrcnt in or are separi.rted grade irnd if marginal dcvclopmentis so spcrsrls ttl is Even on thosehighwayswhercthc intcrlc'rcrtcc generate little intcrt'erence. the shouldbc alertto thefactthlt b.v- design the currentl)'onl)marginal. dcsigner lnd busincsr the designershould assutnclihcrul crossroad In nrost cilsL.s l i m p r o v c m c ' nos c r t h c d e s i g n i t e o f t h c t a c i l i t y . tv

Table ll-6. Guide for selection of design levels of service.

I
A4 SUTQ4 eoJn t! i c Dcljg alf Uighy gysg nLSr eets e
I

I t
I j t I

t DS S!! 9!!!r ok qt {Q1 !1er ra

93

section. weaving ll-27. Simple Figure

I
I I

l
1

y|r1llrl. f rcvlng

weaving. Figurell-28. MultiPle

in results development or Wheretherearemajorcrossroads wheremarginal the slight interference. facility should be tratedas a multilane rnore than control. highwaywithoutaccess

Arterial Streetsand Urban Highrvays of class highwaytiom the are and Arterialstreets urbanhighways a troublesome for The flow rates. reason thisis thatthe service design sttndpoint ofestablishing such facilitiesdoes not remain stablewith the lcvcl of serviceprovidedby The manner. capacitv in to passage timeandtentls deteriorate anunpredictablc of signalizc'd by the caplcitvtlf its individual dominated of un arterial generallv is i s a t u n c t i o no f a v e r l g eo v e r l l l o i n t c r s e c t i o n s . v e lo f s e r v i c e f a n a r t e r i a l Le of over a section the anerial. travelSpeed

SignalizedIntersections to are intersections subject a very largenumto*r Dcsigncapacities signalized of rts tbr predicted condititlns variablcs be can trf vuriables. theertentthlt thesc' Ttt

Figurell-26. Weaving sections.

I I
AASfll O4<p4Ctre I | | I
I

Dg;LSll9l Hlghv,ays antl Streers

Controlsand Criteriu Desig,n

95

c , h e y a r e l i k e l y t o o c c u r d u r i n g t h e d e s i g ny e a r , d e s i g nc a p a c i t i e s a n b e d g . t t i m a t e d b y p r o c e d u r e s i v e n i n t h e H C M ( 1 1 ) ' I n t e r s e c t i o n e s i g na n d a d r p a c i n gs h o u l db e c o o r d i n a t e w i t h t h e t r a f f i cs i g n a ld e s i g n n d p h a s i n g .

I I I
I I I

ANDACCESS MANAGEMENT CONTROL .ICCESS

whichisachieved through is control. of limitation access calledaccess ne resulated abuningthe highway rightsto and from properries of ,f-1e reg-ulation public access partial ofaccess, generally arecategorized full control as regulations t.cilities.These regulations. and management drivewayand approach access controlof access, Full control of accessmeansthat preferenceis given to through traffic by publicroads andby prohibiting only with selected connections access providing at gradeand directprivatedrivewayconnections. crossing preference given to throughtraffic to a is With partial control of access, with selected public roads, there connections in additionto access that. degree Full or crossingat gradeand someprivatedriveway connections. may be some by conrrolgenerallyis accomplished legallyobtainingright-ofpartialaccess of property owners(usuallyat the time of purchase the abutting from the access roads. the useof frontage or right-of-way) by involves providing (or managing)accessto land Access mana-qement t y d e v e l o p n r e nrtv h i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l p r e s e r v i n g h e f l o w o f t r a f f i c o n t h e in terms of safety,capacity,and speed."Access road systenr surroundin-rI of"access as overthe Iastdecade a new philosophy has llranugenrent" emerged a o f r o a d s n ds t r e e t sI.t c a l l sf o r s e t t i n g c c c s s a t T o n r r o l " r h a ta p p l i e s o a l l t y p e s keying designsto thesestandards, of - standlrdstirr varioustypcrs roaclway, i . n s h u v i l g r h c a c c e s s t a n ( ! a r dis c o r p o r a t e dn t o l e g i s l a t i o na n d h a v i n g t h c i u l c g i s l l t i o n p h e l d n t h ec o u r t s . a a n t A c c c s s l t n i l g c n t c nv i e w s t h e h i g h w a ya n d i t s s u r r o u n d i n g c t i v i t i c s s ".s v s t c n t . " n d i v i d u ap a r t s f t h e" s y s t e m "i n c l u d e h ea c t i v i t y t o I l p l r t o i r rs i n s l c c e n t e r t n t l i t s c i r c u l a t i o n s y s t e m s .a c c e s st o a n d f r o m t h e c e n t e r . t h c a a v a i l a b i l i t l o i p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a t i o n .n d t h e r o a d ss e r v i n gt h e c e n t c r .A l l and ptrts llrl' lrnp(')rtllltt interactrvitheachother.The goal is to coordinltc thc o t o l p l u n n i n g n d . i c . s i g n f c u c h c e n t e rt o p r e s e r v e h e c a p a c i t y f t h e o v c r a l l to s\ stcnr, und to lllorv efficientaccess and from the activities. to principles the location. mlntgernentextendstratflc engineering .{ccess and high' alongstreets roadsservingactivities of .lcsisnln(i oLrcrution access o o r ru r s . l t l l s o i n c l u d c c v l r l u a t i ntrh es u i t a b i l i t y f a s i t ct b r g i v e nc l e v le p m c n l s s :
stuntlPoint l'ronl .ln :rccess

'_

may be applied eventhoughno controlof rcgulations Drir crr:tr or to access thc slreclor Elch abuttingpropeny is permitted is .rcccss ohtuincd.
high\\.lr: horrcvcr, thc location. nurnber. and geometrics of the acccss Flolnls nrlr l^* rorcrnctl bv thc rcgulations.

or are advantages ofcontrol ofaeeess the preservation upgradThe principal haveno ataccess highwaysor streets and safety.Fully controlled ing service connections. highwayor A access gradecrossings havecarefi.rlly and designed to with partialcontrolof access similarcharacteristics one with full has street at somecrossroad intersections gradeand somecarefully controlbut includes predetermined service land connections. and selected or between street higha or difference The principaloperational f'unctional with through of way with or withoutcontrolof access thedegree interference is the entering,leaving,and crossin-q traffic by' other vehiclesor pedestrians pointsbest at entrances exitsare located and highway.With controlof access, vehicles enter to to needs aredesigned enable to and suited fit trafficandland-use with throughtraffic.Vehicles and leavesafelywith a minimumof interference of so from enteringor leavingelsewhere that,regardless the type are prevented is areas, high qualityof service a of of and intensity development the roadside or On and the accidentpotentialis lessened. streets highwayswhere preserved from interference develop, androadside businesses thereis no controlofaccess the can becomea major factor in reducingthe capacity.increasing the roadside accidentpotential,and eroding the mobility function that the facility was to designed provide. partof access is and roadside development an integral Controlof driveways pointsare adequately and enteringand exiting spaced If management. access p e . t v o l u m e s r el i g h t ,t h es t r e eo r h i g h w a yf u n c t i o n s f f i c i e n t l y I f a c c e s s o i n t s a are numerous .andenteringand exiting volumesare heavy,the capacityand must be madeto serve Howevcr,trade-offs sat'ety the facility are reduced. of particularlythoseinvolving unclland-use needs, throughtraffic development e c, lr i n c l u s t r i a l o m r n e r c i ao . o t h e rh i g h - u s c s t a b l i s h m e n t s . g A n e * r u r a l h i g h w a y w i t h o u t f u l l c o n t r o l o f a c c e s s e n e r a l l yh a s f e w h t b s o i n t e r s e c t i o n sr r o a d s i d e u s i n e s s ea n d t h e l t c c i d e nr a t ea p p r o x i n l a t ets a t i a W a o f a f r e e r v a l ' . i t h t i n r e , b u s i n e s s c s n d i n t e r s c c t i o n sn c r e a s e n d t h e r l u c c i d e n ta t em a y d o u b l eo r t r i p l e a s s h o w n i n F i g u r el l - 2 9 . O v e r t i r n e .t h c s w f r c e a y a c c i d e n r a t er e m a i n s h e s a m eo r m a y e v e nd c c r e a s e l i g h t l y .F u l l t t i c o n t r o l o f a c c e s s s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n ts i n g l e s a f c t y f a c t o r t h a t m a y b e s d c s i g n c d n t o n c ' r v i g h w a y s .I t i s t h e k e y t l c t o r i n t h e o u t s t a n d i n g a f c t y i h ( r c c o r do f f r e e w a y s l 2 ) . rvithoul full control of acccss. techniqucs al'ailablcto arc For highway's ( ' r p r o v i d e d d i t i o n a la t e r y l J ) . T h em o s to b v i o u s e c h n i q ul.i'm i t st h cn u m b e o f t a s lnd in war s andintersecticlns. suggest changcs thcdesign drive Othertechniques The opcrational mersures both within and outsidethc highway right-of-wav. ( l) lirnit the nurnbcrttf tcchniques aim to mcet thcsetlnctional objcctives: portions tbrcr'rtain tionrequiremcnts, (.1) orqueues and remove tumingvehiclcs r l l ' t h et h r o u q h a n c s . l

!
F 9AtstTo:eieanarftaesig,t ofnishffirffind sr-cets D<,;liaroalbls rl La erja 97

Lor" I L I I I I
I

rhould inctuded be in managemnr accss conrrolor 0."r.. of access rh a panicuiarly newlacilitywhere or ,fr"t"""foorn""t ofany s1rct highway. or b exists. The lypeof strel hiShway development of tit "lit'ooa "ornmercial thar locrl land useplanto ensure Ihe with be bc buih should coordinated the ordinances localzoning or through can desired conrrolofaccess b maintaind mav rrnge iron mrnimum The rcSulations. control of rcces\ subai"isron of conirol and Thus extenr degre access the to dri""*av ,"gutulions full control.

rhe faclonIn defining possible \'gnificant rle or th'r is teaqible ultimarely \lreel or highway typeof

THE PEDESTRIAN Ccnralconsideratioos in ofpedstnanslrafficir involvement afoor.and is any n pedesrrian person are Pedestrians a part and planning design. in a majorconsiderarion highway mustbe paid to thei presence and environmenr, lttention ofevery roadway being far more in rural as well as urban areas.The urban pedestrian.
of does.Because the demandsof vehicular traffic in congested Dedestrian

..-..5ooffiprevalent,moreofleninfluencesroadwaydesignfeaNresthantherural

Sroffi;rbanareAs.itisotienextreme|ydifficulttomakeadequIleprovisions|or ;llllllrrll are pedestrians the lifebloodol A - C r o d e l n t e r s c t l o n s 6e. K l l o r e+ r Yet ar-orod6 hre.sicltons ) e r xlomei.. I Oedesrrians. lhis mustbe don.because e I I I ! o o f f i o u r u r b a n a r e a s . e s p e c i a l | y i n t h e d o w n l o w n a n d o t h1e r r t a i I a r e a s . I n g e n e r r I . shoppingsectionsare those rhat provide the most ,he mosr successful : | | | | | ,),----ff |C |

i ' ' o f f i c o m | o a n d p t e a s u r e f o r . p e J e r r r i a n s ' P e d e s | r i aqn t a c i l i l i e . i n c | U d e s i d e .

inoffiPortionsoffree$tl}right.of-w:ry'andcufucu(s(depresiion\lcndrrmp\for 4

s"--ffiul*J|k\.cro\s$:cIkr.rrafficcontrol|eatures'speciaIwall.11y:fould:l]iol:
2
3
q

L_l---1-1

)___ffi;
| I | | -L----fl'l

pa' rhc! impxirmcn(s. rreJrso ti w,rh $arr.crs persons mobiriry tlnd ihcotd,
((l c s c i r l u r ( ) r s r c l r rtc ) t h e s c f a c i l i t i e s .

7,,offi.t|'hu\vop{ololhelIo.ldin8.Irc]s'8rldeseplrations.nndlhc'tl|rsor

b
! 0

'zoo
rsol

':-t I | | I

L I

'f I

: J ll

C)

tieneralCharacteristics rlr( r,, dcs(ribe rrcilir ir pedertri3n ies. ii ncccss.rrl .rn,l ti,cirl'cr t\ ptun deiisn ilc
i,rovL.rr.okmro(rrchrbus.irndabourtl{)percentdlrhcdistnncAtnlelcd$ill I only t,bottt I ptrcentor (hcrimcrhxrhc or shcis r pedcsrrirn r commutcr and pnlsxr rbournoon volumcs pkn sequcnc':.., of pedcstri.rn ,hcrinr.As.rco oflhc houtlJtluctuutrorr\ ptrk times. lypicalplot A mlh':fllun rt lhccomnruler
i ' l t c d c s r r i l nv . l u m c s o n a c l t y s t r c c t i s s h o w n i n F i g u r e t l - . 3 t ) . 'l'5c pcdcstriiln \'()luntes arc intlucnccd by such trlnsicrrt ctrtttlittorts lt: \ \ c r t t h c ro r . i n s p c c i f i c l o c a t i o n s 'a d v c r t i s c ds a l c s ' table than those ot'm()torists.!lltny- pctlcsls arc lcss

F,^m

5'offilypi(Ilpcdestr|n'Thepedeslri3nw|llmonlilielyn.'tu.t|kov.rI'5|mlo$or|

| : 5 0 f f i |I| | h c | c s s | h J n l|' ( l k m l l I ) ' I h c t y p i c J l p I d e j t r i i|\ . l j h o | F r l l b|o u|t 5 t ) p c r | j c n l o l | I . { t I L | | I I I .o | ,, | | .o

o---f--;-----;--;

Numbor of Buslnesses Dor Kllomoter

ll-29. Accident rate on 4-lane divided non-lnterstale Figure per highwaysby numberof at-gradeintersectlons per kilometer' of kilometer number businesses and

crl5cs ilnd outsidcthe law in trafl'icnlattcrs. in lllrrrlv triuns thcntsclvcs considcr r i . n ( ) tf u l l y c n f b r c e dT h i s m a k e s t d i i f i c u l tt t l t l c s l s n t ar r l l c r l c s t r i l ne g u i a r i o n s c m()vctllcllt' pcdcstrtan lrrcrlin tirr satr'itrtdorclcrly

AASttTO-Ccomctri( DesigttoJ Hi,qhu'ays and Streets

Dc.rien und Control.s Criteriu

99

nstendto walkin a pathrepresenting shortest the distance htween two points; they nridblock fail to stayin crosswalks. thus.alongstreets. ofiencross and Pedestrians havea basic also resistance changes grade elevation to in when or crossing roadwaysand tend to avoid using special underpass overpass or pedestrian facilities. underpasses be potential Also.pedestrian may crimeareas. An importantfactor in relationto pedestrian is aee.Very youne accidents pedestrians oftencareless trafllc tiom ignorance e.ruberance. whereas are in and t h e e l d e r l ya r e a f f ' e c t e d y l i m i t a t i o n s n s e n s o r yp e r c e p t u a c,o g n i t i v ea n d i . l . b motor skills brou_sht by the agingprocess. Pedestrian accidents alsobe on can related the lack of adequate which fbrcespedestrians share to sidewalks, to thc pavement with motorists.

with potentialto aid the The follo*ing have beenCuggested measures as p elderly edestrian: w U s es i m p l e e s i g n t h a tm i n i m i z e r o s s i n g i d t h s n dm i n i m i z e h eu s eo f d s c a t elements suchaschannelization separate morecomplex and turninglanes. When these featuresare necessarv. altematedesignsthat will assess protect elderlypedestrians. l A s s u m eo w e rw a l k i n gs p e e d s . of Providerefugeislands sufficientwidth at wide intersections. whichrequire gathering lightingat locations multipleinformation Provide and glaresources. and processing, eliminate the of design Consider trafficcontrolsystem thecontext thegeometric in advancewaming of to assurecompatibilityand to provide adequate situationsthat could sumrise or adverselvaffect the safetv of elderly driversand pedestrians. traffic controldevices. Useenhanced standard legibility. Provideoversized, retroreflective signswith suitable increasing to Consider sign lettersizeandretroreflectivity accommodate with decreased individuals visualacuity. with largesignalindications. signals Useproperlylocated markingsand delineation. Provideenhanced and redundancy. Use repetition

IR

t6

ot) o x
o

lv 'n

)
;o

PhysicalCharacteristi"r,..... Ild-y Area phvsicaldinrensions the human body are retlectedin the designof of pcdestrian retugeareas. transittacilities. thedesign sidewalks. For of stairs. or loadingareas. knorvledge the wrdth and depthof the body or the eft'ective of a hotlvrrrc.a nrostusc'ful. is Studics haveshownthatnearlyall adultmaleshavert sltoulticr u'ir.lth ntnr lessthln -51-5 antl a depthot'lessthln .130 rnrn.For dcsign purposcs, area a bodyis lpproximated anellipse6(X) mrn wideand-1-5() the of by r r r r n c c p ( 1 6 ) .T h e s em i n i m u m d i m e n s i o n s p p l v o n l ; " t o s i t u a t i o n sv h e r e r d a individuals fbrcedinto closeproximity. If a greater dcqreu' comtirrl or ol lre rnobilitv is rcquired.r largerbodv arel per pcrsonmust bc lssumcd.Oldcr pctlestrians needto useeancs walkersto assist them in walking.Sonre nray or pcdestriuns with thcm. may haveaidssuchrs shopping cans or babystrollers I'hcsc dr-'vices increlsethe eftcctivekldv areaibr usc in dcsign. mlv pedcstrian r\s desired rnobilitl incrcases, spacc qo around slowcrmoving to l pcrson to avoicl oncoming crossing pcrs()n As or an or mustbe availablc. curbs, 'Ihc

468r0t22468 AU
Time of Day

to
PtI

volumeson city Figurell-30. Weekday hourlypedestrian average (15). streets

I I
I
I tOO and Streets AASHTO--4eometric'Design of Highn'a4's Controlsand Criteria Desig,n

101

I I
I
f |
I

at stairrrcr other irregularitiesto the ground surfaceare encountered, leastone s e p a r a t i oin r e q u i r e do r n o r m a lw a l k i n g . s f 0 " . . o r o n es t a i r - s t e p

I
I I I I I I I 1.,

Walking Rate The There is a broadrangeof walking speeds among pedestrians. rateswhen rangefrom a in Averagewalkingspeeds crossing street significant design. are approximately0.8 to 1.8 m/s with the Manual on UniJorm Trffic Conrrol (MUTCD) (3) assuming normalwalkingrateof 1.2m/s.Olderpeople Devices a will generally in the slowerpart of this range. be are Walking ratesare fasterat midblock than at intersections. fasterfor men grades.Air temperature, time of day, trip thanwomen,andareaffectedby steep walking rate.Age is the best purpose, and ice and snow all affect the pedestrian wherethere manyolder are identified cause slowerwalkingrates, in areas for and people,a rate of I m/s should be considered.

------'--.--'-'-'rffi

srls.{@l frdd Cffitr. lkro srd FF h*t kvh d 91!&r. nry ot hfvotld turf, . & N/htn/dre crrcttr

Walkway Capacities density thc of decrease thepedestrian as FigureII-3 I showsthatwalkingspeeds and walkwayincreases. Figures II-32 and II-33 show thatat an optimumspeed width usecl volume.The eft'ective lbr density. walkwaywill cany thelargest the ncwsrvallw+y calculations whcre parkinglnc'ters. hyclrants. must be reduced

pedestrian flow and space' between Figurell-32. Relationships

lod.r, ....... Stum.rt lFrutd Co.Wl..t - - - -.Stud.ntr tilovl^, ttu.lc., .60. ot ob.t'voild futf,
F

r(n

= z

l?o

Sso
dou
F

+=-*\++;i
2

---------

{oidor) SHOPPERS {Fruln) CoUVUTERS {Novln'rhoolcr) STUoENTS

d,U

I I

:io
o UO
6

==_
1 SOUARE METER}

..'z
t50 tZO 90 60 J0 (PERSONS MINUTE PERMETER TIOTH} OF PER FLO|

(PERSONS R PE DENSITY

Figurell-31. Relatlonshipsbetweenpedestrianspeedand density'

pedestrian speedand ltow. Figire ll-33. Helationships between

102

4$4U--4,oUe!ic

qnLs!!rc4 DesiIn of Hig!1ways

Design Controls and Criteria

t03

preclude uie of the the or atan&, litter banels,titility poles, similarobstructions for and for calculations sidewalks, stairs. for full walkway.Walkwaycapacity in as the effect of traffic signalsinvolve different procedures discussed the f o l l o w i n sm a t e r i a l .

Intersections The thereis a major interruption. an encounter intersection, When pedestrians plus areafor thosewaitingto cross sidewalkshouldprovidesufficientstorage areafor crosstrafflc Io pass. width becomes the are Oncepedestrians giventhewalk indication. crosswalk the mustbe wide enoughto accommodate pedestrian The crosswalk important. signalphase. within the durationof the pedestrian flow in bothdirections or is If the intersection not signalcontrolled if stopsignsdo not controlthe gapsin the mustwait for sufficient traffic,pedestrians motorvehicular through traffic to cross.

Sidewalks and mobilityof the pedestrian his or her conflictswith To quantifythe relative maneuvering room, his pedestrians influence or her walking speed. that other degrees level of service have been introduced(17). of and feeling of comfort, and concept discussed earlierin thischapter in the Similarto thelevel-of-ser"'ice (f f ), levelsof service(A to F) reflect increasing crowding and decreasing HeM on freedomofmovement.Thesearebased the availableareaper personand are definedin the following way (18): Level-of-service A provides an average of 12 m2 per person or more, and to avoidconflicts walking speed to a allowing eachperson choose desired with otherpedestrians. 8, Level-of-servic'e within the rangeof 4 to 12 m2per person,pedestrians begin to be awareof otherpedestrians. C. Level-rtf-servic'e equivalentto an occupancyrate of 2 to 4 mr per person, to to requiresminor adjustments speedand direction by pedcstrians avoid conflicts. freedom to D. of Lzt'el-of-sen'ic'c with an occupancy 1.5to 2 mr per person, is select inclividualualking speedand bypassother pedestrians restricted. andpositionare required. in Frequent changes speed 6. to Level-of-sert'ice equivalent averageoccupancyoi 0.-5to l'5 rn: per person.provides for very cro"vdedwalking, at times reducedto shuff'ling. tlow very difficult. The speedof virtually all or rnakingreverse cross-traffic pedestrians reduced. is of F providesan areaof occupancy less than 0.5 m: per Level-o.f-.sert'ir'e in stationary a waitinsarea is person. which levela pc'rson likely to be standing at with contact unavoidable Thereis tiequent, or is ableto walk only by shuitling. o t h e rp e d e s t r i a n s . cli Computations rvalkwal capacity must use walkway widths that are 5lX)mm if rcduccd about5fi) mrn if thereareadjrcentwalls.plusan additional Strecthardwaresuch as parking metersand rvindow shoppers expccted. rre w p o l e sl l s o r e d u c eh ea v a i l a b l c a l k w e yw i d t h . t

Characteristics of PersonsWith Disabilities the provide for the personwith disabilities. For the designerto adequately to awareof therangeof impairments expectso thatthedesign mustbe designer canprovidefor them.In this way themobility of this sectorof our societymay review all local to is The designer cautioned adequately be greatlyenhanced. assureproper compliancewith all rules and to and national requirements For regulations. furtherderailsseechapter IV section"Curb Cut Ramps."

Mobilit.vImpairments but Arnbulationdifficulties range l'ronl pcrsonsrvho walk unassistc'd "vith to or braces, canes, crutches. persons aicl who recluire tiont to clifiiculty. pcrsons are islands thc curbs,and raisedchanneliz-ing Stairs. confinedto w'heelch;rirs. must modifications Design to rnajorroaduay obsrructions thesepedestrians. are wheels a wheelchair of providerampsrathcrthanstlirs tlr curbs.Thc tiont progressof a ancl any burnp rnay impair the very sensitiveto obstacles. ir of v t w h e e l c h aorr i n c r c l s e h ep o s s i b i l i to f t h eo v e r t t r r n i n g a r v h e e l c h am o v t n g i tirrward.

V i s u a lI r n p a i r m e n t s n p c d e t r i a n s i r hI c r . v i n r i t c d i s i o nr e q u i r e p e c i ac o n s i d e r a t i oln .t c ' r s e c t i o t t s s l v l $ s such ls thosc Jt crossinss . are the nrajor rhrclttto thcir satl't1 Cornplic:.rtcd
cnalltlcll/-cu llllcl.\(:Llt(rltt Ldtl lrs d))rrrLu u-! rL'\rur!\r v *"--t-'-'

t rs s i o n sl i t r w h c . c l c h a ir n a k cl o c u t i n g h c c u r b l i n c d i f t l c u l tl b r t h e b l i n d a n t l: r
r c x t u r i n g o r o t h c r i n d i c l t i o n r l ft h i s r r r c r t n l t v b c o l ' a s s i s t a n c c . B c ' c l t u s e c r o s s l l l ! \

AASHTO--lieometric Design of Highways and Streets

Controlsand Criteria Desi,qn

r05

n madeby thesoundof traffic,caution mustbe usedwhenexclusive ttrrn phases otherunusual or traffic movements may confusethe blind pedestrian.

Deu"top."ntal Impairments Many people with developmental impairments are unabreto drive and are thereforeoften captive pedestrians. help ensurethe correct response To from thesepedestrians, including young children,the pedestrian signalsor other pedestrian-related facilitiesmust be simple,straightforward, consistent and in their meaning.

bicycle use), To provide bikeways (for either exclusiveor non-exclusive to for adequately. bicycle traffic, it is necessary be familiar with bicycle Thesefactorsdeterand characteristics, requirements. operating dimensions, In and sight distance. many instances, tuming radii, grades, acceptable mine bike facilities are controlledby the adjoining featuresof separate design of element of so roadwav. thateventhenconsideration bicyclesis an essential to is the ofthe highwayitself.For furtherguidance, designer referred rhedesign Fac'ilities of editionof the AASHTO Guidefor Development Bict'c'le rhelatest on (20) ancl othercurrentresearch bicycles(37).

SAFETY Conclusions D e s i g n o f u r b a n h i g h w a y s s h o u l d i n c l u d e c o n s i d e r a t i o n f m e t h o d so f o increasingefficiency of operationsin areasof heavy pedestrian-vehicular conflict. Major forms are the following: ( I ) provisionof pedestrian subways (2) or overcrossings, the conversion from two-way to one-waystreetoperation' (3) elimination of turns, (4) provision of separate signal phasesfor pedestrians, (5) eliminationof somecrosswalks. and Theseand other oedestrian considerations coveredin subse<luent are chaDters. of by has Auentionto highwaysafety beenemphasized theCongress theUnited with safety.In July of concerned as Stares well as other nationalcommittees by wereconducted andoperation design on atierhearings highwaysafety 1973, PublicWorks, the following manon of subcommittees the HouseCommittee d d a t ew a sp u b l i s h e b y t h eC o m m i t t e e : is Whoseresponsibility it to seethat maximuntsafetyis incorporated On system? this,thesubcommitinto our motorvehicletransportation and of It reeis adamant. is the responsibility Government specifically This that. by law. have been given that mandate. those agencies the and with theCongress tlows through Departbegins responsibility the HighwayAdministration. State its ntenrof Transporration. Federal ct and agcncies' thestre andhighway and Departrnents sat'ety Flighrvay . u n i t so f c o u n t i c st.o w n s h i p sc i t i e sa n t lt o w n s .T h c r c i s n t l r c t r e a t i n g e, m i t n d a t c ' i t h e ri n l c t t e ro r i n s p i r i t( 2 1 ) . frrxr this 'fhc
r)l ttl

BICYCLEFACILITIES
The bicyclehasbecome importanr an elemenr consideration the highway tbr in designprocess. Fortunately, most of rhe mileageneeded bicycle travel is for comprised the street of and highwaysystem it presently as exists.while many highwayagencies allow bicycleson partiallyaccess controfled tacilities. most highwayagencies not allow bicycles tully access do on conrrolled facilitres. Measures suchas the fbllowing.rvhicharegenerallv low capitalintensrry. of can considerably enhance route'ssat'ety capacitytilr bicvcletraffic: il and . Pavedshoulders. . W i d e o u r s i d er a t f i cl a n c( - 1 . 2n n r i n i m u m ) f n o s h o u l d e r . t r i . Bicycle-sat'e drainagc grarcs. . Adjustingmanhole coversto the grade. . Mainraining smooth,cleanriding surface. a At ccrtainklcations in certaincorridors,it is appropriatc supplcmcnr or to f u r t h c r t h c c x i s t i n qh i g h w a y s y s r e mb y p r o v i d i n r s p c . c i f i c a l ld c s i g n a r c d y

I o n s r i o n a ls i g n i f i c a n c e f v e h i c u l a rl c c i d e n t si s s h o w n i n T . a b l e l - 7

h s t a t i s t i c s a v e n o t b c c n i g n o r c d .T h e t l e s i g nv a l u e sg i v e n w i t h i n t h i s t c \ t h r r v cs a t c t l , a st h e i r p r i m l r r y o b . l c c t i l c .E r l p h a s i s t l n s a t c t v h a s l l s t ' rc o m c A l ' r o r r r o r r g r c s sr v i t I p a s s a g co l ' t h c H i r : l r w a 1 ' S a t ' c t y c t o l ' 1 9 6 6 . f r o r n t h c C I r c d c r r t l l l i g h r r t v A d n r i n i s t r a t i o n ( F H \ \ ' . \ ) b v a d t l ; r t i o r to f t h c ' \ A S H T O l r p t r h l i c r t i o n .l l i . q f i w t t ' D c . r i , q ru n t l ( ) l t e r t t i r t n u ! P r u < t i c r s R c ' l u t c ta r l l i , q l r r l t l } Hi.gln'ur'.ltrli'll irt urt.^l.gctt.l'Limirtd .!rrli,rr'(21). frgnr the report E/r/rrrlrci1,q rL R . , . r r ) r r l . ( . ( , ..rs u l t i r l gf r o t n t h e T R B - c o n d u c t c d s v m p o s i u t n s p o n s t l r e d b l n . \ . \ S l l T O r r n dr l t h c r si n l g l l I ( 2 J ) a n d [ ' r o n r r a n ys t e t ca n d l t l c r t lq o v c r n t t t c t t l s . [rnphasis ott l'ucl conscrvation has had an ldditional e fti'ct. ,\t lcust a p()rtlt)n

-Ihcse

AASHTO--4eometric De.sign Highn,av.s of and Streets

(rounded; Toral accidenrs I 1.700,000 ( Faralaccidents roundd) .14.500 Non.faraldisabling in1uryaccidenrs t,300.0(X) Propenv damageaccidents (i n c l u d i n g o n - d i s a b l i n g n injury accidenrs,r l:.500.ux) Deaths Total Motor Vehicle Traffic Vehisle regisrered Motor Vehicle kilometers(millions) Rates Motor vehicledeathsper | 00 million vehicle kilomerers Motor vchicle accidents pcr I(X) million vehicle kilomcrcrs

17.000.000 Jr].ti(x) | ,.100.0fl) r5,600,u)0

15.600.rx)0 ' li.7(n.l(n ,19.900 "JI.lr)(.) t.2{D.ffx) 1.9.10,r7rJ

I 1.,1rD.00,0 .38.{00 t.fin.000

t5.lg).0(x)

r5.7(X).(xx)

r0.l(n.cu0

-52,900

5?.0(xl

.15.600

J6.l(X)

Jl.5m

e6.887.m0
1.552,897

It9,38.r.000 rlg.un,ft{) 2,G10,76r ?.r15.015

| 76,l9 | .l19 1,95'7.128

| 9.1.tt97.fin 3.176.088

The mostsignificant designfactorcontributing safetyis the provisionof to The beneficial full access control. effectof this element beendocumented has in reports thecooperative of research the study(24) between FHWA and39 Stare highwayagencies. of theprincipalfindingsof thisstudyis tharrheabsence One controlinvariablyincreased accident of access rate. the (2.1) The study' showsthat accidents, injury, and fatality rateson Interstate highwaysare between and 76 percent comparable 30 of ratesof conventional highwaysexistingbeforethe Interstate highwayswere openedto traffic. No othersingledesignelement can claim comparable savings. A study(25)of ruralroads showsthe relationship accidents the number of to points.Traffic conflicts were defined in the study as the number of of access minor road intersections and principal accessdriveways to abutting property which were usedas the breakpointsbetween betweenmajor road intersections (SeeFigureII-34.) studysections.

t6 833 731

to
lt5

* NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCII"* U. S. DEPARTI,IENT OF TRANSPORTATION

e
Y,

o {o E
o

4.0

1.5

Table ll-7. Highway accident statistics for five typical years.

p
c o 3.0 c I =
rF

I t i s s c ' l d o r t h a ta n a c c i d e nr e s u l t s r o m a s i n g l ec a u s c . ' r h e r a r c u s u a l l y , n t f c s e v e r a il n l l u e n c e s f f - e c t i ntg es i t u a t i o n t a n y g i v e nt i r n c .T h c s ei n f l u c n c e s a h a c a n b e s e p a r a t e id t o t h r e eg r o u p s : h e h u m a nc l e m e n t . h e v e h i c l ec l c m e n r . n t t l n d t h e h i g h w a ye l e m e n t A l t h o u g ht h i s p o l i c y i s p r i m a r i l vc o n c e r n e dv i r h . r h i g h w a yc h a r a c t e r i s t i ca n d d e s i g n .t h e p s y c h o r < l g i c a l f ' e r c n c ers e e v e r s in r p r e s e n tA n e r r o r i n p e r c e p t i o n r j u d r : m e n t r a f a u l t v a c t i o no n t h c i ' p l ' ro t . o o ii t h ed r i v e r c a n l . s i l vl c a dt o a n a c c i d c n tH i g h w a v s h o u l t b ed e s i g n c ts ( )t h o t e . s l l i r d r i v e r n e e d s o m a k eo n l y o n e d e c i s i o n t o t i m c a n d i s n c v c rs u r p r i s e tb r t a l a n u n e x p e c t e s i t u a t i o n h e r eh e o r s h c m u s t m a k c ' ac l c c i s i o n u t d o e sn o r d w b h a v ee n o u g h i m e .T h t -n u m b e r f a c c i d c n t sn c r e s c sr v i r ha n i n c r c l s ei n t h c . t ' o i a n u m b e ro f d e c i s i o n sr e q u i r e db y t h e d r i v e r . S t a n d ; . r r d i z _ a ti in r ri s n r v a v oh d e s i g nf ' e a t u r e n d t r a f f i cc o n t r o l d e v i c c p l a . v a n i r n p o r t l n tr o l ei n r e t l u c r n s ls s s t h e n u m b e ro f r e q u i r c ' d e c i s i o n sb y t h i s m c a n s . h c . r i v t ' r b c c r . r n l c s , v a r c : t d u, a t t o e x p c c to n a c e r r a i n y p e o f h i g h w a y . t

2.5

o ?.CI

g o (,

o + c o

1.5

r6
Trofflc

9t? Confllcts p6r Kllomefcr

Figurell-34. Accidentrate versus traffic conflicts.

I I
I
I t,T ATSHT0---Ceo'iietriC Design df Hi8hnaw and Siievfi uestpn Lourols QnaLrlrcila
t n(l IU>

I I I I I I I I | I I l.

l'.

for as is fhe principleof full controlof access invaluable a means preserving potential, the but of ,ite capacity arterialhighwaysand of minimizingaccident Highways without control of pr.inciple does nor have universalapplication. accessare essentialas land service facilities, and the design features and so ofthesehighwaysneedto be carefullyplanned that characteristics oprating vehicles the to between will reduce andminimizethe interference conflicts thev of the needs the highwayusers. maximumextentand still meet but Speedis often a contributingfactor in accidents, it must be relatedto any given speedis saferthananotherfor .onditions.It is improperto say that highways,and local of all combinations the many kinds of drivers.vehicles, roadwayconditions,a .onditions. For a highway with particularlyadverse . relatively low speedmay result in fewer accidentsthan a high speed,but this mean that all potential accidentscan be compensated fact doesnot necessarily travelingon good roadsat relativelyhigh Likewise,vehicles by low speeds. speedmay have lower accidentinvolvementratesthan vehiclestravelingat follow that yet a higherspeedwould but tower speeds, it doesnot necessarily on be even safer.The safestspeedfor any highway depends designfeatures, development, road conditions.traffic volumes,weatherconditions,roadside volumes,and other factors.Acciroads,cross-traffic spacingof intersecting from thehighest as as dentsarenot related much to speed to the rangein speeds of to the lowest.Regardless the averagespeedon a main rural highway,the o a s , s g r e a t e t h ed r i v e r s 'd e v i a t i o n f r o m t h i sa v e r a g e p e c de i t h e r b o v e r b e l o w , r . o a t h g r e a t e r r e t h e i r c h a n c e s f b e i n g i n v o l v e d i n a c c i d e n t sT h u s . d e s i g n spced ofvchicles(suchasflat grades. in the t-eatures - . f * , n g e thatreduce variance speed t ) s so l a n e s g r a d e e p a r a t i o n g , o ds i g n i n ga n d n t a r k i n g c o n t r i b u t eo t h c , a a n , . o s a f e t y f t h eh i g h w a y N o r m a l l y a c c i d e n tis v o l v i n gv c h i c l e s t h i g hs p e e d r c than thoseat low speed' more severe of the that tbr to are Highways designed be sat'er thcspeeds satisty needs rnost in the driversusingthe facility.Consideration designshouldbe given to thc of Trip purposcs to expected usethehighway. ofthe drivers typeandcharacteristics altccting (suchasrecreation. to commuting work.andthroughtravel)aretactors are extent.Allied with trip purposes the tvpesof vehiclcs the designto some r I i k c l y t o u s e t h e h i g h w a y .r a n g i n gt i o m a l l p a s s e n g ev e h i c l e st o a h i g h Wheretripsof onetypepredorninate. vehicles. percentage heavvcommercial of to the tacilitycan be designcd tlt the speciticneeds. Highway Systemttn accidcnts (26) on the ef'fecr the Interstate of A study dividcd highwaysthanon tbur-llnc rateon tbur-llne showsa lower accident frotn This may be seenin Tablc II-t], whrchwasdeveloped undivided highrvays. way witvs wttnln lnte highwaysto trlftlc. ttf openingncw scctions Interstate rrfter ( ) r m ( ) r ei n w i t l t h h a sa v c r v l t l w ' i n c i d c n c c I I . , \h i g h u a y ' w i t h r r t c ' d i l n - 5r n . n ( r s tl r . f h c : r r l - . rc o l l i r i o r t . - : u r \ ( 'hlv r , t l t i c l r ' c r t r s s i t l l h c r r t c t l i : t n'.\ t l t t ' t l i : t r " t t l t l t rr

as of up to 23 or 30 m is very desirable a meansof reducingcross-median accidents. The type as well as the width of the medianfor divided highways medianbarrierswill With narrowermedians, shouldbe given consideration. i e l i m i n a t eh e a d - o nc o l l i s i o n s .b u t a t t h e c o s t o f s o m e i n c r e a s e n s a m e Properly direction accidentsbecauserecovery spacehas been decreased. medianbarriersminimize vehicledamageand lessenthe accident designed A likelihoodof traffic moving in thesamedirection. narrowmedianalsodoes departure from the lane. not allow for emergency width,alinement, grade and to accidents shoulder Anotherstudy(27) related weremuchhigher with curves grades or rates sections on andfoundthataccident on and highwaysections thatthe rateswerehighest roads thanon leveltangent of having combinations sharpcurvesand steepgrades.

Accident Rates for Highways With Average Daily Traffic Volumes

Type and Class of Highway

section Beforeopening system of Interstate undivided Four-lane Four-lane divided Alicr opcningsection s1'stem of Interstlte Four-lane undividcd Four-lanc dividcd I ntcrstltesvstcnt

2.000 4,000 8,000 16,000 32,000 and to to to to Under 2,000 3,999 7,999 15.999 31.999 Over
183 98 293 69 2t9_

196 109 6?

241 n5 6.1

720 I l7 9.5

116 l-52 65

r-50
100 l-57

undividedand four-lane Tablell-8. Accidentrateson four-lane of sections afteropening beforeand dividedhighways Interstate systemin the sametrafficcorridor.
to support strong lends ruralroads. rvhichwas limitcdlo two-lane This stud;or the postulate straight, that lcvel ruralroadswithttutinterscctions signiticlnt highwlys within thcir{eneralclass. tturnbcrs pril'ate of are driveways thesat-est .fhc levelrural roadswithoutintersections ttrv accidcnts occuron srraight that tt<lnot reDresent stablesourceof intbrmation.howcver.There are wide a r : c c l i o r t . \ n a p p l r c n tc o r r c l a l i t >b c t w c c n n cc l em c n ts u c hl s s h o u l d ew i d t h . o n t I o r c r : t r n p l c l,n d a c c i d e n t a t c si s a l t r t o sc e r t ; r i n o b e c l o u d c db y r a n d o n l l r
r . t r i l r t r o n s, , f t h t ' l c c i t l c n t p l l t t L ' r n .

I I
: AASEIQ 4e onet'ie De;tg,nafHi ghvayrond SIreets
. U(,.V,(/l L o,ilt't)t.\ Un(l L nlenI

i
i

Itl

identsare likely to occurwheredriversare calledon to makedecisions undercircumstances wheretheirvehicles unable respond to are properlyas,for example.wherea truck is descending grade.It would be logical to expectmore a accidents grades on andcurvesthanon level tangent highwayswheredecisions are called for lessfrequentlyand vehiclesare fully responsive. Design with tangentalinementcan be overdone,however.On extremelylong tangents, drivers have a tendencyto completelyrelax. especiallyafter driving on a congested highway beforeenteringa freeway.On somefreewaystherehasbeen concemoverthenumber ofaccidents occurwhenthedriverapparently that goes to sleep.It is considered highly desirableto provide genrlecurvatureand avoid a fixed crosssectionfor long tangentsections. This can be handledby varying the medianwidth, usingindependent roadwaydesigns, and taking advantage of thetenain whereverfeasible. addition,rumblestripscanbeaddedto shoulders In to reduce run-off-the-roadtype accidentsdue to drivers falling asleepat the wheel. With the improvementsin the elementsof designfor alinement,grade,and traveled way, the general area of roadsidedesign has become of increasing importance. Accidents involvingsinglevehicles runningoff theroadconstitutc more than one-halfof all fatal accidents freeways. on Whena vehicle leaves roadway, driverno longerhastheabilityto fully the the control the vehicle.Any object in or near the path of the vehiclebecomes a contributing factor to the severityof the accident. The conceptof the sat'cr or fbrgiving roadside shouldnot be viewed as a by-product the application of of safety criteriato eachelement as a planned but segment thetotalengineering of f or the highway.Chapters and 6 of reference (21) present overviewof thc 5 an AASHTO policy in this area,which is retlectedthroughout this book in rhc geometric designcriteriaand elements. Basic to the conceptof the fbrgiving roadsideis the provisionof a clcur recovery area. Studies haveindicated thaton high-speed highways, relativcly a level traversable width of 9 m from the edgeof the traveledway permitsabout 80 percent the vehicles of leavingthe highwayto be sat'ely stopped retumcd or to theroadwav. Eventhoughthe 9 m is not a magicnumberand theapplication judgmentis nccessary, figurehasbeenusedextensivcly a of cngineering this a.s guidetbr recoverv Within this area.two major itemsmustbe controllcd zones. by thedesigner: roadside slopes and unyielding NCHRPReport217 obstacles. (28) discussesthe effectiveness clear recovery areas.The AASHTO of Rtnd:;ide DesignGuide (29) also discusses effects slope and othcr log)the graphicf-eatures haveon the eff'ectiveness recoveryareas. of AASH'l'O recommendsthe tbllowing priority for treatment roadside on of obstaclcs existin highways:

. ' . ' '

Remove obstacle redesi-qn so it can be safelytraversed. the or it Relocate obstacle a point whereit is lesslikeryto be struck. the to Reduce impacrseveriry usin,e appropriate by an breakaway device. Redirect vehicleby shieldingrhe obsracle a with a longitudinal traffic banierand/orcrashcushion. Delineate obstacle the abovealternatives not appropriate. the if are

The same priorities couldbefbllowedin design, panicularly upgrading in and rehabi litationprojects. The design of guardrailsand barrier systemshas becomea subjecrof considerable research. NCHRP Reporr JjO (30), and AASHTO,s Roadsitle De.sigtt Guide 129)are some of many publishedreporrsthat deat with this subject.of particularconcern is the treatmentof the end section of the guardrailor barrier. Highway designengineers must recognize dynamicdevelopment the currcntly underway theenrireareaof roadside in design. Althoughthispublication hasattempted dealwith the subject the mostcurent possible to in manner, the ongoingresearch implementation and projects willundoubtedlyoffernewerand bettcrresults thefuture. in Highwaydesign engineers should endeavor usethe to nlostcurrentacceptable informationin their designs. Conrmunication with the motorist is probablyone of the most compler problcnrs thedcsigneneineer; of the besttoolsthat he or shehasfbr this of one is the l)url)osc the MUTCD (3), which depicts national standards developed tbr r r l ls i r : n i n gs i g n a l i z a t i o n h a n n e l i z a t i c arn d m a r k i n gf b r a l l h i g h w a y sn t h e . c. - n, i t l r r i t c r ls t a t c s . h c n r a i nn r e s s a s o f t h e M U T C D ( 3 ) i s t h c ' i m p o r t a n co f ' T e e r r r ri r r n r i n l . l l i g h r ru r ' u s c r a r cd c p c n d e n tn t r a f T i c o n t r o d e v i c e ls i g n sm a r k i n g s .n d s o l r s , srrrlills lirr intirnrration, ) rvaming. guidance. greatis thedependence and So that turrilirnn hirrh-qualitv devicesare necessArv saf'e. tbr cfficient use and public lcccl)tlnccof any hirhrvayregardless its excellence rvidth. of in alinemcnt. anct s t r u c t u r idlc . s i g n . l '\ ttr lrltl't'ic ct'rntro icc shouldhavethetbllowins characrcristics:) tulii ll I dcv (I : r r r r n l l r l r l u rn L ' e d . ) c o r n r n a na t t e n t i o n .J ) c o n v e v c l e a r s i m p l e e a n i n g . i rt (l ( d a . m I ' l ) c r l r n r n r r n d s p e c t or o a du s c r sa n d( - 5 ) i v ea d e q u a ttem et b r r e s p o n s en re f . g i I. rutklitrrlrr. (hutcontrolor rcgulatctratTic ttcviccs rnusrbe sanctioncd law. bv ljour brrsic principles cmpltlved cnsure arc to thatrhesc requiremcnts mct: rre t l c s i r : rp.l u c c r n c nn r r i n t c n a n c a . du n i t t l r m i t yc o n s i d e r a t i os h o u l d e t t. cn . n b eiven to thcscprinciplcs emplovment tralfic controldevices of of duringthe tlesisn rccs can toa mlnlmum lllilt tlro\c thi.tt ncccss.rry be propcrlvplacc,tl. trc can i l t c o 1 ' r c n r t i ol n' : r r n o t o rv e h i c l ei s a t i r l l - t i r n c .c c u p a t i o n ,a r t i c u l l r l vi n t t o p
' t ) l l l : r ' \ t ( ' ( l : l r ( ' : l \ . . . \ i l r i r ' r . r s h t r r t l t l h c : r h l t ' f ( ) ( ) n t . r : l l r 'h i s r r r h , . . r . , . h i r . l , ,r r r r r r

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I I I | I I I I I I I 1... . I

AASHTO--Eeomet.it Design of Highwavs and greets

Design eonh.ols and e+ircricr

I 13

t i n i m u m t j i s t r a c r i o nA d v e n i s i n g r o t h e rr o a c l s i ds i - s ns h o u l d o rb e p l a c e d s. o e s n tvhere they rvould interf'ere with or confusethe meaningof standard rr,affic control devices.Advertising signs with bright colors or flashing lights are ,, . especially objectionable this respect. in Lights shiningtowarda driver can be b l i n d i n g .p a r t i a l l y r f u l l y . f o r v a r i o u s e r i o d s e p e n d i n g n i n d i v i d u a e ; i e o p d o l capability. Bright lights.in effect.can fbrm a curtainhiding what is ahead and thusendanser motorists and pedestrrans. n largenumber accidents ruralhighways of on occurat intersecrions. Several studies havebeenmadeat intersections varyingconditions, theresulrs with and vary according conditions to studied. Factors be considered total traffic to are volume,percent crosstrafllc,turningmovements. of typeof tratficcontrol,and typeof intersection. includingthedesignof the crossroad the utilization and of islands and channelization thedesign. in Various studiesindicateimprovements safetycan be accomplished in by channelization intersections, of introduction safetyrefugeislands of and sidewalksfor pedestrians, lighting,signing, and traffic controldevices. Thesehave beentakeninto accountin the development this policy and resulting of guides fbr geometric design. A viablesafetyevaluation and improvement program. part of the overall as highway improvementprogram,is a necessity. The identificarion safety of hazards, evaluationof the eff'ectiveness alternative the of solutions. and the programming availablefunds for the most eff'ective of usesare of primary importance. sat'ety the traveling The of public mustbe reflccred throughout thc highwayprograrn: thc spotsat'ety projects, therehabilitation in in projects. thc in - -construction of new highrvays.and elsewhere. (2,1)providcs a Ret'erence numberof intportllnt re'conttnendationssaf'cty it relatcs thctotalhighway on as to program.

I I i I ; I I I I I I I t l

impact the on may havestrongandlasting but quences may be negligible, others t e e n v i r o n m e n ti.n c l u d i n g h e s u s t e n a n ca n d q u a l i t y o f h u m a nl i f e . B e c a u s e area develophavean effecton adjacent anddesign decisions highwaylocation variables given full consideration. be thatenvironmental ments.it is important to Care should be exercised insure that applicablelocal. stateand federal requirements met. are environmental

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS and improvement with the costof a proposed is Highwayeconomics concerned generalbenefitsresultingfrom it. Proposedimprovementsshould be anathe with AASHTO's A Manual on User Benefit Anal,-sisof lyzed in accordance (31). and Bus-TransitImprovements Highv,av

REFERENCES for Pilkington.G. B. and P. D. Howell. "A Simplified Procedure FHWA RD-74-8,DeComputingVehicleOfftrackingon Curves." c e m b e r1 9 8 3 . 2. Alexander.G. FL and H. Lunenfeld.A User's Guide To Positive of Guidance(3rd Edition). Washington,D. C.: U. S. Department 1990. Federal HighwayAdministration, Transportation, Federal HighwayAdministration. of -1. U. S. Department Transportation, and H ighu'ut's. Streets on iVlunual UniJot'mTrffic Control Devir:esJltr P O W a s h i n g t o n . . C . : U . S . G o v e r n m e n t r i n t i n g f f i c e .1 9 8 8 . D T 4 . J o h a n n s o nC . l n d K . R u m a r . " D r i v e r ' s B r a k e R e a c t i o n i m e . " . V F l - l u r n a n a c t o r s , o l . 1 3 .N o . I ( 1 9 1l ) : 2 2 - 2 1. 5. Fell. J. C. "A Motor Vehicle AccidentCausalSystem.The Hunlan D. I-2lJ. Washington. C.: National ReportNo.DOT-HS-80 Element." j. A T H i g h r v r v r a f f i cS a f e t y d m i n i s t r a t i o nu l y 1 9 7 4 . " t of 6 . S c h m i d t L a n d P . D . C o n n o l l y . V i s u a lC o n s i d e r a t i o n s l v l a n . h c . New York: Socien' ot Vt-'hiclcund the Highwavs." SP-279-SAE. I9 E ,\utomotive ngineers, 66. s . 1 . T i l l c y . D . H . , C . W . E r w i n . a n d D . T . G i a n t u r c o" D r o w s i n e s a n d Driving: PreliminaryReport of a PopulationSurvey"' Papcr '\'t,' . 1 E o 7 - j 0 2 I - S , l E N e w Y o r k : S o c i e t v f A u t o m o t i v e n g i n e e r s .9 7 3 . t L Washington. Reytrt No. FHWA-TO-,Y6-/, Designand Operations." A l n. o D . C . : L r .S . D e p a r t m e n tf T r a n s p o r t a t i oF e d e r aH i g h r v a v d m i n \. istnlti()nhv I986.

ENVIRONiVIENT

A hirthrvay necessarily wide-ranging has eflf'ects beyond thlt of providingrral'fic s e r v i c e o u s e r sI.t i s e s s c n t i a lh a tt h e h i g h w a yb e c o n s i d e r ea s a n e l e m c no l ' t t d t thc total environment. Environmentas used hcrein ret'ers thc torality ol' to h u m a n k i n d ' s u n o u n d i n g s :o c i a l p h y s i c l l ,n a t u r a la n ds v n t h c t i cI.r i n c l u d c s s . . hunran, plilnt.and lnimal communities and thc iorccsrhatact on lll thrcc.'fhc highwaycanandshouldbe located designcd complemcnr environmcnl and ro its Thc lrcl surrounding proposetl a highwa-v an interrclated is svstcrn ol'nltuntl. s y n t h c t i c , : t ns o c i o l o u i c r r r i l b l e s . h a n g c sn o n e v u r i a h l c i t h i nt h i ss v s t c r n tl v w C i r c t n n ( ) lt r c t t t l t t l c ri t l r t l u t o n t cc l ' l i . c o n r t t h e r a r i a h l c sS o n r c t t ' t h c s c o n s c s t v . r

AASHTO-Ceoqlll!:4' DejtC! gf HtSl!t!!\s and Streets

DesignControlsand Criteria

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' ' T h r e eB e a r nH e a d l i e h t v a i u a t i o n . " E Aater,B. and H. Lunenf'eld. I ReportNo. HS-238-2-4I - L Freev'ut' Operations.Washington. Institute of Traffic Engineers. 1 l D . C . : I n s t i t u t e f T r a f f l cE n g i n e e r s . 9 6 . o TransportationResearchBoard. Highn'av Cuput'itt'Munual. Speciul Board. Research D. RcportNo.209. Washington. C.: Transportation ( 1 1985 Revised 994). e h A t F e e . u l i eA n n ae t a l . " l n t e r s t a tS y s t e m c c i d e n R e s e a r cS t u d y1 . " J Federal Washington.D. C.: U. S. Departmentof' Transportation, October1970. Highway .Administration, Glennon. J. C.. J. J. Valenta. B. A. Thorson. and i. A. Azzeh. to Tec'hnicalGuidelinesfor the Control oJ'Direct Ac'c'ess Arteriul Volumes I and 2. Kansas MO: Midwest Research City, Highv,u-vs. I n s t i t u t eA u g u s t 1 9 7 5 . , Highv'ayResearclr TravelCharacteristics." Maring,G. E. "Pedestrian -20. Record406. 1972:14 Volumes." of Measurement Pedestrian R. Cameron. M. "Mechanical - 19. TRB 498. 1971:13 Association PIunning, Design.Metropolitan and Fruin,J. J. Pedestrian Inc., 197I . Planners. and of UrbanDesigners Environmental on Older, S. J. "Moventent of Peclestrians Footwaysin Shopping und Control August 1963:160-163.. . Ettgineering Streets."'trulfic Co s t F r u i n .J . J . " D e s i g n i n go r P e d e s t r i a nA :L e v e l - o f - S e r v i c e n c e p t . " W D l / R B J - 5 - 5 . a s h i n g t o n ,. C . .l 9 7 l : l - 1 5 . G D i P i e t r o ,C . l v l . a n c lL . E . K i n g . " P e t l e s t r i a n a p - A c c e p t a n c c . " : D t l R I I. 1 0 8W a s h i n s t o n .. C . .1 9 7 0 U 0 - 9 l . . Washingtort. l uc n AASHTO. G uitle r I) er el opnte ! tl' B i cvcc I'- i l i ti t'.s. J'o l D.C.:AASHTO.99l und OperutiortulPrut'tite Relotcd ttt AASHTO. Itighwol' Dcsi.q,n D. I Washington. C.: AASl-11-O.97+. Il i ghvrttt'.Sqli'tr'. Washington. C.: Nltionill Sat'ety D. Council. Fdcts. 1976,At''t'idant Satcty in an Err of Linritcd ,,\r\SllTO et al. "Enhlncing F{ighrvay thc conductcdb..'" .\ Rcsourccs." rcport rcsultingt'rotna sytnposiunt Board.Novembcrl9lJl. Rcsearch Transportation " l n t e r s t a t S l s t c n rA c c i d c n t e s e a r c h O c t o b e r1 9 7 0 . c R ." o . D a r r . O . K . . J r . a n d L . i V l a n nJ r . " R c l a t i o n s h i p f R u r u l H i g h w r y h lli,qhxut Rtscttt't R(t',tr,t to Gcornctrv AccidcntRltcs in Lt'tuisiana."

a B i l l i o n .C . E . a n d W . R . S t o h n e r".A D e t a i l e d t u d yo f A c c i d e n t s s S R e l a t e do H i g h w a y h o u l d e ris N e w Y o r k S t a t e . " P r o c ' .R B ( 1 9 5 1: S n H t l 491. of 28. Graham.i. L. "Effectiveness Clear RecoveryZones." NCHRP Reporr 17(1982t. 2 Design Guide. Washington, C.: AASHTO. 29. AASHTO. Roadside D. 2 1.

r9 8 9 .
3 0 . R o s s .H . 8 . . D . L . S i c k i n g ,R . A . Z i m m e r , a n d J . D . M i c h i e .
" R e c o m m e n d eP r o c e d u r efs r T h e S a f e t y e r t b r m a n c E v a l u a t i o n d o P e " o i H i g h w a y F e a t u r e s .N C H R P R e p o r t3 5 0 ( 1 9 9 3 ) . and Bus3 1 . AASHTO. A Manual on User Benefit AnalysisoJ'Highu,at' Washington, C.: AASHTO. 1977. D. TransitImprovements. ) : . Olson, P. L.. D. E. Cleveland,P. S. Fancher,L. P. Kostynuik,and "Parameters At'fectingStoppingSight Distance." L. W. Schneider. by NCHRP Report270, (1984).(Developed New York DOT. from report). . M G JJ. K o e p k e , . J . , a n d H . S . L e v i n s o n" A c c e s s a n a g e m e n t u i d e l i n e s F NCHRP Report348 (1992). for Activity Centers." and Related HighwayDesignand to 34. "Human Factors SafetyResearch Re<'ord I (1990). 128 Operations."TransportationRe.search In 3 5 . "Transportation An Aging Society-lmproving Mobility andSafety S2ccinReytrt 2l8. Volume l. Washington, C., I D. For OlderPersons."

r9n8.
r 6 . Architectural Transportation and Barriers Cornpliance Board.Anteri31
(iuidclittcs. Washinecunsll'ith DisubiliticsAct (ADr\) rlctcssiltility t o n .D . C . :J u l y 1 9 9 1 . W i l k i n s o n .I I I . W i l l i a r n C . . A n c l r e r v l a r k e ,B r u c e E p p e r s o na n d C . R s R i c h a r dL . K n o b l a u c h".S e l c c t i n g o a d w a yD e s i g nT r e a t m e n tT o Bicycles." Washington.D. C: FHWA-RD-92-07-i. Accommodatc of Federal HighwayAdministration. U. S. Department Transpclrtaion, January199-1.

. i / 1 .( I e 7 0 ) .
PublicRtuds. i\ccidcntRcseltrch." Svslent B y i n g t o nS . R . "lntcrstutc . 1 Vol. -ll. No. I | (Dcccmber 96,1).

I17

CtrapterIII

OF ELEMENTS DESIGN
SIGHT DISTANCE

General Considerations The ability to seeaheadis of the utmost importancein the safeand efficient of operation a vehicleon a highway.On a railroad,trainsareconfinedto a fixed for path, yet a block signal system and trained opratorsare necessary safe On operation. the otherhand,the pathand speedof motor vehicleson highways and streetsare subject to the control of drivers whose ability, training, and must provide are experience quite varied.For safetyon highwaysthe designer of distance sufficient lengththat driverscan control the operationof their sight objecton the traveledway. Certain vehiclesto avoid strikingan unexpected to drivers to sightdistance enable shouldalsohavesufficient highways two-lane rvithout risk of vehicles overtaken traffic lanefor passing rheopposing occupv sight providesuchpassing should'generally lccident.Two-laneruralhighways portions of their length. intervalsand for substantial distancear frequent ir Conversely. normally is of little practicalvalue to provide passingsight of The or urbanstreets arterials. lengthandinterval passing on distance two-lane in with the criteriaestablished the chapter compatible shouldbe sightdistance pcrtaining thatspecifichighwayor stteetclassification' to requiredfor in Sight disranceis discussed ibur steps:(l) the distances for (2) the distances required the passing on sropping. applicable all highways: (3) only on two-lanehighways: thedistances vehicles. applicable of overtaken and ('l) thc criteriafor measuring at nccdedtbr clecisions cornplexlocations: protileto provide of The design ilinementancl tirr thcse distances usein ctciign. The laterin thischapter. described lnd thcse distances to meetthcsecriterialrc in are lrt intersections discussed spccill conditionsrellted to sight ciistances IX. Chaoter

Distance Thc minimum lhead visibleto thcdrivc'r. Si11ht is distance thelcngthof roaclway sisht (listencc. lvlilable ttn :t rtlatirvlvshouldbc'suftlcicntlvlong tt'lenableI

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a to at vehicletraveling or nearthedesignspeed stopbeforereaching stationary at sight distance every lengthis desirable, in its path.Althoughgreater objeqt highway should be at |eastthat required for a below-average point along the or operator vehicleto stopin this distance. by traversed the is sightdistance thesumof two distances: distance Stopping a thedriversightsan objectnecessitatingstopto the thevehiclefrom theinstant instantthe brakesareappliedand the distancerequiredto stop the vehiclefrom the instant brake applicationbegins.These are referred to as brake reaction respectively' and brakingdistance, distance r e q u i r e d0 . 2 t o 0 . 3 s u n d e r a l e r t i o n d i t i o n s i e q u i r e d 1 . 5 s u n d e rn o r m a l conditions. drivers timesthuscouldbeat leastI .64s;0.64s for alerted Minimumreaction usedsimpleprearranged the Because studies signal. plus I s for theunexpected Even under the they represent leastcomplexof roadwayconditions. signals. may takeover3'5 s to ir simpleconditions was foundthatsomeoperators these morecomplex on conditions thehighwayaregenerally actual Because respond. times thereis widediversityin thereaction and of thanthose thestudies because than 1.64s. In shouldbe greater it is evidentthat the valueadopted required, than be timeshould larger the for of determinafion sightdistance design, reaction for all driversundernormalconditions.It shouldbe largeenoughto the average time requiredfbr nearlyall driversundermost highway includethe reaction conditions. For approximately90 percent of the drivers in the first study A a mentioned. reactiontime of 2.5 s was found to be adequate. reactiontime of of development Table III-1. in 2.5 s hasthusbeenassumed the for adequate morecomplexconditions timeof 2.5 s is considered A reaction for adequate the most complex but than thoseof the variousstudies, it is not of consideration the most by conditionsencountered the driver. Additional and intersections at-grade foundat multiphase suchasthose conditions complex in thischapter thesection can roadways be foundlaterin rampterminiat through " D e c i s i o n i g h tD i s t a n c e . " S

Brake ReactionTime Brakereactiontime is the intervalbetweenthe instantthat the driver recognizes of theexistence an objector hazardon the roadwayaheadand the instantthatthe driver actually appliesthe brakes.This interval includes the time requiredto Under certain conditions,such as make the decision that a stop is necessary. accomplish by emergency conditionsdenoted flaresor flashinglights,operators must thesetasksalmost instantly.Under most other conditionsthe operator to objectsadjacent the the associate objectaheadwith stationary subconsciously that the trees,poles,or bridges,to determine roadway,suchas rvalls,fences, take Thesedeterminations or objectis also stationary moving at a slow speed. to on depending the distance the time,the amountof which variesconsiderably rapiditywith whichthedriverreacts, the bUject.theacuityof theoperator, natural and thelype, visibility.rhetypeand theconditionof the roadway, rnospheric environment and the roadway Vehiclespeed of color,andcondition thehazard. traveling or near at time.Normally,an operator reaction probably alsointluence speed. operator An is speed rnorealertthanone travelingat a les.ser thedesign for possibilities conflictsfrom by on an urbanfacility confronted innumerable is and vehicles. driveways, crossstreets alsolikely to be morealertthan parked shouldbe facility wheresuchconditions on the sameoperator a limited-access nonexlstent. alrnost to The study (l) rct'erred in ChapterII was basedon datafrom 321 drivers valuetbr these The medianreaction-time to wno expected apply their brakes. T r r v i t h l 0 p e r c e n t e q u i r i n g1 . 5s o r l o n g e r . h e s ef i n d i n g s d r i v c r sw a s 0 . 6 6 s d i s w o c o r r e l a t e i t h r h o s e f e a r l i e r t u d i e sn w h i c h a l e r t e d r i v e r sw e r ea l s ou s e d . t v t h e a v e r a g e a l u e :- 5p e r c e n o f t h e d r i v e r s s A n o r h c rs t u t l y{ 2 ) g i v e s0 . 6 . 1 a s r f ( 3 ) r e a c t i o n - l i m v a l u e s a n g e d r o m 0 . ' 1t o e r c q u i r c to v e r I s . I n a t h i r d s t u d y l u l ) . w h e nt h es i c n a lw a . s n e x p e c t e d . by wcre found to increase approximatelyI s or longer: thc tlrivcrs' rcsp()nscs ea s t s o t n er c a c t i o n i t t t c sb e i n g 1 . 5s o r m o r e .T h i s i n c r e a s e u b s t a n t i a t e d r l i e r w a sd r a w nt h a tt h ed r i v e rw h o t i l a b o r a l o r l n d r o a t l c s t s n w h i c ht h ec o n c l u s i o n

Braking Distance o T h c a p p r o r i m i U b r u k i n gd i s i a n c c l 1 v c h i c l c o n l t l c v c l r t l a t i r v l vn r a l ' b e e fbrmula: by detennined thc useof the standard

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c a ot c p r e s s u ro f t i r e s . o r n p t t s i t i o n ' t i r e st,i r c t r c a dp a t t c r n n dd e p t h l f t r e l d ,t l p e e n o su . tfl t e p l t v L ' l l l e n f r l ' a c eu n t l t l t c p r c s c n c c l ' t t t t r i s t u r c ,t u d . a n t lC o n d i t i t l n , r

46UIa4cpuctte

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alsodependS the brakih$sy'itemof the on snow,oi ice.The brakihgdistance t f f s v e h i c l eT h es e v e r av a r i a b l ea r ea l l o w e d o r i f f i s c o m p u t e do r e a c h e s tf r o m . l the constant friction factor. formula.It thusrepresents equivalent the standard f d T h e v a l u e s f f i n F i g u r eI I I - I ( A a n dB ) w e r ec a l c u l a t eo n t h i sb a s i s o r s o m e o tests in which only speedand distancewere of the curves that represent recorded. foundby different investigators. frictioncoefficients FigureIII- I A illustrates of Curves I to 6 are from a study(.1)in which more than 1,000measuremnts in forwardskiddingweremadeon 32 pavements both wet anddry conditions. of Coefficients fiiction werecomputed typesof tireswerebeingused. Several 7 tbrmula. Curves and stopping distances thestandard in stopping by usingactual curvesof a study(5) in which over 50 surf'aces of 8 are representative several were testedin the dry conditionby threedifferent methodsusing threetypesof of studyarerepresentative wet pavements' tires.Curves and l0 trom thesame 9 (3) measured distances f equivalent valuefor stopping Curve I I is thecalculated stops from speeds weretheonly tests thatincluded these pavement; on high-type but of of about 100to I l0 km/h. This curve is the average all stopsmeasured, (at and thatthevehicles shows samples low speeds) with on-the-road comparison on betterthanthe average the highways. driversweresomewhat as of lowercoetTicients fiiction on wet pavements compared of Because the tbr stopping distances usein govenrs deterrnining in wet condition with dry, the not criteriashouldrepresent frictionusedfbr design of The coefficients design. approaching endol' the gclod but alsosurlaces condition in only u'etpavenrents -I'hc p a v a l u e s h o u l d ' n c o r n p an e a r l y l l s i g n i f i c a n ta v e m e n t s L ss t h e i ru s e f u l i v e s . h I I I - l B s u r n m a r i z -te sc f . s u r f a c e v p c sa n ( l t h c l i k e l - v i c l d c o n d i t i o n sF i g t r r e t pavements Germanl' in tnade rtte of ot'6(X) asLlrcrltents on nrodern results l scries ( 6 ) . E a c hr o a t ls c c t i o n r t s l e s t c -a t 1 0 , 4 0 . 6 0 a n c u 0 k n r / hb y a l o c k e d - w h e e l l * d between trailcr.Bccluscthe tcst llctho(lsdit'lcr,thcreis no directcorrelation I . I o c u t h c s e u r v e s n t it h o s c t ' F i g u r cI I - l A o r T a b l eI I I - 1 .H o w e v e rF i g u r e l l - l B of betwcen coefficients frictiontitr the tloe indicltc tharthcrcis a * idevariation s has texture on stopping whichretlcctsthceff'cct thatsurt'ace pavcnrcnts. various oi'this tactor. thc sightdistlrncc and.thcrclirre'. intporlatrce t es a u T h c . i i c t i o nI ' u c t olr l u c su s c r il n c a l c u l r r t i nsg t cs t o p p i n g' l i s t t t n c s h o u l t l t oitrcttdsarttl allttrvfitr *orn tircsls *e ll rrstirr ncrvtircsand tirr nclrly all t"v"pes -fhc vltlucsuscd shoultlllso cnctltnplssthc t'ltctor tirc conr;rositions. t'rictiort varirlus speeds. thctlthcrhartd. On tlrir'er brltkingf'rom tliflcrcnccs vchiclcrtrrtl in undericl lhc vulucsuscdrtccdnrlt bc so ltlrr as ttl bc suitablclilr pavcnlcnts r l-i c e r r t l i t i o n s . P r c t e r u b l v . vhlc fr c s u s c d l i r r t l c s i g n s h o t r l d b c nrc llr l yn c l u s i r ' . ' . tl L tlatl;.trc fully dctlilcd ovcr therangc not availltblc rlthcr thonrvcrlgc: ltor,,evcr.
tilr lll thcsc vlriublcs. antl conclusir)ns lnust hc madc in ternts ()i thc sillest r c p ( ) r t c di l v c r i r q cr u l u c s . l ' h c c t t t ' f i c i c r t t s o l ' l r i c t i t ' r t ri n T l b l c I l l - | h l r e b c c n : c l c c t c t l h r r s c t lo r r t h e s c c r i t c r i u u s b c i r t g l p p r o p r i u t c l i l r t h c c l r l c u l l t i o n o l '

E'gp
t=qr?
] F

^ ' . ^y : C . ' ) 9 Cr.l 3\.: ^i -:.o.cFtct.-,X:r-O

Q o

Ea

9,2--

cC\C$\Oc)$r'J\O\f -(rlrq.nrOHS-6

TTqY9T=:;q *9og--qqc-onQ

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c o o o o

a
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;'i Oconca-OOO\oocO

(J

-q.'lc'lnnnncl

.l 6l

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o g)

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al

!nv?nvinnnnv.l (.t
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MSflLa4cpaqr!

pASa oflll7hrlsys and Streets

Elementsof Design

lo'

I
I

rO

lo lF o

l(o n

+; c-c {J o o.a E.L

E xoF o

>!} o-oo
gr'

oo>o > c o.oo-F ^fts ots o .-oo ! o|/|c) o of oG c! o oo !oo

.-LC) JOX

't5 .e o o . c

!t o o

u) o_ uJ

o g = .o o

CL

of with FigureIII- l A showsthattherange CompaiiSon sighrdistances. stopping the upper limit reflectsthe valuesin Table III-t is generallyconservative; of such measurements asthose FigureIII- I B, which for concern themorerecent with valuesnearor lessthan the for show a few coefficients wet pavements sightdistance. the valuesusedfor developing lower limits for stopping running speedfor low-volumeconditionsratherthan design The average distance. for the is speed usedin formulating limiting values minimumstopping o c g i T h i ss p e e ds t h ei n i t i a lv a l u e i v e ni n t h es e c o n d o l u m n f T a b l eI I I - l . S t u d i e s as drivejust as faston wet pavements theydo on dry' showthatmanyoperators is runningspeed used in ofaverage speed place design for To account thisfactor, values,as shown by the higher valuesin the to formulatestoppingdistance columnof Table III- l. second

Design Values

co

u o I 1 3 r J J l o + u e! c l l t e o 3

= 3 c o cr
L

1 :
fl tl

toC fo o..- +-

o .9
o o o

time andthedistance duringthebrakereaction traversed Thesumof thedistance The computed to stop the vehicle is the minimum stoppingsight distance. are conditions at speeds theassumed and for distances wetpavements for various usingthe following formula: shownin TableIII-l and weredeveloped

I sltt

>c t eo .YL(J
o o o

L.-

o!

vr d=(0.278Xt)(V)+ 2-54f
to assumed be 1.5 s: time, generally w h e r e : t = brakereaction V = initial speed. km/h: and tiresand roadu'av of f = coefficient fiictitln between established within the rangeof values sightdistance Any lengthof stopping or values approaching However. speed. fbr in TableIII- I is acceptable a specit'ic shouldbe uscdas the basistbr design the exceedins upperlimit of the range the permit.Useof thc upperlimit valuesincre'ltsc's mlrgin wherever conditions ilt who operate or nearthe dcsignspcctl of sat-err providingtbr the drivcrs by u s t T d u r i n gw e t w e a t h e r . o e n s u r eh a tn e w p a v e m e n tw i l l h a v ci n i t i a l l - "r-r.n d i l l givcn in thc t;lblc.designs to of retlin. coeftlcients tiiction comparablc those in /irr .Sl.rtl should meet thc critcria established thc AASHTO Guidelinc.r thlt dcrnonstrate datamav Dc.ri{n (7). Althoughresearch Put'ement Rt'.ri.rftltl tiiction c s a s p r o p o s e p a v e m e n tw i l l h a v ei n i t i a l l y . n d w i l l r e t a i n o e t f i c i e n to f d
E;rLdr9r

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6 >
F

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rCO

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o> *O oo-

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o oo

oc uo
!o

op

r.af

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icic; o lrurJo J ecuo+s | 0 6 u 1 d d o 1 5 propuo+S nro.r pegndlo3 so ,ro ( +ce -r 3 | !0 Pernsoefi9o uor+3!rJ lo +uor3rJleO): l

v l j u s t i t i c l t i o n b r u s i n gs t o p p i n g i g h td i s t a n c e a l u e s c s st h l n t h c n l i n i m u n l s s t ( v c i . n c o n r a i n eid r h i st a b l e V t r r i l t i o n sn r e s u l t sp a r t i c u l a r lb c c a u so i t h r 'n l c t h o ( l \ c t ) o t ' d c t c m r i n i n !c . e f f i c i c n t s l t ' t ' r i c t i o n p r c c l r r t l s u c hd i r c c tc . t r l p a r i s . t t sl t

AAS H HT

eometr ic D esi I n of tl,Slrtgyg4;lIgA

of Elements Design

t25

portions of eii.siing pavementsare to be retained,skid testsshould be made. lengths cannot made,the needfor increased be of Althoughdirectcomparisons when testsyield coefficients shouldbe considered of stoppingsightdistance below thosein Table III- l. fricrion significantly for Table III-l includesdata for the higher designspeeds wet conditions above100km/ Valuesfor designspeeds whereno actualtestdataareavailable. from the curvesfor lower speedsin Figure III-lA. h are extrapolated

S t o p p i n gS i g h t ( Distance m) DesignSpeed for Downgrades 9Vo (km/h) 6Vo 3Vo

Assumed S t o p p i n gS i g h t Speedfor Distance(m) for Condition ( k m / h ) 3Vo 9Vo 6Vo

i
Effect of Grade on Stopping formula for brakingdistanceis the When a highway is on a grade,the standard
IOllowrns: V2
-j ri

I 7

I l

t , j
t .= I +
il --t

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 r00 ll0 120

30.4 15.7 65.5 88.9 I r7 . 5 r48.8 180.6 220.8 261.0 310.1

31.2 4'7.5 68.6 94.2 125.8 160.5 195.4 240.6 292.e 341.0

32.2 49.5 12.6 100.8

I JO.J

30 40
A

29.0 43.2
J J . J

28.5
41 +-. | I

28.0 4t.2

A1
I

))

t 1.5

t75.5 214.4 256.9 327.1 381.7

63 70 77 85 91 98

89.1 107.1 t24.2 147.9 168.4 190.0

5 3 . 8 <') /,1 68.7 66.6 85.9 8 2 . 8 102.2 98.l I t8.8 I13.4 140.3 1 3 3 . 9 1 5 9I. 1 5 1 . 3 110.2 17,2.2

A_

254(txG)
in which G is the percentof gradedivided by 100, and the other terms are as previously stated.The stopping distanceson upgradesare shorter:those on on downgrades longer.The stoppingsight distances various gradesarc are thc for are indicated TableIII-2. Thesecorrections computed wet conditions, in tirneis assumed design criterionusedin TableIII- l. The brakereaction assumed to be the sameas for level conditions.Design speedis used in calculating upgrade corrccrunningspeedin calculating average corrections, downgrade grades based thc on are and criteriafor descending ascending tions Thedifferent trucks;thc particularly haveon the speedof individualvehicles. effect grades effect thesevehicleshave on the overall speedof the traffic stream:and thc do particularly thosein automobiles. not compcnsatc premise thatmanydrivers, by in caused grades. tbr completely the changes speed On nearly all roads and streetsthe grade is traversedby traffic in txrth directions.but the .sightdistanceat any point on the highway generullyis on particularly straightroadsin rolling tenain.r\s il ditferentin eachdirection. is generalrule. the sight distanceavailableon downgrades larger than on lbr corrcction.s providing the necessary more or lessautomatically upgrades. in grade.This may explainwhy somedesignofficesdo not makc corrections of stoppingsight distancebecause grade. Exceptionsare ()ne-wayroadsor designprotileslbr thc two streets, on divided highwayswith independent as gradecorrectionsare in order and the refincroadways.For thesethe separate

lll-2. Effect of grade on stopping sight distance Table wet conditions'

Variation for Trucks 'l'hc car directly reflectpassenger derivedminimum stoppingsight distances Trucks for and opcrarion might be questioned usein designfbr truckoperation. the larger and heavierunits, requirelonger stopping es a whole, especially thereis one do. vehicles However. (listances thanpassenger fronta givenspeed brakinglengthsfor trucksfor given the that tendsto balance additional l'actor is cars. tviththose passenser The truckoperator ableto seethevertical tbr spccds ol of because thehigherposition tarther substantially li.atures theobstruction of andpassenger for sightdistances trucks stopping Separate in thcsear thevehicle. are clrs. theretbre, not usedin highwaydesignstandards. everycltilrt in with caution. 'uvhich be thar Thcrcis onesituation should treated greater thanrhe minimunt sightdistances shtlulcl rnadeto providcstoppinr: be partlcuoccuron downtrades. sightrestrictions tlcsitn value.Whenhorizontal the llrlv rt the endsof long 'Jorvngrades. greaterheight of eye of the truck is opcrttor is of tittle value,even when the horizontll sight obstructitln e cut or may closclyapprtlach exceed truckspeeds sklpe. rvhen longdowngracles) 1on tendst0 bc more truck operator rhosc passenger cars.Althoughthe average of passenger operator and quickerto recognlze car crnericncetl thanthe .lverlqe t sightdistance to hlr-urcls. is bcstundersuchconditions supplya stopping ir
t l l c c l s( ) r e r c e e d st h e v a l u e si n T a b l e I I I - 1 .

l.r I .l

1
!

of AASHTO--CeometricDe sig,rt Highi'ay"sand Streets

of Elenrcnls Design

DecisionSight Distance competent are Sloppingsight distances usuallysufficientto allow reasonably and alen drivers to come to a hurried stop under ordinary circumstances. whendriversmustmakecomplex are these distances ofteninadequate However. or when intbrmationis difficult to perceive, when decisions, or instantaneous to Limiting sightdistances those are maneuvers required. or unexpected unusual may also precludedrivers from performingevasive provided for stopping preferable stopping. to and hazardous otherwise whichareottenless maneuvers, complementof standardtraffic control devices in Even with an appropriate may not provide with the MUTCD (8), stoppingsight distances accordance advancewaming and to driversto corroborate for visibility distances SUfficient It maneuvers. is evident that there are many locations perform the necessary In whereit would be prudentto providelongersight distances. thesecircumgreater lengththat driversneed. provides the sightdistance decision stances, is Decisionsight distance the distancerequiredfor a driver to detectan informationsourceor hazardin a or unexpected otherwisedifficult-to-perceive or the recognize hazard its that roadwayenvironment may be visuallycluttered, and path,and initiateandcomplctc speed select appropriate an potential threat. sight decision safelyandefficiently(54).Because saletyrnaneuver therequired margin for error and affordsthem sufficient gives driversa<Jditional clistance rather thantojust speed or at theirvehicles thc same reduceci lengthto maneuver sightdistance. greater than stopping stop,its valuesaresubstantially whencver thereis a likelihoodtbr crror sightdistance.s Driversneellriccision ( or r , i n e i t h e ri n l o r r n a t i o ne c c p t i o nd c c i s i o n - m a k i n g , c o n t r o la c t i o n s 9 ) . T h c kindsof enorsarelikely wherethese of tollowilrgareexantples criticallocations intcrchangc sightdistance: to ro occur,andwhcreit is clcsirlble providedecision are maneuvers recluircd: whereunusual unexpected or locations andintersectiol changesin cross sectionsuch as toll plazas and lane drops: and arcasof sources wherethereis apt to be "visual noise"whenever dernand concentrated traffic.traftlccontrol elements. as cornpcte. thoscticlmroadway of intbrmatit.ln rtisitrgsigns' and atlve dcvices. v t n s T h e d e c i s i o n i g h td i s t a n c cis T a b l eI I I - 3 ( l ) p r o v i d e a l u e s o b e u s c db y and (2) scrvcll.s at sight distances critical locations tbr appropriere dcsigners a o t c r i t e r i ai n e v a l u a t i n gh e s u i t a b i l i t y f t h e s i g h t l e n g t h s t t h e s el o c a l t o n s . yicld, it is theselengths rnd stt'et.'- maneuverability Bccause rhc adtlirional of or be sightdistances providedat critical iocations that rccomrncnded decision lcngths sightdistancc wheredecision poinrsbe rclocatccl locatiorrs to tharrhc.se ot becuusc horl to t'easiblc providethesc distanccs lt'it areavuilatrlc. is n1rt shtluldbc spccialattcntion is not ptlssiblc. or rtr vcrticalcun,ilrurc it'rclocation a g i v c l lt ( )t h cu s co l ' s u i t a h ltc t l ' l ' i c p n t r od e v i c e sb r p r o v i d i n g d v l n c cw l r r n l n g t c l l
,t'r1.,, .,"',liri,\''. rl.,, 'r. l;t.'1, r,r h!r ,'!ri'1\rltf,'rr'rl

Design Speed (km/ht

DecisionSight Distancefor AvoidanceManeuver {meterst ABCDE

I tt
!

, a
I
-l -a

50 60 70 80 90 t00 ll0 t20

15 95 125 155 185 225 265 305

r60 205 250 300 360 4t5 455 505

145 t75 200. 230 215 315 335 375

t60 205 240 275 320 365 390

l

200 235
,l)

3r5
360 405 435 410

/r<
L J

-a
I

(Source: Ref.10) sightdistance. Tablelll-3. Decision

have to values thatwilt be applicable mostsituations sightdistance Decision vary dependsightdistances The decision tiom empiricaldata. bcendeveloped ing on whetherthe locationis on a rural or urban road, and on the type of Table the and negotiate locationproperly. to required avoid hazards maneuver roundedfbr situations valuestbr various Ill-3 showsdecisionsight distance fbr are distances required shorter in As dcsign. canbe seen l'able I II-3.generally involved. ruralroadsand when a stopis the maneul'er in are maneuvers ctlvered Table lll-3: Thc fbllorvingavoidance . . . . . A: Mancuver Avoidance B: i\voidanceManeuver C: Maneuver Avoidance D: Avoidancelvlaneuver E: Nlaneuver ,\voidance Stopon ruralroa(|. Stopon urbanroad. on change rural road' Speed/path/dircction rgad. on change suburban Speed/path/ttirection on change urbanr()arl. Speed/parh/dircction

r d s. s g l n c u r n p u t i na n dm e u s u r i nd e c i s i o n i g h t i s t a n c c t h e 1 0 7 0 n me y eh e i g h t g havebccn siShtdistancc .rn(tl-5{) mnr objcctheighrcrireril usedfbr stopping ltloptcri. Although drivers mav havc to bc'ablc to scc thc entire rold$a\' hcight tbr the rituatitln. the inclutling roadsurtace. rationalc the I50 mm ob.iect s a s i s l s a p p l i c l b l e b r d e c i s i o n i g h td i s t a n c e s i t i s l b r s t o p p i n g i g h td i s t a n c c . t

128

AASHTO--CeometricDesigrrof Hi.qhu'av.r and Streets

of Elements Design

129

PassingSight Distancefor Two-Lane Highwa.vs

clearance vehiclereturns its lane;thereis a suitable to Whenthepassing v i i b l e n e t h e t w e e nt a n da n o n c o m i n g e h i c l e n t h eo t h e rl a n e .

eiiteria for Design

Most roads streets considered qualifyas two-lane. are to andnumerous two-way highwayson which vehiclesfrequently overtake slower moving vehicles. rhe passing which must be accomplished lanesregularlyusedby opposing on of with be traffic.If passing to beaccomplished saf'ety, drivershould ableto sec is the the a sutfrcient distance ahead, clearof traftlc,to complete passing maneuvsr vehicle advance meeting opposing an withoutcuttingoff the passed in vehiclc of Whenrequired, drivercanretumto therightlanc a appearing duringthe maneuver. without passing he or she sees opposing traffic is too closewhen the maneuvcr if without the driver is only partiallycompleted.Many passings accomplished are passing seeing saf'e a section ahead, designbased suchmaneuvers but on doesnot manycautious driverswould notattempt havethedesired factorof safety.Because the wouldreduce usefulness to pass on under suchconditions, design thisbasis of will passing thehighway. altemative providing An to sightdistance be foundlater Lane Sections Two-Lane Roads." on in this chapterin the section"Passing on for ol' Passing sightdistance usein designshouldbe determined the basis Whilc thcrc normal passing maneuvers. the lengthneeded safelycomplete to pass wheretwo or morevehiclcs multiplepassings, may beoccasions consider to it or are passed, is not practicalto assumesuch conditionsin developing fbr minimum designcriteria. Instead,sight distanceis cletennined a singlc antl vehicle passing singlevehicle. Longer sightdistances occurin clesign thcsc a nrultiplcpassing locations an can accommodate occasional tirr passing highways Whencomputing nrinirnum sightdistanccs t\\'()-litne on sornc ol'which tbr assumptions trafficbehavior nccessary, are design use, certain control firr clriverbehaviorshoultlbc thitt off'era wide choice.The assunred percentage drivcr.Strch practiced a high ofdrivers.rathcrthanthe average by follow: assumptions Thc ovenakenvehicletravclsat unifirnrrspecd. vchiclc vehiclehasreduced speed and trailsthc ttvcrtakctt The passing s a asit enters passing cction. a s i 3 . W h e nt h ep a s s i n g e c t i o n s r e a c h c dt.h ed r i v e rr e q u i r e s s h t l r tp c r i o d : t o f t i m e t o p e r c e i v e h e c l e a rp a s s i n g i e c t i o l ltn d t o r c a c tt t l s t a r th i s o r h e rm a n e u v e r . -1. Passing accomplished stenrtntlrt underwhatmay bc tcnncdI tlclayccl is hunied return in thc tacc of opposingtraffic. Thc passingvehiclc l. l.
'Ites dunng the maneuver. and tts avera{c lc ()(cut c n c r r t l l v c o n s c r v l t i v e f o r m o d c r n v c h i c l c s r t n d w i l l b c u s c t lh c r c i n .

at Some drivers accelerate the beginningof a passingmaneuverto an until thepassing at andthencontinue a unifbrmspeed higherspeed appreciably at Many driversaccelerate a fairly high rateuntiljust beyondthe is completed. eitherw'ithoutfurther and then completethe maneuver vehiclebeing passed are maneuvers For simplicity.extraordinary speed. or at reduced acceleration and speeds with theuseofobserved are distances developed andpassing ignored of of timesthat flt the practices a high percentage drivers. as highways determined is for sightdistance two-lane passing The minimum (shownin the diagramat the top of FigureIII-2.t: rhesum of the four distances time and during the and reaction during perception d,-Distance traversed on the point of encroachment the left lane. to initial acceleration vehicleoccupies left lane' the while the passing d,-Distance traveled and vehicleat theendof its maneuver the the d]-Distance between passing v opposing ehicle. of vehiclefor two-thirds thetime the by d;-Distance traversed an opposing above' the vehicleoccupies left lane,or 2/3 of d' passing m r o f E x t e n s i v ei e l d o b s e r v a t i o n sf d r i v e rb e h a v i o d u r i n gp a s s i n g a n e u v e r s o i s b a s e c ln w c r en r a d e y P r i s k( 1 2 )d u r i n gt h ey e a r sI 9 3 8 t o I 9 - l L T a b l eI I I - - 1 b arc' maneuvcr of for Variousdistances the components the passing rlrisstucly. tbr tbur passingspeed groups.Time and distanccvltlucs w'cre llrcsenred vchicle.Speeds of speedof the passins in tlcrcrrninc<J relationto the average 6f gr.cnakcn l5 vehicleswere approxil.pately krn/h lessthan spceds passing v c hi c l c s . 'l'hrce were rnadein the Prisk studl 9f the locationswhere observations p w V u , c r cr c s r u c l i ei d 1 9 5 7 . e r y l i t t l e c h a n g e a s n o t e di n t h e p a s s i n g r l c t i c e s n capavehiclcpc'rlbrntance despiteincreased ol'driverson the study sections t t b i l i t i c s . H o w e v e r .t h e d r i v e r s a p p e a r e d o b c c o n t cn l ( ) r cc ( ) n s c r v r t t i r ie l I' s r t. tgn l t c c c p t a h l eh o u g l r e l a t i v c l v h t l r t .t a t t q c n t s : c . .t - c \ \ c r ) i l \ s l l ) ! \ l [ llirssirr 9 ivl l o c c u r r c t i l t a n v t i v e n v o l u m e l e n e9 - 5 7 t h a n iln . l l l . . \l 9 T l s t u d r ' ( - i 7 ) o i s a s v c h i c l e a s s i n g e r t o r m a n co n l \ r ' o - l a n h i g h r v a Vp r o d u c c t l t l i f t c r c n t c tt l t ' c p p e i w p l s s i n gs i g h td i s t a n c e a l u e s w h i c h v a l u e s c r c s u b s c q u c n t lr\c v i c \ \ ' e dr t I v , T s l ( ) 7 l ls t u d v( 5 8 ) w h i c he v a l u a t e m i n i m u mp a s s i n g i g h td i s t a n c c s .h e l 9 7 S d s s \ t u ( l \ r c p o r t c d h a t P r i s k ' s . t o t as a t ep a s s i n g i g h td i s t a n c c s ' i v c n i n T a b l c t l c in d l l l - - 1 l.r c .g r c a r e t h a nt h o s e e t e r m i n e d t h c l t ) 7I s t u d yl b r l l l s p c c d s x c e p t r

pancy' thelcft laneis I .5krn/lrhigherthanthattlf theovcnlkcn vchiclc' of

AASHTO-Geometri( Design of Highways and Streets

of Elentents Desi,qn

t3l

S p e e dG r o u p ( k m / h 1 S A v e r a g eP a s s i n g p e e d( k m / h , t ' oppos ng V e h i c l e
APPeOT S

5U-05

56.2
-:. ^::r

66-80 70.0 2.-30 4.0 65 t0.0 195

8l-95 8.t.5

96-tr0 99.8
2.JI 4.5 ll0 I1.3 lt5 90 210

tthen Poss; ng ReochesPoint

A,

Poss i n9

I n i t i a ll l a n e u v e r : lkm/h/st' accelerarion a = average I t = t l m e( s r ( t d , = d i s t a n c er a v e l e d m t o Occupation f left lane: t , = t i m e( s ) ' ( t d : = d i s t a n c er a v e l e d m ) l C l e a r a n c ee n g t h : ( t d r = d i s t a n c er a v e l e d m ) ' v Opposing ehicle: ( t d . = d i s t a n c er a v e l e d m )

:.-1 | {.J

3.6

90 lo.7 1.50 75 165

ul

l/3 o2 S E C O N OP H A S E

9.3 t15 l0 95

t D t- : : : : : - - -- - . I r:E:::i"..:J
a 17

-------------

))
r30

dZ
dq

d1

, Total distanced, + d, + d, + d, (m)

Jls

445

580

1'r<

D o s i g n S p e e d - km/h
900

' For consistent speedrelation,observedvaluesadjustedslightly. il0 t20

lo

40

50

60

70 80 90

10 0

Tablelll4.

.,j

ts E ctl

sight distance two-lane Elements safepassing of highways.

o
L

750

q)o C{.-o oE
a,,

600

oi o oc
c, 1_ FO

450

300

c.oo E o

r50

trj

50 Averoge

60 Speed

70 of

rtu

Possing vehicle

km/h

passing andtotal sightdistance-two-lane Figurelll-2. Elementsof highways.

( h d r I n i t i a l m a n e u v e r i s t a n c ed , ) .T h e i n i t i a lm a n e u v ep e r i o d a st w oc o m p o duringwhich thedrir er and and a ncnts, timelbr perception reaction, an interval on to f bringsthevehicle rom thetrailingspeed thepointof encroachrnent theleft or passin-q lane.To a greatextent the trvo overlap.As a passingsectionof . t l r i g l r w a v o m e si n t o v i e w o f ' a ( l r i v e rd e s i r i n g o p a s s t h e d r i v e rm a y b e g i nr o c of his and accclerate maneuver or hervehicletowardthecenterline thehighrrlr passing rvhiledecidingwhetheror not to pass.Studiesshow that the average potential, indicating thatthe initial vchicleaccelerates lessthanits rnaximum at and reaction. rnaneuver period containsan elementof time fbr perception in normal lanepositionwhile decidingto l{owever.somedriversmay remain ptss.The exactpositionof the vehicleduring initial maneuver unimportant is passing insignificant. bccause distances are difterences resulting in studydatain the threespeed The acceleration obtained tiom thepassing rate groups variedfrom 2.27to 2.37km/h/s:the duringthe initial maneuverperiod were-56.1. passing speeds avcrage s; time variedfrom 3.7 to.1.3 andtheaverage 70.0end8.1.5 of km/h.For the96- to I lO-km/hgroup,on thebasis extrapolated the time data, lverageacceleration as.sumed be 2.-lI km/h/s. maneuver was the to .1..5 rnd the irverage s. spced99.lt km/h.

i;+
132
AASHTHeometic Design of Highwaysand Street.r of Elements Design the distance to It ii unncessary include this trailing time interval in computing from which canbe computed This time interval, vehicle. by rraversed an opposing the vehicle,is aboutone-third time the and of rherelativepositions passing passed for element sightdistance the vehicleoccupies left lane,sothatthepassing passing the during two-thirdsof the time it in. opfoting vehicleis the distance traverses to the left lane.The opposingvehicle is assumed be passingvehlcle occupies d. vehicle,so d. = 2d"13'T\e distance speedas the passing iravelingat the same shownon FigureIII-2' is givenin TableIII-4 and

distance traveled d, duiing theinitialmaneuver periodis computed from the following formula:

d,= o.278tr(u-r*]l
J

Il

m '

t i m eo f i n i t i a lm a n e u v e r ,: s average acceleration, km/h/s: speed passing vehicle,km/h; and average of in vehicleandpassing difference speed passed of vehicle, km/h,

DesignValues elements' by The "toral" curvein FigureIII-2 is determined thesumof thenamed the minimum passingsight distancefor a For each passingspeed,it indicates of an vehicle passlnganother vehicle traveling l5 km/h slower, in the face speed as the passing vehicle' On opposing vehicle traveling at the same and speed passing average of Aeierminatlon a likely and logical relationbetween thehighwaydesignspeed'thesedistancescanbeusedtoexpresstheminimum for needed designpurposes' sightdistance passing ' and passingvehiclesare affectedby of The ,ung., of speeds the passed are few A), traffic volume.When traffic volume is low (level-of-service there D (se v e l - o f - s e r v i c eo r l b t v c h i c l e sh a tn e e dt o b e p a s s e d , u t a sv o l u m ei n c r e a s e The speedof the passed lower) thereare few, if any, passingopportunities' at runningspeed a traffic volume to vchiclehasbeenassumed be the average volumesin Figure by nclr capacityas represented the curve tor intermediate The I 5 knrft greater. to vehicleis assumed be of ll-22. The speed the passing the likely passlng represent in vehicles Table III--5 tbr speeds passing Irssurr.rcd speetls i g h . o s p c c d s n i w o - l a n e i g h w a y sP a s s i n s i g h td i s t a n c ets l r t h e s u ' p a s s i n g They' ',vouldaccommodate majoritV of the desiredpassingmaneuvers' the a. d e s i g n o c r t r r e s p o ntd t h e " t o t a l " c u r v e o f F i g u r eI I I - 2 . F o r c o n v e n i e n c e on has beensuperimposed the upperhalf of the figure' permitting spccd-urid Thc in sighrdistance tcrms of the designspeed. of tlircct ic.atling the passing passing t v o v r r l u c sn t h el a s tc o l u r n n f T a b l el l l - - 5a r ed e s i g n a l u e s b r m i n i t n u m i ls d s a In s i g h td i s r a n c e . t l e s i g n i n g h i g h w a yt h e s e i s t a n c es h o u l db e c x c c c d c d donc with providcdls oftch as can be rnuchas prtcticableand suchsections r o t ce s t s o a s t o p r e s e na s m l l n v p a s s i n g p p o r t u n i t i cis sp o s s i b l e . o s rcusonrrbl s s p a s s i n g i g h td i s t a n c c t o r d c s i g ns h o u l dn o t b e c o n f u s c d T h c s cm i n i r n u m pavelrlent /.()ne for usedasthe warrants placingno-passing with orherdistances Such valuesas shown in section3B-5 of the highways. srripcs complcted on lssumptionsfronl needsthat are basedon dit'l'crcnt trutfic operating-control dcsign. thoscfor highrvay

The acceleration, time, and distancetraveled during the initial maneuver periods passing given in TableIII-4. The d, line in FigureIII-2 showsthe in are distanceplotted againstthe average passingspeed. Distancewhile passingvehicle occupiesleft lane (dr). Passing vehicles were found in the study to occupy the left lane from 9.3 to 10.4s. The distance d, traveled the left laneby the passing vehicleis computed the following in by formula: d: = 0'278vt" where:
t-

vehicleoccupies left lane,s: and time passing the

. ; _ average of vehicle,km/h. speed passing

The timeanddistance traveled whilethepassing vehicle occupies lcti lanc the aregivenin TableIII-4. Distances plottedagainst passing are specds averaqe rs curve d" in FigureIII-2. Clearance length (d-r).The clearance length betweenthe opposingand passing vehicles theend of the maneuvers at found in the passing studyvaricd from 30 to 90 m. This length,adjusted somewhat practical is for consistency shownas the clearance lengthd, in Table lll--l and on FigureIII-2. Distancetraversed by an opposing vehicle (d.). Passinu sight distancc vehicle includes distance muncuthe traversed anopptlsins by duringthepassing verto minimize chance a passing whilc vehicle vehiclc the of nreeting opposing an by in the leti lane.Conservatively. distance this shouldbe thedistance travcrscd an opposine vehicle or duringthe entiretime it takesto pass duringthe tirncthc passing vehicleis in the leti lanc,but suchdistance questionably is long.Dunng the tirst abreasl thevchicle ing passed. evcnthough passing of v,:hiclc'rl;cupics be and the thc leti llnc. its drivercan retumto theright laneif an opgrsingvchiclcis scen.

AASHTO--CeometricDesign of Highw,ays and Sreets

w
1

:-

of Elements Design

Asiumed Speeds
Passed Vehicle {km/h) Passing Vehicle {km/h)
41

Minimum passing S i g h tD i s r a n c e m ) (

S F r e q u e n c -a n d L e n g t h o f P a s s i n g e c t i o n s v frequentlyon for passingshould be encountered Sight distanceadequate with sight the of section length roadway and highways. at eachpassing rwo-lane sight distance aheadequal to or greaterthan the minimum passing distance for sections and lengthof passing Frequency shouldbe as long as feasible. of the principallyon the topography, designspeed highway' depend highwal's is of the and the cost:for streets. spacing intersections the principalconsiderfrequent long and capacity with highvolumes thatapproach On arion. roadways with intermediate low volumes to On are sections essential. roadways passing adjunctfor are sections still an important the needis not as great,but passing and safety. efficiency It is not possibleto directly indicate the frequencywith which passing andcost shouldbe providedon two-lanehighwaysdueto thephysical sections passing are sections some streets On limitations. almostall roadsand selected of appreciation providedin the normal courseof design,but the designer's their imponanceand a studiedattemptto provide them usually can ensure others at little or no additional cost. On some two-lane roads in steep four-lane to it terrain. may be moreeconomical build intermittent rnountainous s s i s s e c t i o n r v i t hs t o p p i n g i g h td i s t a n c en l i e u o f t w o - l a n e e c t i o n w i t h p a s s i n g s s i g h td i s t a n c e . i p s T h e m i n i n r u r n a s s i n g i g h td i s t a n c es s u f f i c i e n t b r a s i n g l eo r i s o l a t e d t s e r D p a s s i n o n l r ' . e s i g n v i t ho n l y m i n i r n u m i g h td i s t a n c w i l l n o ta s s u r eh a ts a t e g to a Evenon low-volumeroaclways driverdesiring pass passings be ntade. can a a i g h l l r a y o n r e a c h i ntg ep a s s i n s e c t i o nf.i n d v e h i c l e sn t h eo ; l p o s i n lg n e n dt h u s , l l t b c u n a b l c o u s ct h es c c t i o to r a t l c i l s tn o t b e a b l c t o b c g i nl o p a s s r t a n c c ' o d p t T h c i n t p o r t u n c e ' f r c q u e n tu s s i r rs c c t i ( ) ni s i l l u s t r a t cb y t h c i r c f l ' e c tn t h c ot I y. v u s c r v i c c t t l u n r e o t ' t w o - l a n ct.w o - w a vh i g h r . r ' aT a b l ct t . l o f t h c H C i V ( 1 9 8 - ' t l of ( lJ) shorvs. exurtplc.thlt. lilr tn avcrasctravelspeecl 90 km/lrover lcvc-l t6r 760 f'rorn approxirrrately passengercars llow rateis retluccd tcrrainthe servicc sight to pcr hour rvhere thereureno sightrestrictions about530 wherepassing of (listancc alailablcttn onlv .{0 pcrccntof thc highrvav. Thc cft'ect reslrictt-'d is ltl*cr rvhcre dcsign speetl a vttlurne cvcnmrrlrc scverc is sightdistlncctln scrvicc as then I l() knrrhis lssutttcd rt bitsistirr dcsign. s c l T h e s cd a t l i n t i i c a t c n g t h c r p r l s s i b l e r i t e r i o nf o r p a s s i n g i g h td i s t a n c c o h t r t l e s i g n r tn v t t - l l n ch i g h w a v s(.) n s c c t i o n s. l t < l l t d w atv x ll r c s c v c r l ttln i l e s r o s r n r t r en l c n g t h t h er r v l i l l b l c s i g h td i s t a n c c a l t l n qt h i s l c n g t hc a n h e s u t n m a . i e r i z c . d o s h o $ .r h c p c r c c n r o q o l ' l c n g t hw i t h s i g h td i s t l n c c s r c u t c rt h a n t h e t c r p l s s i n Um i n i r n u n r , \ n l t l v s i so 1 'c r t p a c i t v c l l t t c dt t l t h i s p c r c c n t a r t w o u l t l .
ttl(llCAle \\netnCf Of n()l llllnCmClll illl(l Pr()lllc il(l.lustlllcllls.llc llslcssrr-v rtl

for Design (fromFigureIII-2) 217 285 345 407 482 541 605 670 728 792

30 40 50 60 10 80 90

29 36
1.4

5l 59 65
I)

79 85 9l

5l 59 66 14 80 88 94 r00 106

Tablelll-5. Minimum passing sightdistance design two-lane tor of highways.

Effect of Grade on passingSight Distance Appreciable grades increase sightdistance the passing required forsafepassing. is easier thevehicletraveling tbr crowngrade because overtaking the uJhi.l" .nn accelerate morerapidlythanon thelevclandthuscanreduce tirneof passing, the b u t t h eo v e r t a k e n e h i c l e a n a l s oa c c e l e r a te a s i l y o t h a ta s i t u a t i o n v c c s a k i nt o a racingcontest mav result. T h es i g h td i s t a n c ers q u i r e t o p e r r n i v c h i c r e sr a v e l i n -u p g r a d c e d t t e r op a s s r v i t h s a f ' e t ya r e q r e a t e r t h a n t h o s e r e q u i r e d o n l e v e l ,.n"i., b".our. nt. r e d u c e d c c e l e r a t i oo f t h e p a s s i n g e h i c r e( w h i c h i n c r e a s e s a n v thetimeof p a s s i n g ) n d t h e r i k e r i h o o d f o p p o s i n gr r a f f i c s p e e d i n g ( w h i c h a o up inc r e a s e s h e d i s t a n c e r a v e l e db y i t ) . C o m p e n s a t i n go r t h i s s o m e w h a t t t f lrc t h e f a c t o r st h a t t h e p a s s e d e h i c l e f r c ' q u e n t l ys a t r u c k r h a t v i u s u a l l yI o s c s s ( ) n r e p e e d n a p p r e c i a b l e p g r a d e s n d t h a tm a n vd r i v e r s s o u a a r ea w a r eo f t h c g r e a t ed i s t a n c en e e d e do r p a s s i n g p g r a d e o m p a r e d i t h r s f u c w l e v e lc o n d i tl o n s . Il'passinrs ro be performetl are sattly on uprrades. passing rhe sightdisrancc . sh.uld berreaterthanthedcrivccl minimum.Speciiicadju.t*.nr, f'txtiesign u.sc areunavailable. rhedcsigner bur shouldrecognize desirabilitv incrcl.sin the of
u n l s s n o \ \ , nl n l : l

; t c c o t t t t t t r l t l l l c ' t h c l c s i r l r lh o u r l v v t l l u t t t c ( D H V ) . W h e n h i g h r v l v s i g h t t t l i s t u n c u . r t r Lr r n i . t lz\ c d r t v c r t h c r v h r l l cr l t n g co t ' l c n g t h sr v i t h i n * h i c h p l t s s i n t s s .

,.r

I I

AASHTOEJjeometri- Deiign of Highways and Streets

.l

EtementsofDe

, 2'7

W a r em a d e a n e wd e s i g n r i t e r i o n a yb ee v a l u a t e d . h e r eh i g ht r a f f i cv o l u m e s , c m is virtually mandatorythat frequentor nearly continuouspassingsight distancesare orovided.

change h s a c p a s s e n g e ra r h e i g h t s n d t h e r e l a t i v e l y m a l l i n c r e a s ets a t f u r t h e r td b e t h e o 1 l o w o u t di r a n d a t ei n l e n g r h s f v e r t i c a c u r v e s , 0 7 0m m i s c o n s i d e r e di t a g e y ef o r m e a s u r i n b o t hs t o p p i n g n dp a s s i n g _ s i g hs t a n c e s . o height fdriver's the driver eye height rangesfrom 1'8 to 2'4 m' the most For-largetrucks .o**o-nbeing2.'lm.Fordesign2.4mistheassumedeyeheightfortrucks'

Sight Distance for Multilane Highwa.vs

i

Height of Object to the calculations, heightofobject is considered be sightdistance For stopping the calculations' For passingsight distance 150 mm abovethe road surface. 1300mm abovethe road surface' to height ofobject is considered be wasadopted Stopping sight distanceobject.The objectheightof 150mm purposesin 1965' The basis for its for stoppingsight distancecalculation object ofpossiblehazardous was largelyan arbitraryrationalization selection Ifother situation. to a hazardous andreact sizeanda driver'sability to perceive vehicle the vehicleswere rhe onty iitceiyhazardto be encountered, heightof object height.such a taillighrs,460 mm to 600 mm, would be a sufficient or however.would precludea driver's seeingsmall animals,rocks. heigh-t, roadway.It is considered in other debristhar are likely to be encountered the cancreate of thara | 50 mm-highobjecris representative the lowestobjectthat a driver in time to stop as conditionand be perceived a hazardby a hazardous sight m t o i r b c l ' o r ee a c h i n gt . U s i n go b j e i t h e i g h t s f l e s s h a n l - 5 0 m f o r s t o p p i n g ' v e r t i c ac u r v e s F o r l y . c d i s t a n c e a l c u l a t r o nl si u t t i i n c o n s i c l e r a b l o n g e rc r e s t crest vertical as cxample.if tlte roadwaysurfaceis usecl the sightedobject. longerthanrvhen150mm is usedas curves$'oukl havcto bc'aboutll5 percent T t t h e o b . l e ch e i g h t . h e o b j e c th e i g h to f l e s st h a n 1 5 0m r n c o u l ds u b s t a n t i a l l l b required n a l b c n l n c r c a s e o n s t r u c t l oc o s r s e c a u s e d t i i t i o n ae X c a v a t i o r v O u l d e t h ed r i v e r ' s I l c t o p r o v i d et h e l o n g e r r e s tv e r t i c a c u r v c s . t i s a l s od o u b t f u lt h a t situationwould be increaset'1. t. pcrceivca hazardous ,rtritiry for The objectheightof 1300mm i'sadopted ob,iect. sight distance Passing height' the superseding t'100-mmobjcct sight tlistlncc crtlculations. passirrg thatmustbe are vehicles thc objects srnce1940.Bccause \vhichhltj beenuserl bodl vehicle passenger the and passing becluse heightofthe average scenrvhen height this heightabtlvethc pavemcnt' to hls beenreducctl ltsculrent l-1(10-mnr cllcullted on this Plssingsightdistlnces for cllculatittnpur?oscs. w ill bc usetl of the becausc- beams the titr atlcquatc nightconditions l.lasis llsrl considercd rrrc thln arc gr'ncrally secnfrom a greltcrdistance vehicle ef hcadlighrs 1pirpposing

It is not necessary consider passing to sightdistance highways streets on or that havetwo or more traffic lanesin eachdirectionof travel.Passing maneuvers on multilane roadwaysare expectedto occur within the limits of each one-way traveled way. Thus passingmaneuvers that require crossingthe centerlineof four-laneundividedroadwaysorcrossingthe medianof four-laneroadwaysare reckless and shouldbe prohibited. It is imperative multilane that roadways havecontinuously adequate stopping with greaterthanminimum distancebeing preferred. sight distance, Lengthsof stopping vary with vehicle speed andarediscussed detailat the sightdistance in beginning this chapter. of

: : I ! I

Criteria for Measuring Sight Distance alonga roadwaythatan objectof specified Sightdistance thedistance is height visibleto thedriver.This distance dependent theheightof is continuously is on the the tfe driver'seyeabove roadsurface, specified objectheightabove road thc within the line of sight. surface, and the heightof sightobstructions

Height of Driver's E.ye vehicles. heightof thedriver's For sightdistance calculations pa.ssenger tor the eye is considered be 1070mm abovethe road surface. to This value is bascd ( v o n s t u d i e s l { . 1 5 .1 6 .t 7 ) w h i c hs h o wt h a ta v c r a g e e h i c l e e i g h t s e c r e a s c d h d s i n c e 1 9 6 0t o 1 3 0 0m m w i t h a c o m p a r a b ld e c r e a s ie a v e r a g e y e h e i g h t s o e n t v 1 0 7 0m m . T h e a v e r a g e e h i c l e e i g h t s e c r e a s e6 6 m m i n t h i sp e r i o d w h i c h . h d d c o r r e l a t e w e l l w i t h t h e 5 3 m r n r e d u c t i o nn a v e r a g e y e h e i g h t s I n t h es a r n c s i e . t i m ep e r i o dt h em i n i m u mh e i g h t f e y ed e c r e a s e6 4 m m t o 1 0 0 0 m . B c c a u s c o d m o f t h i s s i g n i f i c a nc h a n g e n t h e m i n i m u me y e h e i g h t st h e d e s i g ne y e h c i g h t t i , e l f e c t o f l e n g t h e n i n g i n i m u m c r e s t v e r t i c a l c u r v e s b y a p p r o x i m r t c l y5 m p e r c e n tt.h e r e b v r o v i d i n g b o u t2 . 5 p e r c e n m o r es i g h td i s t a n c eB c c a u s c f o p t . a p v a r i r l u s: t c t t l r sh r r a r r r r e ltro p l l r c e r 0 c t i c alli r n i t so n a n v f u r t h e r c c r c : r s c t t is l t t r d

AASHTO--GeometricDesign of Highwoys and Streets

Elementsof Desipn

t Obstructions
On rangentsthe obstruction that lirnits the driver's sight distance the road is lurfqce at some point on a crest vertical curve. on horizontalcurves the obstruction limits thedriver'ssightdistance that may be theroadsurt'ace some at pointon a crestvenicalcurve.or it mav be somephysicalfeature outside the of traveled way, suchas a longitudinal barrier, bridge-approach slope, tree, a fill a foliage, thebackslope a cut secrion. or of Accordingly, hi_ehway ail consrruction plans should be checkedin both the verricaland horizontalplane fbr sight distance obstructions.

Ule-esuring Recording and SightDistance Plans on

The designof horizontal alinement and verticalprofile usingsightdistance and other criteriais coveredlater in this chapter, particularlythe detail designof horizontal andvertical curves. Sightdistance, however, shouldbe considered in thepreliminary stages designwhenboththehorizontal vertical of and alinement arestill subject adjustment. determining to By graphically sightdisrances rhe on theplansandrecording themat frequent intervals, designer appraise the can the overalllayoutandeffecta morebalanced design minoradjustments theplan by in or profile.Methodstbr scalingsightdi.stances demonstratecl FigureIII-3. are in The figurealsoshorvs typicalsightdistance a recordthatwouldbe shownon rhe final plans. Because the view of' the highway aheadmay chanr:erapicllyin a short nce.it is desirable measure recordsightdistartce bothclirections to and lbr o f t r a v c la t e a c hs t a t i o nB o t h h o r i z o n t aa n dv e r l i c a s i g h tc l i s t a n c e s o u l d c . . l l sh b measured and the shorterlcngthsrecordccl. the caseof trvo-lane In highways, passing sightdistance additionto stopping in sightdistance shouldbe nreasure4 and recordcd. Sight distancc shartssuchas thosein FisuresIII-.19rhroughIll-.12nraybc u s e dt o e s t a b l i s n t i n i m u ml c n g t h s f v e r t i c ac u r v c s C h a r t s i m i l a rt o F i g u r e s h l o . s I I I - 2 + Aa n dl l l - l ' l B a r cu s e f u lf b r d e t e r m i n i ntg c r a d i u s l ' h o r i z o n t a lu r v ei ) r h o c the lateral oft.set therel'rom nccdcdto providerhc requircdsightdistancc. Oncc t h e h o r i z o n t aa n d v e r t i c a a l i n c n t u ' nas c t e t i t a t i v c l c s r a b l i s h c ch,c p r l c t i c a l l l tr y ti tncanstlf L'.\irntining sight distanccs alons the proposcd highway is lrv dircct s c a l i n g n t h ep l a n s . o H t l r i z o n t l tsl i g h td i s t a n c c n l h c i n s i d e f a c u r v ei s l i n r i t c cb v o b s t r u c t i o n s o o l s u c l rl s b u i l d i n g s h c d g e s w o o d c da r c a s . i g h g r o u n d .o r o t h e rt o p o g r l p h i c . . h w i t h a s t r a i g h r c t l s a , sn d i c a r c dr r h cu p p c rl c t ' ti n F i g u r cl l l - . 1 .T h c c u rs l o p c c. i r o b s t r u c t i t l ns s h o w r r l n t h c r v o r k s h c c tb 1 , r l i r r cr c p r c s c n t i n qh c p r o p t l s c ' t l i t s t

e m o m a e x c a v a r i os l o p e i a p o i n r 6 0 0 m ( a p p r o x i m a ia v e r a g e f 1 0 7 0 m a n d 1 5 0 n mm) abovethe road surfacefor stoppingsight distanceand at a point about of The position this sightd istance. for I 100 mm abovetheroadsurface passing from theplottedhighwaycross may be scaled to Iinewith respect thecenterline between shouldbe measured sightdistance the Preferably. stopping secrions. from themiddleof one sightdistance pointson rheonetraffic lane.andpassing on lane to the middle of the other lane.Such refinement two-lanehighways way or to and generallyis not necessary measurement the centerline traveled of Wheretherearechanges gradecoincidentwith horizontal edgeis suitable. c c u r v e st h a t h a v e s i g h t - l i m i t i n g u t s l o p e so n t h e i n s i d e ,t h e l i n e - o f - s i g h t average the intercepts slopeat a level eitherlower or higherthanthe assumed 600- or error in the useof the assumed the sightdistance height.In measuring I100-mm heightusuallycan be ignored. may be scaledfrom a plottedprofile by the method Verticalsightdistance strip with parallel at illustrated the right centerof FigureIII-3. A transparent and 1070mm from the lines l50mm edges1300mm apartandwith scratched with the verticalscale,is a usefultool. The 1070upperedge,in accordance mm line is placedon the stationfrom which the vertical sight distanceis {esired,andthe strip is pivotedaboutthis point until the upperedgeis tangent betweenthe initial stationand the stationon the to the profile. The distance The profile intersected the 150-mm line is the stoppingsight distance. by by' the between initial stationandthe stationon theprofile intersected distance s t h e l o w e re d g eo f t h e s t r i pi s t h e p a s s i n g i g h td i s t a n c e . r s A s i n t p l e i g h td i s t a n c ee c o r di s s h o w ni n t h e l o w e r p a r t o f F i g u r eI I I - 3 . by are in Sight distances both directions indicated arrowsand liguresat each stationon the pltn and profile sheetof the proposedhighwal'.To avoid the h l g e x t r ew o r k o f m e a s u r i n u n u s u a l l yo n gs i g h td i s t a n c ets a tm a ! 'o c c a s i o n a l l l r shorvn. In maxinrumvaluetnay be recorded. the exanrple be found.a selected and wherethis as of all sightdistances more than 1000m arerecorded 1000+. a e e l o c c u r sf o r s e v e r ac o n s e c u t i vs t a t i o n st,h e i n t e r m e d i a tv a l u e s r eo m i t t e d ' t e S i g h td i s t a n c els s st h a n5 0 0 m m a v b e s c a l e d o t h e n e a r e s lt0 m l n d t h o s e l s t m rn g r e t t e i t h a n- 5 ( X ) t o t h e n c a r c s- 5 0 . T h c a v a i l a b l e i g h td i s t a n c cls o n s r t u . l p r o p o s c 'h i g h w a ya l s gm a v b e s h t t w nh y o t h c rm c t h o d sS c v e r l tS t a t e s s eI d w i s i g h tt l i s t l n c eg r a p h .p l o t t c . dn c g n i u n c t i o n i t h t h e p l a n l n d p r t l f i l eo t ' t l t e S si o h i g h w a l. a s a l l t e a n s f d e m c l n s t r a t i n gg h t d i s t a n c e s . i g h t d i s t l n c c sc 1 1 n c l a d e t e r r n i n ea l s ow h e r ep l a n s n dp r o f i l c s r c d r l t w nu s i n g o m p u t e r d elsily be s s a n dd r a l t i n g v s t e m ( C A D D ) . d aided esign
Sight distance records t'or two-lanc highrvlys may be usctl ttl rl(l\ant1ge to t c ' n t a t i v e l vd e t e r m i n e t h e m a r k i n g t l f n o - p a s s i n gz o n c s i n l t c c o r d l n c e w i t h

criteria civen in thc iVIUTCD(8). illarking of such zonesis iln operltionrll z t d r c t h c rt h t n a d e s i g np r o b l e m .N o - p a s s i n g ( ) n c s h u sc ' s t l b l i s h c s e r v ea s I th i s c t l r n p l c t c d : c r o n e ss o d L ' t c r m i n c d w g u i d et i t r m a r k i n g s h e nt h e h i g h r v a y

beforcaclualmariiinSs by andadjustcd f ield measurcmsnts shouldbe chccked

ilre Placed'

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for highways determrnrng alsoareusefulon t'"\,o-lanc records dign, distance to is which sightdistance restricted less ol'lengthof highwqyon rhepJrcenrage w c irn e v a l u a r i n g a p a c i r l " i t h r h a nt h e p a s ; i n gm i n i m u m .w h i c h i s i m p o r r a n part ol Figure Ill-3' ir is a simpie as rccordedsight distances. in the lower u'ith a given sight o{' pro..r. to iet.rmin. the percenlage lengthof highwal' or distance !:realer.

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HORIZONTAL ALINEMENT TheoreticalConsiderations

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should'as i'araseconomlelenlents designall geometric lilr baltncein highu,a1., likely at operation a speed continuous to be cally l'easible, clerermined providesafe, underthegeneralconditionsforthathighwayorstreet.Forthemostpartthisisdon the designof highway rhroughtlie useof designspeedas the overallcontrol.In designspeedand ro curvesit is neces.sary esiablishthe properrelationbetween and side friction' curvatureand also their joint rclations with superelevation for values use the stemfrom thelawsof mechanics, actual relations Althoughthese empirimore or less on in designdepend practicallimits and factorsdetermined involved.Theselimits and factorsareexplained variables cally oier the rangeof design' of bclou' with determination logical controlsfor highwaycurve Whenavehiclemovesinacircularpath,itisforcedradiallyoutwardby by the vehicle mass centrifugalforce. The centrifugalforce is counterbalanced or superelevation the sidefriction developed relatedto the roadiay "on.'pon-.n, betweentiresandSurfaceorbyacombinationofthetwo'Fromthelawsof on a curve the mechanics, basicpoint mass(curve)formulafor vehicleoperation is the followins.

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percent; e = rateof roadwaysuperelevation, f = side friction factor; m/s v = vehiclesPeed, g = 9'807 m/s?

[:futtteas ol [)e t i r t n

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o c y s a o c c a s i o nw h e nv e h i c l e p c e d s r e r e d u c e d o n s i d e r a b lb e c a u s e f h i g h w a l s h s s o m e r u c k s a v eh i g hc e n t e ro f g r a v i t l ' t v o s r r a f t l c o l u m e r o t h e r c o n d i t i o nA l.s o vehicles Whenthese travelslowlv suspended theaxles. on cars loosely are endsome of a crossslopcs. high percenta-ce the massis carriedby the innertires. on steep

Side Friction F'actor u i i s s W i t h w i d ev a r i a t i o nn v e h i c l e p e e d o n c u r v e st,h e r e s u a l l y s a n u n b a l a n c e d or lbrce whetherthe curve is superelevated not. This fbrce resultsin tire side by thrust which is counterbalanced fiiction betweentires and surface.The patcharea the of of by of countertbrce frictionis developed distortion thecontact tire. of The coefTicient friction I is the friction force divided by the mass curve as and perpendicular thepavement is expressed thefollowingsimplified to fbrmula: research and experience,limiting values have beenestabFrom accumulated f valuewith a conservative valuein the basic lishedfor e and f. Using the en,a, formula permits determinationof minimum curve radii for various design For a given designspeed,use of curves with radii longer than the speeds. the in minimum calls for balance the factorsinvolvedto determine desirable are separately These factors discussed rates superelevation belowthemaximum. in the followins sections.

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l=-

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r00

Superelevation to In subject iceand limit to therateof superelevation. areas Thereis a practical cannotbe greaterthanthat on which vehicles snow the rateof superelevation standingor traveling slowly would slide down the cross slope when the can of pavement icy. At higherspeeds phenomentln panial hydroplaning the is thatallowswaterbuildup.Skidding drainage occuron curveswith poorsurtace when the lubricating ettectof the watertllrn occurs.usuallyat thc rearrvheels, lateralfrictionbelow the demandbeing madeby cornering. reduces available negltivelateral I Whentrlveling slowlyaround curvewith high superelevation, thc car is hcld in the properpathonly whenthedriverstcers tirrces developand curve.This dircctiontlt thc. up the slopeor against directionof the horizontal c.xphins on thepartof thedriverandpo.ssiblv movcment steerine an unnatural is is wherethe superelevltion in ercessof that thc difl'icultvof driving on roads on is Sucha high rateof superelevation undcsirltblc rcquiredlor normalspecds. wherelhcrelrc nunlcrous areas. :ts roads, in urbln and suburban high-vrllunre

has becn calletl lateralratio, comeringratio, unbalanced l'lris cocl'ficient of Because its wicleccntlifugalratio,friction factor.and side friction f'actor. sprearl use.thc Iasttcrm is uscdhcrcin.The uppcrlinrit of this factoris that at c g r v h i c h h c t i r e i s s k i c l d i r lo r a t t h e p o i n to f i n r p e n d i n s k i d .B e c a u s h i g h u ' a 1 s t o s g s t c u r v c s . r r c c s i g n c do i . t v o i d k i c l d i n c o n d i t i o n r v i t ha n r a r g i n f s a f e t yt.h c I i d c t v u l u c s h o u k h c s u h s t a n t i l l l lv s st h a nt h ec o c f f i c i e no f f r i c t i o no f i m p e n d i n g s l s ki d . 'l'hc on siric'tl'ictionl'actorat which siclcskiilding is irnminentdepends l of arc ntostitnportant thespeed thevehicle. thc anlong rrurnbcr tirctors. of "vhich of surtace. thetypeandcondition thc and oi thc typc rrnd condition theroath.vrtv rrraximutn ratcsat thc satnc dift'erent tircs.Dif'li.rc.rrt obscrlcrshovc recorded tlf prt\L-rrlcnts. lo{icallv srl. becausc thc ilntl sl.rcctls sinrillr crlrrtpositiott tirr condition. s, tt . i r r h c r c n lti l ' t c r c n c cn p a v e n t c n e \ t u r e w c t t h c r c o n d i t i o na n dt i r e is t ln qcncnrl.studicssltrlw that thc ntlximurrt sidc frictitln tactorsdevelopcd pxvcmcnts rangcl'romabtlut0.5 at -]0 knrr' bctrvcrnncw tircsrtntlrvc(concrctc and 0..1-5 l(X) krrtft. Fcrrnormal wet concrctcpitvc'mcnt It to lrpproxirnlttclr at 5 I 0 s r r l o o t t i r c st h c v u l u ci s a b o u t . . 1 -l it 7 0 k r n l r . I n l l l c l s e st h c s t u d i c s f i e r v h ( tlccrcasc l'rictionvrlues tbr un incretsein speed ltt. 19.20). in
n'cs should not bc dcsrgnetldtrcctlv on t r so l t h e m a x r m u m l v a l

with I'actor thatcan be usc'd sidc t'rictron Thc prlrtiontll'thc sidc t'riction t'uctor. c t l r n l i l r lu r t ds l t i ' t v b v t h c v l s t r n l i o r i t v o l ' d r i v c r ss h o u l db c t h e n t a x t n r u n l

145

V a t t o * i U I e r a l u e f b r d e s i g n . a l u c i r h i r r e l a t er o p a v e m c n r r h a ra r e g l a z c . t l . s b l e e d i n g , r o t h e r w i s e c k i n g n r e a s o n a bse i d - r e s i s t ap rto p e r t i es h o u l d o t o la i lk s n n - control designbecause theseconditionsare avoidableand geometricdesign shouldbe based acceptable on surface conditions attainable reasonable at cost. I n s e l e c t i n g a x i m u ma l l o w a b l e i d ef r i c t i o nf a c t o r s b r u s ei n d e s i g no n e m s f . c r i t e r i o ni s t h e p o i n t a t w h i c h t h e c e n t r i f u g atlb r c e i s s u f f i c i e n t o c a u s rr' h e r d r i v e r t o e x p e r i e n c e t ' e e l i n g f d i s c o m t b r t n d c a u s eh i m o r h e r t o r e a c t a o a i n s t i n c t i v e l yo a v o i dh i g h e rs p e e dT h e s p e e d n a c u r v e .a t w h i c hd i s c o m t b r r t . o d u et o t h ec e n t r i f u g aflb r c ei s e v i d e n t o t h ed r i v e r ,c a nb e a c c e p r ea sa d c s i g n r d c o n t r o lf b r t h e m a x i m u ma l l o w a b l e m o u n to f s i d e f r i c t i o n .A t l o w e r n o n a which are typical in urban areas,drivers are more uniform running speeds, tolerantof discomtbrt, thuspermitting employment an increased of amountof ' -'liO. friction for use in designof horizontalcurves. The ball-bankindicatorhas been widely used by research groups,local agencies, and highway depanments a unifbrm measurefor rhe point of as discomfort setsat'e speeds curyes. consists a steelball in a sealed to on It of glass tube. The ball is freeto rollexceptfor thedamping eff'ect theliquid in thetubc. of Its simplicityof construction operation led to widespread and has acceptancs as a guidefor determination saf'e With sucha devicemounted a vehiclc of speeds. in in motion.theball-bank reading any time is indicative thecombincd at of efl'cct of the body roll angle,the centrifugal forceangle.ancl superelevation the anglc a s s h o w ni n F i g u r eI I I - 4 . The centrifugalfbrce developed a vehicletravelsat unifbrm spcctlon a as c u r v e a u s e t h eb a l lt o r o l l o u tt o a f i x e da n g l e o s i t i o n ss h o w ni n l j i g u r cI l l - . 1 . c s p a A correctionmu.st rrrade thatportionof thc forc:c be for takenup in thc snltll :-rorly The inclicatecl lirrceperce side roll angle. ivecl thc vc'hicle by occt-tpantsthuson is the orcler F = tnn (cr-O). of (20) it rvas ()n of'tlet'initive In a series tests concludctl thatsat'c spccds curvcs w e r e i n d i c a t e d b y b a l l - b a n k r e a d i n-s sfo fr s p e e d s o f k m / l r o r l c s s 2 " l i r r l l" b 30 l. of speecls -10rnd -50km/h. and l0" tbr specdsof 5-5through tiO krrr/h.Thcsc ball-bank rerdingslrc indicative sidetiiction thctors 0.2I . 0. I tt, and0, 1.5, of of respcctivclv. thc tcst bodv roll unglcsanclprovidc llmplL'marsirr tilr ot'slfi'tv aqrinst kidding. s ( F r o mo t h e rt e s t s 2 1 ) .a r n a ri m u n rs i d ci i i c t i o nt u c t o r f 0 . I 6 l i r r s p c c r l u p r r t s o (X)km/h wils rec()mnrcnded. h irlhcrspecds is f rrctor tln I For rvus bc rctluccrl th lo ( l 9 t l c r lt o r t a n i n c r e m e n t a la s i sS p e e ' slt u d i c s n t h e P c n n s v l v : r nTa r n p i k c b . o t iu (). conclusion thlt thesidefiiction tirctorshouldnot excccd l0 tilr tlcsirrrspcctls o f l l 0 k m / ha n dh i q h c r . ot' tlrili anglc conditions hich frictiontlcrnlnd.Srvervinr: bt'comcs l^-rccptiblc. lntl incrc:rscrl lurtc incrclscs. stccring cl'tirrr rcquircdtr'luvoid invrlluntrrn- littt: is br' viollttion. Llntlcr thcsc contlitions c()nc visirln of thc' s niln()\\ lntl is uccorrtpltnictl

'

Brll brnk lndlcrtor anglc lody roll angle Ccntrlfugalfor.ccrnglc Supcrc'lcvrtlon tnglc

P . ! r 0 .

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Figure lll-4. Geometry for ball-bank indicator.

by unclcsirable most considered and sense concentration intensity of Irnincrcasing to al'e tlrivcrs. Thesetitctors moreapparent a driver underopenroadconditions. tbr shouldbeconsen'ative dr1 Whenpractical. maximumt'actors selected the that on for pavcments providea marginof sat'ety operating pavements are and skid-resistant wct as sr'll as ice or snow covered.The need tbr providin-e because plvcrnentsurtrcing tbr thcseconditionscannotbe clveremphasized geomctrv thosc are by srrpcrimposed thcfrictional dcrnlndsdictated roadway on and ottcn nrlde by driving nrrneuvers such as braking,suddcnllne changes. thc maneuvers ntinorchanqes directionwithin the lane.In theseshort-terrn in high and. const'quently. discrrnrlbn thrc'shold nor perceivedimrnediately is by i t ' r i c t i o n c ' m a n c l n e x i s tb u t n o t b e p e r c e i v c dn t i m e t b r c o m p e n s a t i o n ' l d d conr spc'ed reduction. tirnable rclatingto sidefriction of FigureIII--5 surnrnarizes t'inding thecitedtests the design rrtugrcemcnt thesidcfrictiontictor shouldbe lower tilr high-speed that ( n l h ; r rtri r rl o * ' - s p e ed c s i q nR e t l r t o s u b s e q u c n e c t i o nis t h i sc h l p t e r " D e s i g n st . d I o r . . \ l l R u r l l f l i c h r v a r s n d H i g h S p c ' c d r b r r n r e c t s "a n d" D c s i g nf o r L t r * U S a

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AASHTO--CeometricDesign of Highv'aysand Streets

Elementsof Design

t49

stribution of e and f OVei a Range of CurveS 'Fbr centrifugal for a given designspeedthereare five methods counteracting forceon curyesby useof e or f, or both.Thesemethodsfollow, and the resulting in are relations illustrated FieureIII-7: to and Superelevation sidetiiction aredirectlyproportional the inverse relationexistsbetweenl/R = O and of the radius,i.e., a straight-line l / R = l / Rm l n . 2. Side friction is such that a vehicle travelingat design speedhas all in centrifugal force counteracted direct proportion by side triction on curves'f remainsal f."* and curyesup to thoserequiringf.u^. For sharper in e is then usedin direct proportionto the continuedincrease curvature er"". until e reaches .a is Superelevation suchthat a vehicletravelingat designspeedhas all on in force counteracted direct proportionby superelevation centrifugal and curyes,e remainsat emax that requiringeru^.For sharper curyesup to in f is then usedin direct proportionto the continuedincrease curvature f..^. until f reaches n Method4 is the sameas method3, exceptthat it is basedon average of instead designspeed. runningspeed and Superelevation side friction are in a curvilinearrelationwith the of those methods inverse theradiusof thecurve,with valuesbetween of I a n d3 . versus the of relations superelevation FigureIII-7A showsthe comparative showsthe FigureIII-7B inverseof the radiusof the curve ibr thesemethods. and at valueof sidefiiction for a vehicletraveling designspeed. corresponding runningspeed. average at III-7C fbr one traveling the corresponding Fi-eure of and superelevation theinverse theradius between relation The straight-line m o f t h e c u r v e o f e t h o dl r e s u l t s i n a s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s i d e f r i c t i o n a n d t h e This method at traveling eitherthe designor runningspeed. radiustbr vehicles rnerit and togic other than its simplicity.On any panicular has consi<Jerable and curyesof varying of consists tangents alinement highway,the horizontal of Application superelevation speed. up sharpness to themaximumtbrthedesign of to proportional the inverse thc radiuswould, tbr vehicles clirectly in amounts travelingat unitbrm speed.resultin side tiiction tactorswith a straight-line variationfrom zeroon tangcnts iignoring crossslope)to the maximum aI the to This methodmight appear be an idealmeans curvature. depends travel at I on of distributingthe side tiiction tactor. but its success travel of am.regardless whether speed eachvehiclein thetrafficstre by constant or degree, a curve with the mrxlmum a is ori a tangent, curyc of intermediate

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and superelevation sidefriction. Figure lll-7. Methods distribuling of

AASHTO--1-;eometricDesign of Highways and Steets

Elementsof Design

151

--

aturefor thatdesignspeed. While unitomt speed the aim of moSt is drivers andcan be obtained well-designed on highwayswhen volumesare nor heavy, thereis a tendency somedriversto travel fasteron tangents the flatter for and euryes thanon the sharper curves,particularly afterbeingdelayed inability by to passslower moving vehicles.This tendencypoints to the desirabiliry of providingsuperelevation rateslor intermediate curyessomewhat excess in of thosethatresulrfrom useof method l. Method 2 usesside friction to counteract centrifugalforce up to the all curyatureconesponding the maximum allowable side friction, and this to maximum allowableside friction is availableon all sharpercuryes.In this method,superelevation introducedonly after the maximum allowable side is friction hasbeenused. Therefore, superelevation requiredon flattercurves no is that requirelessthanmaximum allowableside friction for vehiclestravelingat (See thedesign speed. curve2 in FigureIII-7A.) Whensuperelevationneeded, is it increasesrapidly as curves with maximum allowable side friction grow sharper. Because methodis completelydependent availablesidefriction, this on its useis generally limited to locations wheretravelspeed not uniform,such is ason urbanstreets. This methodis particularlyadvantageous low-speed on urban streets where,because various of constraints, superelevation frequently cannot be provided. In method3, which waspracticed manyyears ago,superelevation counterto act all centrifugal force when travelingat the designspeedis providedon all curyesup to that requiringnraximumpracticalsuperelevation, this maxiand lnumsuperelevationprovided all sharpercurves. is on Underthispractice side no friction is required llat curveswith lessthan maximumsuperelevation on fbr \ t l i c l e s t r l v e l i n ga t t h ed e s i g n p e e dc u r v e3 i n F i g u r e I I - 7 8 ,a n ds i d ef r i c t i o n s . I rcquircrd increases rapidlyascurves with maximumsuperelevation sharper. grow Further, shownby curve3 in FigureIII-7C, lbr vehicles as travelin_{ average ar runningspeed. superelevation this methodresults negative in frictiontbr curves from very flat up to about middleof therange. the abovewhichcurvature side the tiiction increases rapidly up to the maximum for the minimum radius of curv'tture. This markedditference side tiiction required differentcurves in tbr is not logicaland resultsin enatic driving. c'ithcr designor averaue at running speed. llethod -l is an attcmptto ovcrcomethe detlciencies method3 by using of superelevation a speed on lowerthandesign speed. This method been widely has trscdwith an avcragc runningspecdtbr which all centritugal tbrceis compen\itcd by superelevation curvestlattcrthanthatrequiring ma.rimum of the rateof supcrelcvalion. This averagerunning speedrvas an approximation that. as
scnrcu ln I aDle lil- lj. vanes lrom 6,t to luu pcrcent ol destgn . LUrve

average runningspeed sidefiiction is required to thiscurvature, side no and up rapidly and in direct proportionfor sharpercurves.This friction increases methodha-s samedisadvantages method3, but they apply to a smaller the as degree. To favor the overdrivingcharacteristics occur on tlat to intermediate that curves.it is desirable that the superelevation approximate that obtainedby -1. method Overdriving suchcurvesis not dangerous on because superelevation counteracts nearlyall centrifugal forceat average runningspeed, considerand able side friction is availablefbr greaterspeed. On the other hand,it also is part desirable lavormethodI , whichavoids substantial of therange curves to a of with maximum superelevation. Usingmethod a curved 5, line(curve asshown 5, within the triangular working rangebetween curyesI and 4 in FigureIII-7A) represents superelevation side friction distributionreasonably a and satisfying both aspects. Curve 5 of unsymmetricalparabolicfbrm represents practical a distribution over the rangeof curvature.

DesignConsiderations In highway curvedesign, is necessary determine it to superelevation which rates areapplicable overtherange curvature eachdesign for of of speed. Oneextreme this rangeis the maximum superelevation established practical by considerationsand used to deterrnine the maximum curvaturetbr each speed.The tbr maximunrsuperelevation diff'erent difterenthighwayconditions. the is At . in f t or o t h e re \ t r e m e n o s u p c r e l e v a t i os n e e d e db r t a n g e nh i _ u h w a y s h i g h w a l ' s w i t h c x t r c n r c l vo n q - r u d i uc u r v c s . o r c u r v l t u r eb c t w e e rtr c s c x t r e m e r i n d l s F h e s l b r a g i r e nd e s i g n p e e dt.h cs u p e e i e a t i o n h o u l d ec l i s t r i b u t en s u c h a n n e r s r v s b id m that thereis a logicll relltion bct'"r'cethc side friction tirctorand the applied n superelevation e mt .

llaximum Supcrelevation Rates [ : o ra { i r c n s p e e dt,h cr n a . r i n r u r n p c r c l e v a t i o n t ca n dt h ea s s u m e v a l u et b r su nr d n r a x i m u m i d et ' r i c t i o n' a c t o irn c o m b i n a t i o n e t e r r n i nte em a r i r n u mc u r v a d h s l l t u r c .T h e r n l r i r n u r nr l t c s o t ' s u p c r e l c v a t i tu n a b l e n h i g h w a y sr e c o n t r o l l e d rs o b v s e v c r l lf u c t o r sc l i r n a t c o n d i t i o n si,. c . .t ' r c q u c n ca n dl t n o u n to f s n o wa n t l : c v t: i c c : t c r r ; l i nc o n d i t i o n si,. c . . l ' l a tr l r n r o u n t a i n o u sy p c o l ' a r c l . i . c . , r u r a l o r v t u r b a n : n d t ' r e q u c n co f ' v c r , v l t l w - r n o v i n g c h i c l c s h a tw o u l db e s u b j e c t o a v s
uncerluln ()ocralton.L()n
lolt.()t Incsc lilctors J0l

- l i n F i g u r cI l l - 7 A s h o w s h a ti n u s i n g h i sm e r h o d h en r a . r i m u mu p e r e l e v a r i o n t t r s is rr-'achcd nearthe middlc of thc curvature range.FigureIII-7C showsthat at

s i o nt h i r tn o s i n g l cr n r r x i r n u n r p e r c l c v a t i o n t ci s u n i v e r s a l liv p p l i c l b l c n d su nr r a t h a ta r a n r r er f r l l u e s r n u s th c u s c d . r

I
I t52 O:llS" plry@!.qlyld AASHTO--Geometric Sllgtlt 1
Elementsof Design

t53

:
For rates superelevation -: 4 6. 8, l0 and I 2 percent areusedherein. eachof ratesfor flatter and actualsuperelevation theseratesthe maximumcurvature For actualdesign use an agencywill generallyuse curyes are determined. differentvalueswithin the rangeof ratesfor differentroadsystems'

ratb maiimum superelevation for open highwaysin commonuseis of t t h eo r d e ro f l 0 p e r c e no r s o m e t i m ea m a x i m u mr a t eo f l 2 p e r c e nits u s e dU s e s . withoutsnowandice.Although invariablyarein areas liiates above8 percent highersuperelevation rates offer an advantage the groupofdrivers traveling to at high speeds. currentpracticedemonstrates ratesabove l2 percentare that p i n b e y o n d r a c t i c alli m i t sf o r o p e n i g h w a y sT h i s p r a c t i c es i n r e c o g n i t i oo f t h e h . processes, difficulties,and combinedcontrolsof construction maintenance operationof vehiclesat low speeds. Thus, a superelevation of l2 percentappears represent maximum to a rate practicalvalue wheresnow and ice do not exist. A superelevation of l2 rate percentmay be usedon low-volume gravel-surfaced roads to f'acilitate cross conducive drainage, however, rates thismagnitude cause can higherspeeds, of ' to rutting and displacement gravel. Generally 8 percentis recognizedas a of reasonable value. Wheresnowandicearefactors, showthata superelevation tests experience and rate of about 8 percentis a logical maximum to minimize slippingacrossa from a stopped highwaywhenstopped attempting slowly gain momentum to or position.One series tests(18) yieldedcoefficientof friction valuesfor ice of rangingfrom 0.050to 0.200depending thecondition the ice,i.e.,wet,dry, on of clean,smooth.or rough.Testson looseor packedsnow show coefficients of thesevalues. rangingfrom 0.200 to 0.400.Other tests(22) corroborated friction conditions The lower valueprobably only underthin film "quick freeze" occurs - l"C in thepresence wateron thepavement. of at a temperature about of Similar surf,ace. oil with low values mav prevailwith thin layers mud on thepavement of and a sufficlentdepthof ivateron the or flushedspots,and with high speeds pavement surthce permithydroplaning. these to For reasons someagencies have adopted maximum rateof 8 percent. a Theseagencies believethat ll percent represents logicalmaximum.re'gardless snow or ice conditions. avoid a of to excessive etfort ;lnderraticoperation driving slowly arounda curve. in Wheretratficcongestion extensive acts marginal development to curb top or speeds, is commonpractice utilizea low maximumrrte of superelevation. it to -l or usually to 6 perccnt. Similarly. eithera low maximumrateof superelevation within imponantintcrscction lreasor wherethere no superelevutionernploved is warnmovements. is a tendenc;- driveslowly because tunringandcrossing to of pavements ins devices. signals. these and it tbr In areas is diftlcultto warpcrossing withoutnegative drainage for superelevation sometumingmovements. that ( l) several rates. ln summarvof the above.it may be concluded rather th;rn sinr:le a rrte.of mlximum superelevation shouldberecognized establishin ing designcontrolstbr highwaycurves.(2) a rateof l2 percent.should be not exceeded, a rateof 4 or 6 percent applicable urbandesignin areas with is tbr {-l) little or no constraints, (.1)superelevation may be omittedon low speed and f u r b a n s t r c c t ss u h i e c t e d( ) s e v e r e o n s t r a i n t sA c c o r d i n g l v . i v e m a r i m u m c . t

iVlinimum Radius s f i T h e m i n i m u mr a d i u s s a l i m i t i n gv a l u eo f c u r v a t u r eo r a g i v e nd e s i g n p e e d and themaximumrateof superelevation themaximum from and is determined for side friction factor selected design(limiting value of 0' Use of sharper beyondthe limit would call for superelevation for curvature thatdesignspeed with tire friction beyondwhat is considconsideredpracticalor for operation ered comfortableby many drivers, or both. Thus, the minimum radius of value in alinementdesign.The minimum radiusof curvatureis a significanr of and is curvature alsoa necessary importantcontrolvaluefor determination ratesfor flattercurves. superelevation curve directlyfrom thesimplified R,.ncanbecalculated The minimumradius "Side FrictionFactor." earlieiunderthe section, fbrmulaintroduced

v:
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U D e s i g nf o r A l l R u r a l H i g h w a y sa n d H i g h ' S p e e d r b a n S t r e e t s is wherespeed and on urbanstreets ttn On all rurll highuly-s. urbanfreeways. generallv r e l a t i v e l l ,h i c h a n d r e l l t i v e l y u n i f o r m . h o r i z o n t a lc u r v e s l r e curves are generallybalancedto provide a ln,J supcrelcr.ltct-l succcssive designtbr a front onc curve to thc ncxt. A balanced rransitign sntooth-riding n b r o s s c r i c s t ' c u r r , co i v r t r t ' i n s a d i ii s p r o v i d c d y t h cd i s t r i b u t i oo f e a n df v a l u e s ' to conditions thescctl()n superclcvirtion frotn prcviouslv tiiscttsscd. rnaxittrutn Irs rvithnonttrtl crosssltt;rc. ttf values the sidcfrictitlnfactortilr lll the Fiqurclll-lt shorr.s reconrrncndcd tln as urbanstrects a solid linc superimptlsed the high* ltrs lnd high-spcetl rural a vllucs provitie reasonThcscrecotntnended III--5. FiCurc I'rottt lnalvsiscurvcs
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AASHTO-Ceometric Desi

Elements

this discusiionand from the study data previouslydiscussed, is it concluded that maximum side friction factorsselected designof all rural for hriEhways all high-speed and urbanstreets shouldbe as shownby the solid line in FigureIII-8, varyingdirectlywith the designspeed from 0.lj at 30 kmftrto 0.14 at 80 km/h thencevarying directlyto 0.09 at 120km/h. The research reporr "Side FrictionFor Superelevation Horizontal on curves" confirmsthe validity of these designvalues(62). On thebasis themaximumallowable of sidefiiction factors from FigureIII-8. TablellI-6givestheminimumradius foreachof five maximum the superelevation ratesfor designspeeds fiom 30 km/h to 120 km/h. Method 5, described previously,is recommended thedistributionof e and for f for all curyes greater than the minimum radius of curvature for all rural -"'''" ' 'highways and high-speedurban streets.Use of method 5 is discussedin the following text, tables, and figures.

.22

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Procedurefor Developmentof Finalizede Distribution The side liiction lactorsshown as the solid line on FigureIII-8 represent the maximumf values selected fordesign foreach speed. Whenthese values used are in conjunction with therecomrnended method theydetermine f distribution 5, the curvesfbr the variousspeeds. Subtracting thesecomputedf valuesfrom the computed valueof e/100+ f at designspeed, finalizede distribution thus the is o b t a i n e d(.S e eF i g u r eI I I - 9 . ) The resultin_e finalizede distribution curves,basedon merhod5 and used h e r e i na r es h o w ni n F i g u r e sI I - 1 0t o I I I - 1 4 . , I A s F i g u r eI l l - 9 i l l u s t r a t e sh ef d i s r r i b u r i oc u r v ea t t h ed e s i g n p e e du s i n g t. n s . method-5, results an unsymnretricll in parabolic curvewith legs I and 2. These legscorrespond curves4 and 3--1. to respectively, FigureIII-78. The terms in uscdin the derivation the equations of necessary compute f and finalized to the e distributions illustrated FisureIII-9. are in

Vr
ll

.t?
Assumed for Curvs Design

t-

. r0
HRB l94O Stonox & Nobl

20

l0

40

50

60

70

B0

90

r00 ll0

t?o

Speed ( km/h)

and highFigurelll-8. Sidefrictionfactorsfor ruralhighways : speedurbanstreets.

AASHTMeometric

Desi

s and st

Elementsof Design

157

Design Sped (kr/h) l0 ,10 50 60 70 80 90 00 t0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 00 l0 20 30 .lt) 50 60 70 80 90 100 lt0 I20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 l0t) il0 t:0 .10 .t0 50 60 7() 80

Maximum e %

Limiting Values of I 0 .l 7 0 .l 7 0 .r 6 0 .r 5 0 .r 4 0.14 0 .l 3 0.t2 0.1 I 0.09 0 .l 7 0.r7 0 .l 6 0 .l 5 0 .t 4 0.l4

Tolal (e/l00+0

Calculated Radius (meters)

Rounded Radius (meters)

4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00

4.m

0.21 0.21 0.20 0 .l 9 0 .l 8 0 .t 8 0.t7 0 .l 6 0 .1 5 0 .l 3 0.23 0.23 0.22 0 . 2t 0.20 0.20 0 .l 9 0.r8 0 .l 7 0.t5 0.25 0.75 0,24 0.23 o.22 0.22 0.21 0.20 0 .t 9 0 .l 7 0.27 0.27 0.26 q,?5 0.24 o.?4 0.21 0.22 0.21 0 .l 9 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.26 0.15

33.7 60.0 98.{ t19.2 21.1.3 280.0 375.2 192.t 635.2 87?.2 30.8 54.8 89.5 135.0 t92.9 25?.0 335,7 560.4 755.9 28.3 50.4 82.0 t?3.2 I 75.4 229.1 303.7 393.7 50r.5 667.O 26.2 16.7 75 . 1 I ll.4 160.8 I10.0 217.3 .157.q .t5..1.7 5q6.8
+r {

35 60 100 150 2t5 280 375 490 635 870 30 55

++

9
o
L F

',rr">' I

tnox--+-

6.m
6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 r0.00 r0.00 10.00

0. 3 r
0.12 0.il 0.09 0.17 0 .l 7 0 .l 6 0 .l 5 0 .l 4 0 .l 4 0.l3 0.l2 0 . ll 0.09 0.t'l 0 .t 7 0 .l 6 0 .t 5 0 .t 4 0 .l 4 0 .t l 0 .l ? 0.1 I 0.(B 0 .l 7 0 .t 7 0 .r 6 0 .l 5 0.t.l 0.l.l 0 .t . l 0 .r 2 0.tI 0.()9

r35 195 250 335 415 )ot,

o
o o o o
L

/))

30 )U 80 125 175 230 305 395 500 665 25 4.5 75 I!5 t60 2r0 ?15 .r60 .1.5,5 595 2-5 {.5 70 105 r-50 lq5 t.55 .t.r0 .ll5 sJ0

^ffi
l/Rmin

rq.q() 10.(x) r0.00 l0.u) r0.00 t0.(x) r0.u) r2.u) 12.(x) I 1.00 l:.(n t2.00 I :.(X) I l.(n ll.(x)
l:.fi) ll.(x)

(x) ru)
il0 lt0

0.:.r
0.2.1 t).: I

70.-r 105.0 I J8.J t9.l.s :.s5. I . i : s .I

5.lq q

of for 5 Figurelll-9. Method procedure development the finalized e distribution.

NOTE: ln rccognrtionol satlty consrdcrrlrons, of c,-. = ^|,ffi '% should bc limrtcd to urban condillons. usc

Tablelll-6. Mlnimumradlusfor designof all ruralhighways and e and t.

HTO--<; eontetic D esi AAS

ond Steets

Elementsof Design

5.0 v, km,/h

7.0 Y , km/l

\-I

4.0

\
to
5(

-\
ID

JO\

'o\

A(

qn

IO

6.0

so

7(

tl

l?

,o\

\ \ \

\ \ \
x o o +o &. c o
.t-

2.0

N N ! N S
\ \ \ \ \
o
.o

5.0

\ \ \ \

il r\
\

4.0

0.0

o o o L o a
l ]h

J.0

il il N
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ :
oo
u1 r

\ \ \ \ \

2.0

Lr) F

oo

roo

O O O - ( \ m .- * 9

oo

OO

gR 3

33
r.0

Rodius of Curve, R (meters) ernox = 4 .0U I IIOTE In recognition of sofety considerotions, use of mox = 4.01 should be limited to urbon conditions.

\
9 I 3

0.0

o ;

o ;

o *

c) oo o i-o o N

o o m

o o o o ro r

o o o

99 oo !R

Rodius of Curv9., R (meters)

g fllox =

6 .02

Figurelll-10. Designsuperelevation rates. rates' superelevation lll-11. Design Figure

AASHTA--Ceometric De.sign Highu'avsand Steets of

Elements ofDe.Eipn

t61

V, km,/h

N
t
\ \ \ \ \ \
I

roc

2A

,J
\ \ \\ \ \

il0

\ \,

o o +0 E.

\
5.0

\ \ \ \ \ \ \}\\ \ \ \ \ \' \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ ,\
t

5
o
(D t

c o
ts o o o

E,

6.0

4.0

o ts 0 o o

5.0

o o) vr

3.0

2.0

r.0
\

N\ N
\ \ \ \ \ \ \
o o
O O

o ol a

4.0

0.0

o
n

o
O

tJ) r

oo
Lf)O

o
O

o
O

o
O

oo
OO

_N

-*?

()

!R

3P

<) o o o
uf r

O -

Lr)o -N

oo

O n

O O ooo tn r O llo

o o ooo

o.]
qar

R o d iu s o f C u r v e , R ( r n e t e r s ) emox = 8.OZ

- -(\

R o d i u s o f C u r v e , R ( mler s )

Figurelll-12. Design rates. superelevation

Figurelll-13. Designsuperelevation rates.

and AASHTO-Ce ometri( Design of Highwar-.s Streets

Elementsof Design

4(

\ \

\l\
I

t |\e(

'l
tl tl il
tl ll

g s T h e f o l l o w i n ge q u a t i o na r eu s e di n c a l c u l a t i n e a n df d i s t r i b u t i o n s : Using the basiccun'e formula: ' 100 +f,

JVT

\ \ \

l\
\ \ \

il

t-r
where
I-

t xt) r 00
I

e.806 |r
I

60'

= 0.00787

:
@

8.0

\ 1000/

o
f

l,u

o
b,u

\
I

ll ll

the may be derivedas follows, neglecting Thus, the e and f distributions l-(e/100X0 term and given: Vo = designspeed,km/h; V* = runningspeed. percent; and fru^= maximumallowable km/h;e.o, = maximumsuperelevation, side friction factor.

o
@cn

\ \ \\\
I

o
@ rh

\\l
I

mrn

=-

0.00787vD2
nru. 100 + | nrri

o)

an

\\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\ \ \
I

2.0

\\l\ tN t N
\l
'\ \ \ 'f

w h e r e Rr n = m i n i r n u m R a n d ll 0.00787vR1

R,,,=

r00
of w h e r e R , , ,= R a t t h e p o i n t o ifn t e r s e c t i o n , P Il.e g s ( l ) a n d ( l ) o ft h e I parlbolic curve ( = R at the point of intcrsccdistribution a r i o no f c , , , , . / l ( X )n d( c / l t n + t ) R ) . ttr retlucc' the the Because l(X)+ f),,, tc/ 100+ t)* = [. at point R,,, cquations te/ tbllowing:
h"Pl

't

c.0

O 6

O ul

O r

(f 13 -

Oo ul O -(\l

c O m

o o o oo o o .tr o'3
n r O -

N
\ \
o o 0 (f
O O ul r

o 0
O n

urO -N

R o d i u s o f C u r v s , R ( rneters )

rates. Figure lll-14. Design superelevalion

whcreh,,,= PI ofl.set from thc l,R a.tis.

of AASHTO--CeometricDe.sig,n Highways and Streets

Elementsof Design

For l/R < l/Rp. S , = h o ,( R r , ) whereS, = slopeof leg I and

fm l x ' _h

/R r,=Mol " ' i * ,l.

sr R

wheref, = f distributionat any point l/R < l/Rprande,/100= (e/100+ 0o f'' point l/R < lRpr. at wheree,/l0O = ell00 distribution any
"Pl

\-ll
^

For liR >lRpr

-.t -"t

lvhereS, = slope of leg 2. verticalcurve is the The equationfor themiddle ordinateof an unsymmetrical following: LrL,(S,- Sr)

lR r:=Mol-f- R ,
I R.'n

{ -l---1-

'l
l-

l'

. tt t\ * n,, t,lE-*"

,J

Rr' /

MO=

2(L, + L")

= (e/100+ l;o- f,' wheref" = f distributionat any point liR > l/R'and "t4lg at wneree,/t00 = e/100distribution any point liR > llRpr' Figure III-9 is a typical layout illustratingthe method 5 procedurefor how the f value The figuredepicts e of devel,cpment the finalized distribution. for llR and then subtractedfrom the value of (e/100 + l) to is determined e/100. determine of for of An example how e is calculated a designspeed 80 km/h andefl *". and Tableslll- | 2 and lll-6 the runningspeed By u.sing of l0 pelccntfollows. to sidefriction factorare determined be 70 km/h and the maximumallowable R = s i v B 0 . l . l . r e s p e c t i v e l y .y u s i n gt h e s e e i v e n a l u e s n t h ee q u a t i o ns h o w n . , " , n a S a 2 t 0 . 0 .R ; r = 3 8 5 . 6 . n d h r , = 0 . 0 3 1 .T h e s l o p e s , a n dS l 1 1 . ^ 1 L 9 5 n d5 0 . 1 i . b s m i d d l eo r d i n a t e e c o m e 0 . 0 2 2 T h e e d i s t r i b u r. S r e s p e c t i v e l y .u b s t i t u t i n gh e t i o n v a l u ei s t h u st e / 1 0 0+ t ) 0 ,a t t h e d e s i g ns p e e df o r p o i n t R o ,m i n u st h e f ' to value lbr point Rn,or 0.077.This valuemultipliedby 100to convert percent tbr can be interpolated 386 rn at the 8()kmih to corresponds rhee valuewhich i s d e s i g n p e e dn T a b l eI I I - 1 0 .

that and where - l/Rpr L, = lA,in - l/Rp. It follows L,

'o=*t* *)(i*).","
curve' and of whereMO = middle ordinate the f distribution

* , c *tl,= (i# r,,,,.)n,"' -, -----(r,xr

in which R = radiusat any polnl. equation verticalcurv'e Use the generitl

Tables DesignSuperelevation a o t I T a b t e s l l - 7 t o I I I - l l s h o w .i n a d d i t i o n o l e n g t h f r u n o f fo r t r a n s i t i o n s l a t e r i.e.. maximumsuperelevations. tbrdiflbrent litreuchof thefive assumed speeds lbr each of the five assumed The rninirnumradii generll designcondirions.

I I
I
| 166 AASHTO--Ceometri('Design of Highway.rand Streets Elementsof Design

I I
I
f I I l I I I I I I | I l=maximum superelevations were calculated from the standard superelevation formula.with the use of f valuesfrom Figure III-8. Method 5 was used to O,-tributee and f in calculatingthe required superelevation rares for the remainder the rangeof curves.Under all but extremeweatherconditions of u.hicles travelsafelyathigherspeeds can thanthedesign speed thehorizontal for curveswith the superelevation ratesindicated the tables. in This is due to rhe d.velopment a radius/superelevation of which uses relationship friction factors that aregenerally considerably thancan be achieved. less This is illustrated in tigure lll-6 which compares assumed frictionfactors varioustypehighway for facilities andthemaximumsidefrictionfactors available certain wet anddry on .oncretepavements. The term"normal crossslope"(NC) designates curyesthatareso flar thatthe elimination of adversecross slope is not considerednecessary, and thus the normal crossslope sectionscan be used.The term "remove crossslope" (RC) designates curves where it is adequate eliminate the adversecrossslope by to superelevating entireroadwayat the normalcrossslope. the
-l 5l
3l

- - - -l

----F
--..<cccccl.g t t -,
v e 5

;l
rl >l

----*-tr
a a a d d d d l S 5 5 0lh

?Fg
in'P E :
; ;
: 6

zzddd4--i6rl

n - n e - I cF
a

r:ei
E

3t
=?

1l >t
, l

:l

? Ei i '
:i I

-vl u u o ZZxd.l -l q q

_______-m
t a q.: q qt@6S

+. e

;a
:U

a= o
G'

l; 1 "
al
^^ooQ

I
(J(J(J(Jn9aocqc!!n\qq ZZdddddddoa66ol

a F tt
I ofl

g i iE
Isisi
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r'l

r
rl

FTTTFF

9l

'l
T!

I I
oooo(Jclav19e9.l99cq zzz&{ddd ^ ^ ^ ^ o 99o99 vvvvo6ooQ

^L"
I 9 - bl - S

tl

sigl=Fi

;*;iT

-$ieii ;E E;.
i,a E

s*E

o .! o
!,

{ s HE E Ee F3 r r r r r r tt -35

SharpestCurve Without Superelevation The minimum rateof crossslopeapplicable traveled ways is determined to by drainagerequirements. Consistent with the type of highway and amountof rainfall,snow.and ice, the usuallyaccepted minimum valuesrangefrom 1.5 percentfor high-typesurf'aces approximarely percent low-typesurto 2.0 for "CrossSlope"in ChapterIV. For discussion taces: the section see purposes, a \tilue of l.-5periient usedhereinas a singlevaluerepresentative is of,hieh-type uncurbed pavelnents. Stecpercross slopes generally are needed wherecurbsarc u s e t t o n r i n i m i z e o n d i n g n t h eo u t s i d e h r o u g h a n e . l p o t l The shape tbrrn of the normalcrossslopevrries.SomeStates or and nrany municipalities a curvedtraveled use wAv crosssection two-laneroadways. tbr usuallvparabolic firnn. Othcrsemploya straight-line in secrion eachlane. tbr Verv tlathorizontal curves require superelevation. no Trattlcentering curve a to thc ri-qht somcsuperelcvation thc normalcrossslope. has in Traffic entering J curvL' the let'thusan advcrsc nL'gativc to or supcrelevltion the ntlrmalcross in slope. rvithtlatcurves sidef'riction bul the required counteract to bothcentrifugal tirrcc' tnd ncqative superelcvation srnall.l-lowcvcr, successivcly is on sharper durvcs tirr thc sanrespcetl,a ptlint is rcachedrvherethe combinationof ccntrifugaltirrcc'and negativcsuperelevltion ovcrcon'lcs allowablesidc the friction. and a positivc slopc acrossthc entire roadwal is dcsirableto help

{l alJI

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-t

td I

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i;=:;*

AASHTO-Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

of Elements Design

v v t n

-----B ------^f
il
l
d d . r d l

-----l

xL E'
UQ {i

lal' rl:l 3 l-:?

tt

=v
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=t u? (1) z
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AASHTo-Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

of Elements Design

|
|

l o o o o o o c o o o 6 l - d ; l= _ _ : l r ;:
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I o o r r6t irat or6' 6 , ,*i = = :ib s l ' ** +e e

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172

AASHTHeometric

Design of Highways and Streers

Element.s

way crosssectron appropnate. ls Many agencies express controlasa singleradius curvature this of applicable to all designspeeds. Whenusingthismethod, careshouldbe takento ensure thar thecrossslopeis sufficientto providesurfacedrainage and reducethe potential for vehicle hydroplaning werweather and skidding, especially flat,high-speed on curyes.Someagencies indicatea differentcuryaturefor eachdesignspeed. The latter method is more realistic and conforms to the previously discussed superelevation-speed-curve relations. maximumcuryature The forsections with normal cross slopesfor each designspeedshould be determined setting by consistently low friction factor values, considering effectof normalcross the slope and both directions of travel. The result is an increasing radius for successively higherdesignspeeds. .p61311 3tTerage of crossslopeof I .5 percent rate andthe superelevation curves of Figure III- l3 (e*u*= I 0 percent), corresponding the minimum radiusfor each designspeedis shown in the third column of Table III- 12.Thesearecurvatures calling for superelevation the amountof the normalcrossslope,and therefore to indicate the limit of sectionswith normal cross slopes.The friction factors developedbecauseof adversecross slope at both the design speedand the runningspeed shownin the right columns. is evidentfrom their uniform are It andlow valueovertherangein design speeds these that radiiarelogicallimiting valuesfor sections with normalcrossslopes.

thanthosein Tablelll-12, a curvessharper For a limitedrangeof horizontal of the practically retaining shape by can adjustment be obtained superelevation or the it but waycross section rotating around edge centerline thenormaltraveled on screeds rigid to it makes unnecessary change way.This adjustment of traveled curvesas on is procedure the sameon these and pavements. the construction exceptthatthe sideforms mustbe setto the properdifference sections tangent slope in sloperesults a steeper adverse of This method eliminating in elevation. whichmaybedesirable obtained, way edge-of-traveled thanotherwise atthelow way does on trafficoperating thehighsideof thetraveled However, fordrainage. to from a normalsection benefitas it doeswhen changing as not receive much for a planesection the full width. ofabout rate On a curvesharpenoughto requirea superelevation in exgess acrossthe whole traveledway shouldbe used.A 2.0 percent,a plane slope transitionfrom the normal to a straight-linecross slope is required.For short the lengthsof highwayrequiringcrossslopereversals, difficultiesand extra the may supersede desirable thesetransitions costsinvolved in constructing to percentcorresponds curves This practicallimit of 2.0 designrefinement. to speeds about3200m for with radii rangingfrom 870 m for 50-km/hdesign thesevaluesand thosein Table Forcurvesbetween I l0-km/h designspeeds. can be made by rotationof the normal adjustment III-12, the superelevation the to by or, way crosssection preferably, change a planeslopeacross traveled w w h o l et r a v e l e d a Y .

Design Speed (km/h)

Average Running Speed (km/h) .10 40 .5.5

o-')

Minimum Curve Radius (m) 4-50 800 lll0 l-5:0 2(XX)

R e s u l t i n g i d eF r i c t i o n S Factor. f. w i t h A d v e r s eC r o s sS l o p e At Design At Running Speed Speed

Effectsof (]rades fasterin the drivers tend to travel somewhat On long or tairly steepgrades. should this design tendency In direction. a refined thanin theupgrade downgrade rates in and be recognized. someadjustment superelevation wouldfollow. In the or superelevated. with eachroadwayindependentlv caseof a dividedhighrvay can be madereadily.In the simplest on a one-wavramp.suchan adjustment pracricaltbrm. valuestiom Tables lll-7 to III-Il can bc used directly by' und a assuming sgmewhlthighertlesignspeedtbr the downgrade a somewhat necessarily of The tor designspeed the upgracle. variation designspeed lower of the especially rateandlength grade conditions. on woulddepenti lhepanicular rvithothercurves vllue of the radiusol the curveas compared and the relative s o n t h ca p p r o a c h i g h w a v e c t i o n . shouldbe madeon two-lane rvhether similaradjustments It is questionable of the tn roadways. one respect two directions traftic and multilaneundivided ls of other,and adjustment superelevatton not tend to ballnce cach for specd themostcritical,andadjustment it may be is thc. H6wcver. dorvngrade Although not common practice,it i.s possibleto desirablein stlnrecascs.

30 40 .50 60 l0 ri0 90 100 lr0

t)n

t(') 77 rt.5

9r
98

l-r80 3 0r 0 .r6ll0 -11+0

.1960

0.031 0.0-lr 0.031 0.03-l 0.031 0.01.i 0.0-t6 0.0-16 0.037 0.031i

0.031 r 0.03 0.031 0.0-l I 0.0_l r 0.01r 0.01I 0.0-10 0.0-.t0 0.010

Table lll-12. Minimum curveradiusfor section with normalcross slopes.

AAS HTO--4 eometri c D esi

Elementsof Design

slopes thesame in direction. the at More practical con.struct lanes differentcross would be an adjustmentfor the whole traveledway as determined the by the downgradespeed,because extra crossslope would not significantly affect -upgrade exception heavytruckson longgrades. of travel.with thepossible Also to is in to beconsidered theoverallemphasis avoidminorchanges designspeed values. general, is advisable follow thecommonpractice disregarding to of In it on adjustment undividedroadways. suchsuperelevation

4.TheappearanceofthehighwayorStreetisenhancedbytheapplicatton and breaksat the beginning Their useavoidsthe noticeable of spiiats. I ' a r o f c i r c u l a c u r y e s ss h o w n f o r e x a m p l ei,n F i g u r e I I - l 5 ' w h i c h ending runoff' are mademore prominentby superelevation The the Generally. Eulerspiral,which is alsoknown as theclothoid,is used. end of the spiralto the radiusof the at the tangent radiusvariesfrom infinity circulararcat thecircularcuryeend.By definitionthe radiusat any pointof the of In alongthespiral. thecase measured with thedistance inversely spiralvaries curveshavingdifferentradii,there two circular acombiningspiralconnecting is an initial radiusratherthanan infinitevalue, in developed 1909by Shortt(23) Length of spiral. The followingequation, on railroadtrack curves'is the acceleration of for gradualattainment centripetal usedby somefor computingminimum lengthof a spiral: basicexpression

(Spiral)Curves Transition . gain change theconsequent or loss ularhorizontal curve. steering The and of eife "''
General. Any motor vehicle follows a transition path as it entersor leavesa "'"'"'

driver centrifugalforcecannotbe effectedinstantly.For mostcurvestheaverage path within the limits of normal lane width. can effect a suitable transition However, with combinationsof high speedand sharp curyaturethe resultant longer transitioncan result in crowding and sometimesactual occupationof adjoining lanes. In such instancestransition curves would be appropriate for theymake it easier a driver to confinethe vehicleto his or her own because and sharpcircular lane.The employmentof transitioncurvesbetweentangents differentradii warrants curyesand betweencircular curvesof substantially consideration. curyesin horizontal alinement the are advantages transition of The principal tbllowing: transition curveprovides natural, a easy-to-follow A properlydesigned path tbr drivers,such that the centrifugalfbrce increases decreases and gradually a vehicleenters and leaves circularcurve.This transition a as on curve minimizesencroachment adjoiningtraffic lanesand tendsto promoteunitbrmityin speed. desirable arrangement 2. The transitioncurve lengthprovidesa convenient The transitionbetween normalcrossslope the runotT. tbr superelevation sectionon thecurvecanbeeff'ected alongthe andthe fully superelevated curvein a manner closelytittingthespeed-radius lengthof thetransition runotTis relationtbr the vehicle traversingit. Where superelevation effectedwithout a transitioncurve, usuallypanly on curve andpartly on a to the tangent. driverapproaching curvemay haveto steeropposite the portion when on the superelevated tangent of direction thecurveahead the vehicleon in orderto the transitionin width where the traveledway spiral facilitates The provides be widened arounda circularcurve.Useof spirals is section to widening f sharp urves. o c f l e x i b i l i t vi n t h e

,= L

0.0702v1
RC

where:

L = minimum lengthof spiral'm; km/h; V = speed, m: R = curveradius, and m/s'' acceleration, of C = rateof increase centripetal

involved. the valueindicating comfortandsafety The factorC is anernpirical ranging butvalue's operation, lbr is Thevalueof C = I generally acceptetl railroad is modifiedb1 this Sornetimes fbrmula tbr frorn I to -l havebeenusecl highwa-v-s. in which results rnuchshorter of the takinginto accotlllt eft-ect supcrelevation. front as to Highwals do not appcar needas much precision is obtained lengths. A morccomputingthe lcngth of spiral by this fbrmula or its modification. praciicaliontrol for the lengthof spiral is that in which it equalsthe length runoff. tor reciuired superclevation

S u p e r e l ea t i o n R u n o t T r the termdenoting length runoff is thegeneral Length required.Supcrelevation with thc ro accorrrplish changcin crossslopetiom l section of high\\ti ncc.dcd Tangent 6r seCtitln. vice versa. ttl a tully superelevated crownrernovcd atlverse
^: ,r- - - -,- ,-..r l .* .t.,^arin,r rh,. l,.n,rrh ,rf hiohw:tv neederl to ;fccOmnliSh

cross with theadverse to slopcfrtlnra nonnltlsection a section in thcchungc. cross vcrslt. Ftlr ltlded ctlrntirnand slttty. the supcrclevltion or slgperc1rgr'ctl. vicc

HT i AAS O--C eometr i c D e,sc n

hu'a and Streets

Elementsof Desig,n

Curve widr and widrout spinl transition. Thc lhlrp "come6" at thc iuncturc of curve rnd rtnigrht linc in tho top vitw aro quite obviour f rom thc drivcr'r rcat. ManmedeAmcria, Ncw Hrwn, Connccticut: Orinopher Tunnrrd and Eoris Pushkrrtv, Yale Uniwrrity Prurr, 1963. ured bv Pcrmi3tion.

(Source: Ref.38). Figure lll-15. Transition spirals:

for the likely runoff should be effectedunifomily over a length adequate pavement edges the To operatingspeeds. be pleasingin appearance runoff as shouldnot be distorted the driver views them. employ the spiral and use its lengthin which to make the Some agencies t i b c d e s i r e d h a n g e n c r o s ss l o p e .O n e a g e n c y e l i e v e sh a t t h e l e n g t ho f s p i r a l O r s h o u l db e b a s e do n a 4 s m i n i m u m m a n e u v e t i m e a t d e s i g ns p e e d . t h e r agenciesdo not employ the spiral but empirically designateproportional In as andcircularcurvefor thesamepurpose. eithercase, far lengths tangent of runoff to the ascanbe determined, lengthof roadway effectthesuperelevation and shouldbe thesamefor the samerateof superelevation radiusof curvature. curves the The spiralsimulates naturalturningpathof a vehicle.On unspiraled path within the the averagevehicle tends to traversea similar transitioned limits of the traveledway. aspectof Review of current design practice indicatesthat the appearance runoff largely govems the length.Spiral lengthsas determined superelevation so for otherwiseoften are shorterthan that determined generalappearance, that A spiralformula valuesgive way to long empiricalrunoff values. numberof within a rangeof agencies haveestablished or morecontrolrunoff lengths one about 30 to 200 m, but there is no universallyacceptedempirical basis. consideringall likely traveledway widths. In one widely used empirical' in lengthis indicated termsof the slopeof the outside expression required the profile. way relativeto the centerline edgeof traveled and that for appearance comfort the length of Currentpracticeindicates slope(edge compared to a runoffshouldnot exceed Iongitudinal superelevation whel cpnslde1i19a qentqllile of a qvo !4qqh'g!ry4y) oll 120QIq ot[e1wqr{s. in the two-lanehighwaywith planesections, diff'erence longitudinal ,eradient profile shouldnot the between edgeof traveledway profile and its centerline exceed percent. 0.5 (2{) thesamel:200 slopeis usedfor a design speed 80 of source In another relative are km/h and higher.Wheredesignspeeds lessthan 80 km/h, greater of slopesare used.To reflectthe importance the higherdesignspeedand to both horizontaland vertical.it rvith the tlatter curving elements. harmonize relativeslopeto the higherdesign the logicalto extrapolate changing appears s p e e d s .s g i v e ni n T a b l eI I I - 1 3 . a of profilesof the edges two-lane between The maximumrelativegradients w g t t r a v e l e d a y sa r ed o u b l e h o s e i v e ni n T a b l eI I I - 1 3 . relevation. to is Lcngthof runotfon thisbasis directlyproportional thetotalsupe rate. which is the oroductof the lanewidth andsuDerelevation However,there of which shouldbe providedfor reasons are certain minimum runoff profilcs. abruptedge-of-pavement generalappearance to avoid undesirably and traveledin 2 s at the design the Theseminimum vllues approximate distance w h s p e e dT r b l e I I I - 1 1 g i v e sv a l u e sf o r t w o - l a n e i g h w a y s i t h - 1 . 0 a n d 3 . 6 - m .

AASHTO--4eontctric De signof flighv'a

and Streets

Elementsof Design

va s . V a l u e sf o r t h e l o w r s u p e r e l e t i o nr a t e s r eo n t h e b a s i s f m i n i m u m a o required whilethevalues thehighersuperelevation arebased lengths for rates on the relativegradients profilesbetweenthe edge of traveledway and the for e e n t e r l i n s h o w ni n T a b l eI I I - 1 3 . e Maximum RelativeGradients (and Equivalent llaximum Relative Slopes)for ProfilesBetweenthe Edge of Two-Lane Traveled Way and ( the Centerline %)

of For values givenaie for 3.6-mlanes. otherlanewidthsthelengths runoffvary lengths couldbe applied width to 3.6 m' Shorter of in proportion theactuallane of for designwith 3.0- and 3.3-m lanes,but considerations uniformiry and for valuessuggest thevalues 3.6-m that derived practical of theempirically use lanesshouldbe usedin all cases. L-Length of Runoff (m) for DesignSpeed(km/h) of: Superelevation R a t ei n %

DesignSpeed Vo (km/h)
JU

30

40

50

60

70

80

90 100 110 120

40 50 60
IU

80 90 100 il0 120

( 0.75l:133) (l:143) 0.70 ( 0.65l:150) ( 0.60l:167) ( 0.55l:182) 0.50( l:200) ( 0.48 l:210) ( 0.45 l:222) 0.42(l:238) 0.40( l:250)

3.6m lanes 2
A

6 8 l0 t2

20 20 30 40 50 60

25 25 35
A<

55 65

30 30 35 45 55 65

35 35 40 50 60 75

40 40 40 55 65 80

50 50 50 60 75 90

55 55 55 60 '75 90

60 65 60 65 60 65 65 70 80 85 95 105

70 70 70 "75 90 I 10.

3 . 0m l a n e s

2 Table lll-13. Relationshipof design speed to maximum relative profile gradients.

A l t h o u g h h c v a l L r cis T a b l cI I I - l 4 o l i c n w i l l b c r h ca c t u ad e s i g n o n t r o l i,t t n l c is recognizetl tilr high-type that alinement, longersupcrelevation runofflengths rnav bc dcsirable.Further.thc requircmcnts drainageor slnoothness of in way edgeprotile may call tbr adjustment values. traveled in Whena spirrl is used, superelevation the runoff usuallywill be eft'ected over the whole of thc spirallength.Depending the tbrntulaancltactorsused.the on lcngthof spiraltbr r porticulcr curvcanddesignnravbe greatcr lcssthanthc' or 'fable lcngthof runoffgivcn in III- l.l. For themostpartthecalculated vllues for lc'ngth spiral and lc'ngth runoff do rrotdift'cr rrratcrially. vic.wof the of of In cmpiricalnaturc' both. an ldjustmcnt in onc to avt'liri of twtl setsof valuesis dcsirable purposcs design tirr of control.The lengthoi runoffis applicable all to supcrL'lcvatcd cun,cs.and it is concluded thatthis vlluc alsrtshouldbe usedfilr r n i n i m u ml e n g t h s f s p i r a l . h i s v a l u ei s c o n s i s r e n t i r hd e s i g n r a c r i c ea n d o T rv p . also bc satist'uctorv usc as lcngthsof spirlls. i\linimurndcsignlenuths tirr arc g i v c ni n T a h l cI I I - 7 t o I I I - I I i n r c l a t i o no t h cr a d i u s n ds u p c r e l c v a t i oa r cT h c t a rn .
4

o u

r0
l2

20 20 25 35 .10 50

?_5 25 30 35 45 -s5

30 30 30 40 45 55

35 35 35 49 50 60

.10 40 .10 45 55 65

50 50 -50 50 60 15

55 55 55 -5.5 65 15

60 60 60 60 70 80

6.5 65 65 6.5 15 tt.5

10 70 70 70 15 90

Tablelll-14.

runoff-two-lane for required superelevation Length highways.

to The lengthof runofi applicablc traveledways wiclerthalt two lancsis On highways. this as derivation thatfor tw()-lanc theoretical subject thesante to values tor highwlys woultl be tjoublethcderived tbr basis lengths fbur-lane the and those tbr six-lanehighwaysworrld bc triple. whilc' highwa;-s rwo-lane wherc with especiall."" spirals d lengths thisordermay be considcre desirable. of not over its length.it is irequently rate superelevation is efi'ected rhechanging On of on the basis suchdirectratios. theothcr hand. to t'easible supplylengths agree mostenglncers accepted thanthosctbr a nvo-lanchighway'but no senerally shouldbe greatcr hls beenestablishcd. factoror criteriontirr lcngthraticl

AASHTHeometric

Desi

,sand Streets

Elementsof Design

supera purely empiricalbasisit is concludedthat minimum-design widerthantwo lanes shouldbeasfollows: runoff lengths forhighways elevation . Three-lane ways,1.2timesthecorresponding lengthfor two-lane traveled ways; traveled . Four-lane ways.1.5timesthecorresponding lengthfor traveled undivided ways;and two-lanetraveled . Six-lane ways,2.0 timesthe corresponding lengthfor undividedtraveled wavs. two-lanetraveled on The four-lane lengths shownin TablesIII-7 to III-l I aredetermined this empirical basis.Properdesignattentionto obtain smoothedge profiles and to grealer mrnrmums. InanInese may lenglns avoloorstoneo appearances suggest in Runoff lengthsfor divided highwaysarediscussed the section"Runoff With Medians." cross The length of tangentrunout is determinedby the amountof adverse This rate of removal slope to be removedand the rate at which it is removed. runoff. shouldpreferablybe the sameastherateusedto effect thesuperelevation is However,wherethe superelevation lessthanmaximumthe lengthof runout in may be lessas discussed the following sectionon "Methodsof Attaining " Superelevation. the designwith spirals Location with respectto end of curve. In alinement curve.The runotTis effectedover the whole of the transition superelevation with thetangent spiral(TS)at thebeginning to length runoffis thespirallength of and the spiral te,curve (SC) qt the e4d, Tle changq!n cqossslope begins by removingthe adverse crossslopefiom the lanc or laneson the outsideol'the just ahead TS (the tangent runout).(SeeFigure of curyeon a lengthof tangent way is runott-) traveled the the III-16.)Between TS and SC (thesuperelevation is on at rotated reachthe full superelevation the SC. This procedure reversed to leaving the curve. By this design the whole of the circular curve has full superelevation. n I n d e s i g n o f c u r v c s w i t h o u t s p i r a l st h e s u p e r e l c v a t i or u n o f f a l s o i s are runout.Empiricalmethods considered be thatlengthbeyondthe tangent to to runoff lengthwith respect the point employedto locatethe superelevation (PC).No methodtbrdivision between tansent the andthecircular of curvarure W at a r c u r v ec a n b e c o m p l e t e l y a t i o n a l i z e d . i t h f u l l s u p e r e l e v a t i o n t a i n e d t t h e no PC. the runolf lies entirely on the approachtangent.rvheretheoretically suDerelevation needed.At the other extreme, placementoi the runoff is i o f t h ec u r v eh a v i n sl e s st h a n e n t i r e l y n t h ec i r c u l a r u r v er e s u l l sn a o c that do not use spirals Most agencies the desiredamountof superelevation. designwith part of the runoff lengthon the tangentand part on the curve.In s t h i s c o m p r o m i s e c s i g n t h e t a n g e n tr e c e i v e s o m e b u t n o t t h e m a x i m u m d

and superelevation, the end portion of the circular curye recelves unneeded Currentdesignpracticeis to superelevation. somewhatlessthan the needed two-thirdsof the runoff on the tangentapproachand place approximately one-thirdon the curve. of favor the practice placinga lar-ger considerations theoretical In general. on ratherthan thecircular tangent theapproach on proportion oftherunofflength the on the tangent drivermay haveto superelevation curve.With the resultant to of to opposite thedirection thecurveahead stayin line,but in steer a direction which is equal to the rate of applied the maximum side friction developed, comfortis superelevation.at all timesbelowtherateof sidefrictionconsidered gurve(with on the able.A vehicletraveling designspeed the minimum 13diu5 the develops maximum sidefrictionconsidmaximumrateof superelevation) ered safe and comfortable.To apply rates of superelevationless than the maximum at any point on the curve meansthat vehiclestravelingat the design minimum.While of sidefrictionfactorsin excess the allowable develop speed the on the side friction factordeveloped the tangentis undesirable, development in results a worse greatlyin excess thedesignbasis of on curvesof friction factors condition. pathof travel. on sidetiiction factordepends the actualvehicle The resulting pathof travel runoff,someform of transition of Regardless the superelevation path usually beginswell back on the This actualtransition can be expected. on of andendsbeyondthe beginning the circularcurve,depending the tangent and width available, effect of othcrtraffic.What of sharpness curvature. speed. actually compencrossslopeon the tangent to. might appear be an undesirable lack pathof the vehiclc.Also. what can be considered for sates the curvilinear properiscompensatedTor cirCularcurve ot'the arthJhJginning of supii-tei;,rrion a r t b y t h e v e h i c l e ' s r a v e l i n g c u r v r i i n e ap c t h t h a t i s l l a t t c rt h a nt h e r o a d * ' a v circulararc. o t t t I t i s e v i d e n r h a ti n a l i n e m e nd e s i g nw i t h o u ts p i r a l s h e p l a c e r n e n tf t h e exactly tiorn with respectto the PC cannot be determined lengrhof runotf of designwith 50 to 100percent In practice intbrmation. general, and available as can runoffon thetangent be considered suiteble. the lengthofsuperelevation olthat fronr60 to ll0 percent contrtllit is concluded design For a mrtreprecise ot on shouldbe locatccl thetangent curvcswitltout olrunoff pret'erablv thelc'ngth spirals. Changeitr crosssltlpc should be Ilethods of attaining superelevation. ing to way prol'iles areroundcd smooth-tlor'r that with ct'tt'ctc.ti ctige-of-travcled in discussed mostconvcnic'ntly crossslopeare of lines.The methods changing that rhese but it is emphasized terms of strlight-linerelationsand controls. w pr s t r r r g h l - l r n e o l r l e s t t na n U u l a r
ls lltc'r discusscd.

'

AASHTO-Geometric Design of Hi

s and Steets

Elementsof Design

of ar in superelevation: iSpecilicmethods prohledeSign practiced attaining (l) revolving a traveledway with normal cross slopesabout the centerline profile. (2) revolving a traveledway with normal cross slopes about the way with normalcross profile,(3) revolvinga traveled inside-edge slopes about profile,and (4) revolvinga straightcross-slope the outside-edge traveledway profile. Figure III-16 illustratesthesefour methods about the outside-edge profilefor Figures l6,{, III- l68 or III- I 6C diagrammatically. centerline The IIIprofiles for Figure III-16D, drawn as a horizontalline, or the outside-ed-qe represents calculatedprofile, which may be a tangent,a vertical curye, or a the combination the two. The smallcrosssections the bottomof eachdiagram of at indicatethe traveledway crossslopecondition at the letteredpoints. FieureIII- l6A illustrates methodwherea traveledway with normalcross the profile. This generalmethodis the most slopesis revolvedaboutthe centerline widely usedin designbecause required changein elevationof theedgeof the the traveledway is madewith lessdistortionthanwith the othermethods. The usual calculated centerline profile is the baseline,and one-half of the required elevationchangeis made at eachedge. Figure III-l68 illustrates methodwhere the traveledway is revolved the profile. In this casethe inside-edge profile is determined about the inside-edge profile. One-halfof the required centerline as a line parallelto the calculated profilewith respect the in slopeis madeby raising centerline the change cross to insidetraveled way edgeand the otherhalf by raisingthe outsidetraveled way profile.The third method to edgean equalamountwith respect the centerline way with normalcross invslvessimilargeonretrics, wherethetraveled slopes is revolved aboq!tle out.side-edge profile,asqhgwnin F1gu1e l6C, exceptthat I!l profile insteadof above the the changeis eft'ectcd below the outside-edge profile. in.side-edge The tburth method.as shown in Figure III-16D. revolvesa traveledway instead the typical crosssectionillusof havinga typical straightcross-slope way is shownrevolved trated the first threemethods. tbr The traveled aboutthe profile in FigureIII-l6D because point is mostoftenusedfor this outside-edge with proiilealongthemedian revolvement two-lanc of one-wav roadways. edge way.The travcled way couldalsobe revolved aboutthelanedivision of traveled e I o r a b o u tt h e i n s i d e - e d r p r o f i l es i m i l a rt o F i g u r e s I I - l 6 A o r I I I - 1 6 8 . F o r t h e profile is calculated. straightcross skrpc.thc'outside-edge and the required chrngein crossslopeis madeby loweringthe insideedge.as shownin Figure l l l -r 6 D . T h e d e s i g n o n t r o l s b r a t t a i n i n g u p e r e l e v a t i o n en e a r l yt h e s a m et o r a l l ar c t s tourof themethods. runoutis a normal Crosssection at oneendof thetancent A or strlight crossslopesection. crosssectionB, the otherend of the trngent At a r u n o u t n d t h e b e g i n n i n g f t h es p i r a lo r l e n g t ho f r u n o i f .t h c l a n eo r l a n e s n o ' o p t h c o u t s i t l c f t h c ' c u r v ea r e m a d ch o r i z o n t a w i t h t h e c e n t e r l i n e r o f i l e t b r o l

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profilesshowing methodsof attaining Figurelll-16. Diagrammatic superelevationfor a curve to the right'
for s i I F i g u r e sI I - 1 6 A .l l l - 1 6 B .u n t lI I t - l 6 C ; t h c r ei s n o c h a n g c n c r o s s l o p e the e p s t F i s u r el l l - l 6 D . O n r h eb a s i s l f t h e r e l a t i v e l o p e s r e v i o u s l y s t a b l i s h e d . where thecross -1.6 r" pcrccntancl heretherc"are m lanes. rtre ol' l .-5 cr,r.. sl,rpe are lbout l() to l0 tn are rcquiredwherethe lanes -16 perccnt. sloperareis 2.0
tangent runout (Ilstallcg utl t!vu-tdlrr rudur Y' r r r w '

AASHTO-Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

Elementsof Design

Wher forcurveswith maximumsuoeielevation. m wide.Theseaie thelensths will be tangentrunout lengths there is less than maximum superelevation, runoff areretained. is It fohgerif the samerelativeslopeas for superelevation relativeslooes retained wherethis is not oossible be but the desirable thatthese runout lengthsshould be at least equal to those requiredfor a curve wilh wherethesame relativeslopes tangent for runoffand maximumsuperelevation or runoutareretained. curveswherethe normalparabolic circulartraveled On way crosssections not retained, norrnal the crosssection shouldbe changed are runout length. to straightcrossslopesin the tangent at At crosssectionC the traveledway is a plane,superelevated the normal straightcrossslope rate. BetweencrosssectionsB and C for FiguresIII-16A, change laneor lanes from a levelconditionto III-168, andIII-16C, the outside at on oneof superelevation the normalcrosssloperate,which rateis retained the inner lanes.There is no changebetweencross sectionsB and C for Figure C III- l6D. Betweencrosssections and E the roadwaysectionis revolvedto the point,cross The full rateof superelevation. rateof crossslopeat any intermediate sectionD, is proportionalto the distancefrom crosssectionC. and of the Considering infinite numberof profile anangements in recognition and problems drainage, avoidance ofcritical grades, aesthetics, as suchspecific of fitting the roadwayto the ground,the adoption any specificaxis of rotation, be methods B, C, or D in FigureIII- 16,cannot A, i.e.,makinga choicebetween and functionalresults, eachrunoff recommended. obtainthe mostpleasing To problem. practice, longitudinal an In any section shouldbeconsidered individual may be the mostadaptable theproblem for profileIine for theaxisof revolution as in q!bqq4.!n any cLSq lmqoth-edgeprofileis desired discussed thefbllowing a sectron. aboutthecenterline usuallyis the the of In an overallsense, method rotation grade l6A, thechange longitudinal in in For rnost adaptable. example, FigureIIIwith a relative of, say. l:200 to the centerline. is slope for required eachprofile is in at 0.5 percent point E. In FigureIII-168, no change required the direction doublethis amount.or 1.0 of the insideedgeof traveledway protile.whereas way profile at point E. edgeof traveled percent. requiredin the outside is e T h e m e t h o t ls h o w n i n F i g u r c I I I - l 6 B i s p r e f ' e r a b l t o t h e o t h e r t h r e ei n . w a c a s e s h e r et h e l o w e r e d g ep r o f i l e i s a m a j o r c o n t r o l . s f o r d r a i n a g e W i t h t u n i t b r m p r o f i l e c o n d i t i o n si t s u s e r e s u l t si n t h e g r e a t e s d i s t o r t i o no f t h e th s u p p e re d g ep r o f i l c . W h e r e t h e o v e r a l la p p e a r a n cie t o b e e m p h a s i z e d . e s m e t h o d so f F i g u r e sI I I - l 6 C a n d I I I - l 6 D a r e a d v a n t a g e o r itn t h a t t h e p t u p p e r - e d g e r o f i l e - t h e e d g e m o s t n o t i c e a b l c o d r i v e r s - r e t a i n st h e a o s m o o t h n e so f t h e c o n t r o lp r o f i l e .T h e s h a p e n d d i r e c t i o n f t h e c e n t e r l i n e s ln s atlcrnrng uperelevtlron profile may determinethe pre t h e f i r s t t h r e em e t h o d s . Designof smooth profiles for traveled wav edges.In the diagralnmatic

breaks profilecontrollinesresultin angular profiles FigureIII- I 6 thetangent of breaks these and appearance safety, A. at crosssections C, and E. For general With themethod curyes. of by in berounded finaldesign insertion vertical should Even wherethe of FigureIII-164, usuallyshortverticalcuryesare required. slopesare used(minimum lengthof runoffl, the lengthof maximum relative breakat the50-km/hdesign to verticalcurverequired conformto the0.67percent at the 120-km/hdesignspeedneednot be great. break speedand 0.4 percent gradebreaks doubled are Wherethetraveledway is revolvedaboutanedge,these for and to 0.8 percent the 120-km/ for to 1.3percent the 50-km/hdesignspeed in obviouslyareneeded these curyes of lengths vertical Greater speed. h design of vertical curvesat the Positivecontrolscannotbe cited for the lengths cases. breaksin the diagrammaticprofiles. For an approximateguide, however.the can be usedasnumericallyequalto the minimum verticalcurve lengthin meters design speed in kilometers per hour. As the general profile condition may the determine, greaterlengthsshould be usedwhere possible. in are Severaldesignprocedures followed by differentagencies the development of profiles for runoff sections.Some compute the edge profiles on the as of basis FigureIII-16 and insertverticalcurves eyeadjustments straight-line of specifyminimum lengths verticalcurvesat the in the field. Otheragencies reverseverticalcurve for the breaksfor edgeprofiles.Someemploy a selected This methodis edgeprofiles. computed with resultant section, entiretransition vertical on are curves superimposed a centerline whentheedgevertical laborious controls to the designerand should yield curve. It does provide essential uniformityof results, Se1e11l qgenglesus9 a lesign Plocedurein which the runotTprofiles are i.s ThE methode.isentially onEoflpline-linCdeVelopA.t..*in.,i gr,,plucatD. or In this methodthe centerline other baseprofile. which usually is ment. control verticalscale.Superelevation is computed. plottedon an appropriate form of thebreakpointsshownin FigureIII- 16.Thenby means pointsarein the lines ship curve.or circularcurve.smooth-tlowing curvetemplate, of a spline. of bending the The natural controls. the straight-line aredrarvnto approximate profiles of the are or spline. if curvetemplates used. attainment smooth-tlor'ving tbr will llmost alwa.v.,s satisfy the requirements without markedr1isrortion. protiles- and laneprotilesif required Oncethecclge minimumsmoothing. can elevations bereld tbr sfatttrns' relation oneanother. to aredrawnin theproper control. tilrctlnstruction as orotherwise necessary quanerstations. half stations. methodis thc int'inite spline-line or of advantage the graphical An impgrtant can be Altemateprotile solutions rt study possibilities aftbrclsthe dcsigner. thatis is result a design of with a minimumexpcnditure time.The nct developed
well suited ttr thc panlculat conl

thismethod make advantages scveral is tbr requiretl thisprocedure minimll. These scctions. qf tbr proliledetails runoif over pret'erable themethods developine

Elementsof Design

'

ff with medians. In the design of divicledhighways.srreers, and parkways, inclusionof a medianin the crosssectionalterssomewhat the the superelevation runofftreatment. Depending thewidth of median itscross on and sectlon. therearethreegeneral cases superelevation for runoff design: I Case -The wholeof thetraveled way.including median, superelevated the is as a planesection. CaseII - The medianis heldin a horizontal planeandthetwo traveled ways arerotated separately around median the edges whereapplicable. or, around the insidegutterlines. Case III - The two traveledways are separately treatedfor runoff with a resultantvariabledifl'erence elevationat the medianedees. in CaseI necessarily Iimited to narrow mediansand moderate is superelevation to avoid substantial differencesin elevationof the extremetraveledway edgesbecause the mediantilt. For the most part the methodof rotationabout of the mediancenterlineis used.Diagrammaticprofile controlswilt be similar to thosein FigureIII- l64 exceptfor the two medianedges, which will appear as profilesonly slightlyremovedfrom the centerline. CaseII applies any width medianbut hasmostapplication for with medians of intermediate width to about l0 m. By holding the medianedgeslevel the difference elevation theextreme in of way edges limitedto thatof the traveled is superelevation. Although this type of cross sectionmay be used with wide medians, especially flat tenain.its general is limitedto nredians wide in use not enough f avortheCaseIII treatment. to RunotTdesign Case usually for II hasthe median-edge prol'iles thecontrol. as way is rotated One traveled aboutits lower edgeand thc other abou its higheredge.The diagrarmnatic profile conrrol,s are t h o . s e h t > w nn F i g u r e sl l l - 1 6 8 . I I I - 1 6 C ,a n d I I I - 1 6 D . t h e c e n t e r l i n e r a d e s i g controlbeingthc sarne the two traveled fbr ways. The CaseIII clesign pref'erable othcr-lhan-narrow is on medians that the in ciift'erences elevation the extreme in of traveledway edges minimizedby a are cornpensating slopeacross median. the This desi-sn may be used a median on of width by useof a sharply intermediate slopedsection. a tairly wide median but is usuallynecessarv devclopleti shoulder to areas gentleslopes ancl desired the b e t r v e e n . W i t h r n e d i a n s o f a blo u o r r n o r e i n w i d t h , i t i s p t l s s i b l e t t l d e s i g n l nr t scparately profilcsand superelevltion the runoff tbr the trvoroadwavs. tie-in a cttntrolbeingat the rnedian edges. Accordingly. rotation thc caube madebv the rncthodotherrvise considcred appropriate. i.e., any of rhe methodsin Fi11ure Ilt-r6. Supcrelc'vatit'ln runofl' lengthstbr tbur- and six-laneundividedhiehways have becn shown as 1.5 and 2 timcs. respectively. lcnethsfor two-l the highrvays. ForCascI designs dividedhighwaysthe lengthof runoffproperly of s h o u l db c i n c r c a s c id t h ep r o p o r r i o no t h e t o t a lw i d r h .i n c l u d i n g h em e d i a n . n r r Bccausc Clse I applics mainlyt()n:lrrowmedians, artded the lengthusuallvwill

may of with medians the orderof 1 to 3 m wide, any increase be insignificant. well be ignored. Under case II conditionswith narrow mediansin a horizontalplane,the as highways, shownin be should thesameasthosefor undivided runoff lengths to This lengthapplies highways highways. TablesIII-7 to III-l I for four-lane aboutl2 m or with medians about4 m or lessin width. However.with medians be usedfor the one-wayroadways more in width. the two-lanevaluesshould the because extremetraveledway edgesareat least24 m apartand independent of eachorher.values for the one way roadwaysof six-lanehighwayswhen by separated a wide medianshoutdbe 1.2timesthe two-lanevaluesof Tables between waysof highwayswith medians III-7 to III- I L The one-waytraveled the two-laneor multilane on 4 and 12 m might be designed the basisof either lengths. suggested the with CaseIII crosssections, mediangenerallywill be l2 m or more in width. and the two-lanevaluesfor lengthof runoff are applicablefor one-way roadwaysof four-lanedivided highways.The valuesfor the one-wayroadways where greater. situations In dividedhighwaysshouldbe somewhat of six-lane in the medianis lessthan about l2 m, the runoff length will be determined the samemanneras for CaseII. attenin refinement designand greater warranta greater Dividedhighways greater theyservemuch do highways because than tion to appearance two-lane compared is the volumesand because cost of refinements insignificant traffic valuesfor lengthof Accordingly,the indicated with the cost of construction. andan effbrt shouldbe madeto useyet minimums, runotfshouldbe considered of Ioqger valqeg.Llkew!qe,there should be emphasison the development bJ profiiesbf'the itpe obtaind Spline-line truu.i.a way-edge ,rootn-noruing desisnmethods.

Designfor Lorv'SpeedUrban Streets sidetiiction factorfor usetn the discussed. maximumallowable As previrruslv fbrcecauses is thepointat whiclt thecentritugal curves of thedesign horizontal curvc:tl I ccrtlitr whcndriving11 of discomtbrt a rhedriverto experience f-eeling the iigur. Ill-5 summarized test resultsof sidc friction facttlrs designspeed. limits of comfort.Usetlf thesolidline tn at on developed curves thcseapparent e tbr 5 Figureilt-santlmethod wasrecomrnended distributing andi in thedesign tbr I iVlcthod is recommended streeis. urban of-allrurelhighwal s andhigh-speed urban strectsrvhere.througlt the designof horizontalcuryes on low-speed

tilr frictirtnllrctoris lessthunthe maxinlumassumed designtor the it.s .side the

etrtc

of Elements Destgn tn' curyest speed'For sharper lt^T:l,:^t of the curve and the ciesign radius in increase curyature to thecontinued t;lt;;p;"ilrtion to maximumande is used for I thatareapplicable design-values e'",' The e reaches until "to**tna"d FigureIIt- t 7 asa solidline superimposed in ;;;;; urbanstreets ol low-speed degree on They arebased a tolerable from Figure.lll-5' curves on theanalysis skiddingunder against margln or safety discomfortand providea reasonable Thesevaluesvary with the ';; in the urbanenvironment' normal driving condittons km/h being the to about0' 19 at 60 km/h' 60 II' designspeedfrom 0'3 t ib;;/n of discussion Chapter in the designspeed upperlimit tbr low 'pttit"'oii'hed vartous operations' traffic is advantageoul^for Although superelevation Such areas' in impractical many built-up to oftencombine makeits use factors property' adjacent of ur.us,needto meetthegrade factorsincludewidepu*rnrn, streets' alleys and frequenty oit'o" and ut' surface drainageton'ii"utions' onlow-speeds'treetstl-ul:j:':ttut force driveways.Therefore'i"ito"t"rt"rves the counieracting centrifugal *iiiout superelevation' frequentlydesigned tnttting a curve to the left lo*"' solely with ,io. r'ittion'"dnii"" l"^'^::"tnt but^with flat superelevation, slope is an adverseor negative the normal cross boih the centrifugalforce and friction requiredtocounteract curvesthe resultant curyes sharper on successively 'up""ttuution is small' However' without the negative curve ttre minimum radius or sharpest for the same design speeO' to factor developed counteract side fricrion iil;;; i, superelevation ,"r.i:a the maximum allowablevalue slopereaches centrifugalforceand'l;;;';;;"" on sharpercurves' For considerations' travel basedon safety and comfort rate of zero in Table The maximum superelevation ts superelevation needecl' whichsuperelevation speedbelow tbreach radius tttt be lll- l5 establisttt' tini'num should commercialateqsbut and in resi<Jential on will be is not providea f otoi si"ets speeds whereoperating or other streets in consiclered in,tu.tri.t areas or percent 6'0 percentis comrateof 4-0 for higher.A maximurn*t"it""t"n speedis det'ined tu1o1u1 for-agiven design used.fnt *t*i'lu'n the monly rate and when both the maximumsupeielevation urbanstreets low-speed sidetiiction factorsareutilized' maximumallowable on Horizontal Curves Illaximum Comlbrtable Speed fronrthe are urbanstreets' dcrived tot low speed FigurcIII-18 lntlTlble tit-tS' cun'e formula: simPlified
-+
f =-

Assumd for LowSpeed Urbon Design

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valuesof f for by usingthc recommenrJed FigureIll-18 hasbeenprepared

AASHTO--4eometric'Design of Highways and Streets

Elementsof Design

3 I
o
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low-speedurban streetsfrom Figure III-17 and by varying the rates of for to This figuremay' used the be from superelevation -5.0 percent +6.0percent. tbr curves low-speed on urban determination themaximumspeeds horizontal of this the By streets. interpolating. figuremay alsobe usedto determine minimum with a radius greater wherea curyeis to be provided than required superelevation with normal foracross section cross slopes. thantheradius theminimum.butless with to for it However. is desirable providethemaximumsuperelevation curves of for radii also because the tendency driversto overdrive theseintermediate curveswith lower designspeeds.

o o

Runoff Length Required Superelevation superelevation runotflengrhis The followingformulafor derivingtherequired basedon the maximum allowable side friction factor. where C is the rate of from Table III-15. change ofthe sidefriction factorobtained 2;72fVD C

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E

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runoff, m; Lengthof superelevation sidefiiction factor: km/h: and designsPeed, of rateof change f. m/s'.

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urbanstreets valueof'C varicsfront I .2 at 30 kntr the on Fordesign low-speecl l c n g t h s f s u p e r e l e v a t i r u n o f ft b r l i r n i t i n g o on h t o 1 . 0 ,a t 6 0 k r n l r .T h em i n i m u m i in TableIII- l-i. The torrnulrt values superelevation sidefiiction areshown ancl of rvayabout runoff is basecl revolvingthetraveletl on fbr length superelevation of *'ltv aboutthc On of thecenterline thestreet. tlat grtdes.revolvingthe traveled rvav.In ordcr on centerline may resultin low spots the inneredgeof thetraveled way should revolved the edge be ltbout inside the to avoidthiscondition. traveled h o o on l n d t h el e n g t h f s u p e r e l e v a t i r u n o f fs h o w n n T l b l e I I I - 1 5s h o u l d cd o u b l e d .

d o ct)
f

l l i n i m u m R a d i i a n d l l i n i m u m L e n g t h so f Runoff for l,imiting Valuesof e and f Superelevation n t T a b l c ' l l l - 1 5 , q i v e s h e m i n i m u r nr l d i i t b r t h r e c r i l t c so i s u p c r c l c v l l l i o0 . ( ) percenl nttetse( percent. percent +.t) lnd 6.t, percent. urbanstrcctdcsi{n. In adtlitbr desirable rnarimumsuperelc'vation low-spced r ru t t i o n .t h et u b l ec o n t a i n sh em i n i m u ml c n g t h s r f s u p c r c l c v u t i o n n o f ft b r c l c h

AASHTO--4]eometic Design of Highwaysand Streets

of Elements Design

the minimum levationrate. From this table it is possibleto calculate b e t w e e nt w o r e v e r s i n gc u r v e s o f m i n i m u m r a d i i . T h e t desirable angent lengthof tangent because intervening an rate s[perelevation of zerois included if neither superelevated. is reversing curyes even Because between isaecessary shouldbe provided thePC andPT at two-thirds themaximumsuperelevation of of the curves,the minimum tangentlength is two-thirdsof the sum of the runoff lengths. superelevation

? , i ; { i ? .?

o) o 6 o G
(tl

E
Curvature of Turning Roadwaysand Curvature at Intersections previously. wasdiscussed Curvature for of Curvature throughroadsandstreets are at-gradeintersections special urningroadwaysandcurvatureat high-speed, in casesto be discussed the following four sections, :.tti : g G :::=.

E
o o c = c o o I o
q) CL f

ix

sc 8c 8 9 3 d o 3
e

Minimum Radius for Turning Speed turningat intersections designed for in IX, As further discussed Chapter vehicles perhaps lessthan l-5km/h. at tums haveto operate low speed, minimum-radius to operating While it is desirable often feasible designfor turningvehicles and to lowerturning for andeconomy ttse it at higher speeds, is oftennecessary safety for intersections.'I'he speeds which theseintersection at speeds most at-grade highways, on on depend vehiclespeeds theapproach e'uft'es shouldbe designed a a1d ot'throughand turning trafflc Generally, t)'peof intersection, yolgme.s runningspeed trafficon the of for tuming speed designis theaverage desirable offc-rlittle hindrance to the at highwayapproaching turn. Designs suchspeeds rampsor fbr tratfic and may bejustified for someinterchange smoothflow of involvinglittle or no conflictwith intersections certainmovements for at-grade vehicular pedestrians other traffic. or in . Curvesat intersections neednot be considered the samecategoryascuryes providedandthe anticipathe because variouswarnings on theopenhighways permit the useof lcssliberal at riclnot more criticalconditions an intersection in to operate higherspeeds relatittn thc'radii at tlctors.Driversgenerall,v dc'sign spcedis curvesthan on open highwaycurves.This increased on intersection e a c c o m p l i s h eb y t h e d r i v e r s ' a c c e p t a n ca n d u s e o f h i g h e rs i d e f r i c t i o n i n d and as to curves interscctions opposed sideirictionacceptcd at opcraring around uscdon the high spcedhighrvays. (25.26. 27) havebeenconductcd determine vehicle to lateral Several studies

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AASHTO--Ceometri( Desi.qn Hi.qhu.uls rf and Streets

Elementsof Desig,n

y representing design the speed. whichgenerally correSponds thespeed ro adopted thefaster groupofdrivers. (taking by Sidefrictionfactors superelevarion rlaO account)actually developedby drivers negotiatingthe curves at the 95-percentile speed indicated 34 locations FigureIII-19. The dashed are for in line at the upperleft showsthe sidefrictiontactors usedfordesignof curveson r u r a lh i g h w a v s n d h i g h - s p e eu r b a n t r e e t sF i s u r eI I I - 8 ) .U s eo f t h i sc o n t r o l ( a d s Iimit fbr high speeds. a frictionf actorof abour0.5 tharcould be deveroped and at a low speed theotherlimit, givesan average representative as or curvethrough t h e p l o t t i n g so f i n c l i v i d u ao b s e r v a t i o n-s a r e l a t i o nb e t w e e nd e s i g n l (95-percentile) speedand sidefriction factorthat is considered appropriate for rural and high-speed urbancurvedesignfbr ar-grade inrersecrions. W i t h t h i s r e l a t i o ne s t a b l i s h e a n d w i t h l o g i c a l a s s u m p t i o n f o r t h e d s s n p e r e l e v a t i orn t et h a tc a n b e d e v e l o p e d n i n t e r s e c t i o n u r v e s . i n i m u m a o c m r a d i i f o r v a r i o u sd e s i g n s p e e d s r e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e s t a n d a r d u r v e f o r a c " l m u l a . ( S e et h e s e c t i o n T h e o r e t i c aC o n s i d e r a t i o n s . " ) b v i o u s l y ,d i f f e r e n t O r a t e so f s u p e r e l e v a t i ow o u l d p r o d u c e o m e w h a d i f f e r e n tr a d i i f o r a g i v e n n s t d e s i g ns p e e d n d s i d e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r .F o r d e s i g no f i n t e r s e c t i o n u r v e si t i s a c d e s i r a b l e o e s t a b l i s h s i n g l em i n i m u m r a d i u sf o r e a c hd e s i g ns p e e d T h i s t a . i s d o n eb y a s s u m i n g l i k e l y m i n i m u mr a t eo f s u p e r e l e v a t i o n c o n s e r v a a (a t i v e v a l u e )t h a tc o u l d n e a r l ya l w a y sb e o b t a i n e d o r c e r t a i n a d i i .I f m o r e f r s u p e r e l e v a t i o n a nt h i s r n i n i m u m s a c t u a l l y r o v i d e dd r i v e r sw i l l e i t h e r th i p . b e a b l e t o d r i v e t h e c u r v e sa l i t t l e f a s t e r r d r i v e t h e r nm o r e c o m t o r t a b l v o b e c a u s c l ' l e s st ' r i c t i o n . o I n s e l e c t i n g n r i n i m u m r a t c o f s u p e r e ' l e v a t i otni s r e c o g n i z e dh a t t h e a i t s h a r p e r h e c u r v e t h e s h o r r c ri t s l c n g t ha n d t h e l e s so f a n o p p o r t u n i t y o r t f -l'his d e v e l o p i n g l a r g er a t eo f s u p e r e l e v a t i o n . c o n d i t i o n p p l i e s a r t i c u l a r l y I a p t o a t - g r a d e n t e r s e c t i o nw h c r c t h c t u r n i n t r o a d w a vi s o f t e n c l o s e t o t h e i s i n t e r s e c t i op r o p e r w h e r cm u c ho f i t s a r c ai s a d j a c c r r t r h ct h r o u s hr r a v e l e d n . to w a y . a n d r v h e r e h e c o n t p l L ' ttc r n i s n r a d c h r o u g h t o t a ll n g l e o l a b o u t 9 0 " . u t t a A s s u m i n g h en r o r e r i r i c a l c o n d i t i o n sn dc o n s i d c r i n t h el e n g t h si k e l yr o b e t c a g l a v a i l a b l e o r d e v e l o p i n g u p e r e l e v a t i o n c u r v c so f v a r i o u sa d i i . t h e m i n i f s on i n r u m r a t co f s u p e r c l e v l r t i t t n r d c r i v a t i o n u r p o s c ss t l k e n a s t h a t v l r v i n g lir p i frr)mzerort l-5krn/hto ll.0 pcrccnr 6i) krn/h.Bv usingthcscrates at andrhesrde t . r i c t i o na c t o r st f F i g u r eI l l - l ( ) i n t h c s i m p i i l ' i c d u r v ct i t r n r u l at.h em i n i m u r n f t c s a t c r a d i i t b r i n t e r s c c t i o c u r v c st b r o p e r a t i o n t d e s i g ns p c c t l r e d e r i v e d s n a a s h o w r i. n T a b l cl l l - 1 6 . t T h c m i n i r n u nr a d i i o t ' T a b l cl l - 1 6 a r cr c p r c s c n l cb v t h c h c a v ys o l i dl i n ea t r l d t h c l e l ' ti n F i g u r et l l - 1 0 .T h c ' t h i n o l i dl i n ea r r h cu p p c rr i l h r s h o w s h cr e l a t i o n s r hetwcendcsignspeedand minirnumradiustbr open highwav conditions, as
d c r r v e dw r l h e v i l l u e ss h o w n a t t h e u p p e r l e t t . l . h e l o r n t n go f t h e h c a v v a n d t h i n l i n e s i n d i c a t c s t h i l t ( ) p c n - h i q h w i l vc o n d i t i o n s o n i n t c r s c c t i t ) n u n v , e sr c a p c l p r o r c h c d r v h c n t h c c u r v x t u r L ' i ss u f ' f i c i c n t l v t l a t t o p e r r n i t ( ) p c r a t i o nb c t w e c n

. D e s i g n( t u r n i n g )s p e e d V { k m / h ) .Sidefriction factor. f m Assumed inimum e/ superelevation. I fX) Total e/l00 + f m C a l c u l a t e d i n i m u mr a d i u sR , ( m ) m S u g g e s l e d i n i m u m r a d i u sc u r v e fordesign{m) (km/}l) Average running sPeed

l5 0..10

20 0.35

30 0.28 0.02 0.30 25 l8

-10 0.23

50 0.19

60 0 .l 7 0.08 0.25 ll,1 ll5 5i

0.00 0.00 0.35 0..r0 5971 7 15 t0 l0

0.06 0.04 0.25 0.27 17'19 50 35 80 't2

of \OTE: For desienspeeds more rhan 60 km/h' use valueslbr open highway conditions

curves' radiiforintersection Tablelll-16. Minimum

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speedand sidefrictionlactor on between Figurelll-19. Relation curvesat intersections.

AASHTO--4eometric De.sign Highwoysand Streets of

of Elements Design

t97

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80 km/h.Thus,in design intersection of curyes design for speeds above of 60 km/h, openhighwayconditions shouldbe assumed thedesignbased and on T-ables III-6 to III-ll. The squarepoints in Figure III-20 are the observed speeds from the samestudies 9S-percentile represented FigureIII-19 forthe in locationswhere more than 50 vehicleswere sampled.The heavv Iine fits these pointsclosely,indicating furtherthattheassumptions madein thederivation of minimum radii in Table III-16 are appropriate and that a groupof the higher speed driverswill usethe designspeed assumed. In additionto the designspeed, the average runningspeedis also usedin consideration certain of of design. The pointsindicated elements intersection by crosses in Figure III-20 are actual average .speeds observed on the same intersection curyesreferredto. The lons dashedline throushthesepoints is -ssumed to represent averagerunning speedtbr intersection curves,At the the right this curye crosses shortdashedline, which indicatesthe average the speed for openhighways. a givendesign For speed thesolid(upper) curvein Figure on III-20, the assumed running speedlies verticallybelow on the dashed curve. Theserunningspeeds shownin the lastline of Table III-16. are Theabove preferably established miiiimumradiishouldbe usedfordesign on pathor the the inneredgeof traveled way rather thanon themiddleof thevehicle centerline thetraveled of way.ln allcases, muchsuperelevation feasible as as up to a practical limit shouldbe developed. the suggested For radii shownin Table III- I 6, a rateofat least percent 8.0 shouldbe strivedfor at all locations, a rate and of 8.0 percent 10.0percent locations to for wheresnow or ice is not a factor. On thoseintersection whereall trafficcomesto a stop.asat stopsigns. lesser legs a amount usuallyis in order.AIso wherelargetruckswill be -naing of superelevation an intersection, of superelevation haveto be linrited may because use these rvith largertrucks havetrouble may intersection negotiating curv'cs superelevation. This is particularly truc where they must crossover tiom a roadwayor ramp slopingin onedirection onesloping otherway.This will require to the thatwhere thereis a significant tlattercurves numberof largetrucksfbr eachdesignspeed and lesssuperelevation haveto be provided.Superelevation curvesat will tbr intersections tlrther discusscd is lX. underthat headingin Chapter

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Transitions and Compound Curves Drivers tumin-qat at-gradeintcrsections and at interchange ramp tcrminals naturallyfollow transitional travclpathsjustas thcy do at higherspeeds thc on open highway.Ii tacilitiesare not providedfbr drivins in this naturalmanner.
vtale Irom tr own ttanstilon,

(q/ul ) Peeds

sometimes the extentof encroachment other lanesor on the shouldcr. to on tbr Provision natural is by travelpaths besteff'ected theuseof transition spiral or

AAS HTO-C eometr i L'D esi g n of H i g hways and Ste ets

Elementsof Design

thatmay be inserted between tangent a anda circulararcor between two circulararcsof differentradii. Practical designs fitting transitional pathsmay also be developedby the use of compound circular curves.Transitioned roadwa-vs havethe addedadvantage providing practicalmeansfor changing of from a normalto a superelevated crosssection.

on cun'esat intersections which the radiusof one curveis more Compound in thantwice the radiusof the othershouldhave,as established the following radiusinserted eithera spiralor a circularcurve of intermediate paragraphs, lengthof spiralis lessthan the the two. If in suchinstances calculated t.t*..n that 30 m, it is suggested a lengthof at least30 m be used'

Length of Spiral Lengths spirals useat intersections determined thesamemanner of ibr are in as they are for openhighways. intersection on curyes,lengrhs spiralsmay be of shorterthan they areon the openhighway curyes,because driversaccepr more a rapid changein directionof travel underintersection conditions.That is. C (the rateofchange ofcentripetalacceleration intersection on curves)may be higher on intersection curvesthanon openhighway curyes,wherevaluesof c ranging from 0.3 to 1.0m/s3generallyareaccepted. Ratesfor curvesat intersections are assumed vary froin 0.75 m/sr for a tumout speed 80 km/h to 1.2m/sl for 30 to of km/h. With the useof these valuesin the Shorttformula(23),lengths spirals of for intersection curvesaredeveloped Table III- | 7. The minimum lengths in of spiralsshown are for the minimum radiusas govemedby the designspeed; somewhat Iesser lengths suitable above-minimum are for radii. Spiralsalso may be usedto advantage between two circulararcsof widely diff'erent radii.In thiscasethelengthof spiralcanbe obtained from TableIII- l7 blu.sing a radiusthat is thedift'erence the radii of the two arcs.For example, in two curve to beconnectecl a spiralhaveradiiof 250and80 m. Thisdifference s by o f 1 7 0n r i s v e r . 'c l o s e o t h en r i n i m u r na d i u s f 1 6 0m i n T a b l el l i - t Z t o i w t r i c t r t r o t h e s u g g e s t undi n i n r u me n g t hi s a b o u t6 0 m . 't l

Compound Circular Curves of shapes in Compoundcircularcurvesare advantageous effectingdesirable when and intersecrions of rampsat interchanges. at turningroadways at-grade appears the radiiarejoined,however, alinement arcsof widelydifferent circular steering pathsofvehicles requireconsiderable abruptor forced.and the travel effort. that it on compoundcurvesfor openhi-ehways generallyis accepted the ratio shouldnot exceedI .5: I . For compound radius of the flatter radiusto the sharper and in morerapidchanges direction wheredriversaccept at curyes intersections as high as I 00 percentgreaterthanthe the speed, radiusof the flatter arc can be curvesused arc. radiusof thesharper a ratioof 2: I . The ratioof 2: I on thesharper (aboutl0 km/h) in samedift'erence the in results approximately at intersections as curvesarecompounded for These for speeds thetwo curves. running average the open highway' General a ratio of. 1.5:l on the flatter curves used on that in on observations rilmpshavincdiff-erences radii with a ratioof 2: I indicate nonnallyare satisfactory' and appearance both operation a where f'easible. smallerdifterencein radii shouldbe used:a desirable . r n a i i m u m r a t i i r ilsT 5 l l . W h C r e t l i e r a t i o i s - c r e a t e r t h l n 2 : l . a s u i r a b l e l e n g t h o f the bctrvecn tu o shouldbe inserted ratlius arc spiralor a circular ol'intcrlrlcdiate minimunt to sharpcurvesdesigned accommodate curves.In the cascof ver1, it is to it of turningpaths vehicles. is nor practical apply this rltio control.Here to vehicle be to curves thepathof thedesign r I matte of cklselytitti69contptlutrd IX. as maybe necessary shownin Chapter rarios tbr accommoctated. whichhigher in enabling not shoulcl betooshortortheireifect Cur!esrhtt ureconrpountlecl ol. is o[)eration lost.In a sc'rics to or tronttitngcnt llat-curve sharp-curve change driver to radii ofdecrertsing cechcurveshouldbe longenough cnablcthe curves to is rete. et tlecelertte u reesrtnablc whichat interscctions assurned benotm()re to on lcngths this basis' lvtinimurrr -l km/h/s.although km/h/sis tlcsireble. than5 i s p e e t lu s s h o r v n n F i g u r et l l - 1 0 . a r e i n d i c l t e di n T e b l eI I I - 1 8 . s u s i n gr u n n i n g ol The1,arc blscd on lt tlccclcrlttitln -5 knr/h/s' itntl I dcsirablentinirtturrt "l-hc lattcr indicatcsvcry light braking. bccluse of -1 krn/h/s. ticceleration

D e s i g nl t u m i n g ) s p c e dl k r n A ) N l i n i m u mr a d i u s{ n r ) Assumed C C l l c u l a t e dl c n g r ho i s p i r a l t n r t S u g . r r c s t c n l n r n r u nlrc n ! : t h( ) l ' rd s p i r e l( m ) C o n c s p o n t l i n g t r c r r l : rc u n ' c c r oft.scttionr t:rn{cnt (nl)

.t0 1.5 l.? t9 l0 t).1

.10 .50 l.l l-5 t5 0.7

-s0 Itr) 1.0 .t.t .1.5 0.i

60 l2.s 0.9 .1 I +5 0.s

70 I60 0.8 .s7 60 0.9

Tablelll-17. Minimum lengths spiralforintersection of curves.

km/h/s

AASHTMeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Elementsof Design

Radius(m) Lengthof circular arc (m) Minimum Desirable

30

50

60

15

r00 30
A<

l50or 125 more

12 20

l5 20

20
JU

25 35

35 55

45 60

Tablelll-18. Lengthsof circulararc tor a compoundintersection curvewhenfollowed a curveof one-half by radiusor preceded a curveof doubleradius. by
These compoundcurve valuesaredeveloped the premisethat travel is in on the direction ofsharpercurvature. Fortheacceleration conditionthe2:l ratiois not as critical and it mav be exceeded.

Widths for Turning Roadways at Intersections The widths of turning roadwaysat intersections govemedby the volumesof are tuming traffic and the types of vehicles to be accommodatedand may be designed one-wayor two-way operation, for depending thegeometricpattern on of the intersection.

at reducedspeed.Many rampsand connections at be maintained somewhat However,for CaseII the widths are intersections in this category. channelized in as vehicles very Iarge canbeseen FigureIII'2 l. Case are fOr needed thelonger valuesfor theselongervehiclessuchas a WB-19, a WB-20' a WB-29, or a I wheretheyarein sufficient WB-35 may haveto be usedastheminimumvalues designvehicle. the appropriate to numbers be considered is whereoperation two way or where widths undercase III are applicable way but two lanesare neededto handlethe traffic volume. operationis one jointly on the sizeof thedesign width depends the In eachcategory required of roadway.Selection the vehiclefor of vehicleand the curvature the turning types.The width increases designis basedon the size and frequencyofvehicle with the samenumberof or both with thesize(for singleunit vehicles vehicles The of of trailersor semitrailers) the designvehicleand the sharpness curvature. the width of width elementsof turning vehicles that are used in determining tuming roadway, shown diagrammatically in Figure lll'21, are explained in separately thefollowing.They ignoretheeffectsof insufficientsuperelevation that tend to causethe rears of and of surfaceswith low frictional resistance the vehiclestravelingat other than low speedto swing outward,developing slip necessary angles. The track width of vehicle U is the width betweenthe pathof the outer front The normaltrackwidth of out-to-out tires. wheelandthatof theinnerrearwheel, of out-to-out reartires.Whena is of a vehiclemovingon a tangent the distance resulting trackinsidethefrontwheels, on vehicle travels a curye.therearwheels the For thanthaton thetangent. P andSU vehicles tuming in a trackwidthgreater radially,is the normalwidth plus the offtracking: trackwidth, measured

-Wicfihs
Widthsfor tumingroadways classified thefollowingtypesof operations: are tbr CaseI - one-lane, one-way with no provision passing stalled operation for a vehicle: CaseII - one-lane, one-wavoperation with provisionfbr passing sralled a vehicleand : CaseIII - two-laneoperltion.eirherone-wayor two-wav. Widths underCaseI usuallyareusedfbr minor turningmovements and tbr moderate tumingvolumes wheretheconnecting roadway relatively is short. The chance a vehiclebreakdown remote of is underthese conditions. onettf the but edges traveled of way preferably should eitherhavea mounrable curbor be tlush with the shoulder. UnderCase widthsaredetermined allow operation low soeed wirh II. to at and turnrng movenlents moderatc heavytralfic volumesthatdo not exceed of to the c a p a c i t o f ; rs i n r l e - l a nc o n n e c r i o nn t h ee v e n o f a b r e a k d o w nr a f f i ct l o w c a n v e l. t t,

U=u*Rr
where: u = normaltrackwidth. 1.8m for the P designvehicleand 1.6 m tbr the SU designvehicle: R, = tuminq rldius of the outerfiont wheel,mi and 3.3 L = rvheelbase, rn forthe P designvehicleand6.1 m ibr v t h eS U d e s i g n e h i c l e . tbr of compuredvalues U tbr theP andSU designvehicles a rlnge of tuming a b l c u r v e s t t h e l e f t i n F i g u r eI I I - 2 2 A . r a d i ia r c ' s h o w n

AASHTHeometric

Design of Highwaysand Streets

Elementsof Design

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F

e :i
!

+ O

'

ir > !e

t .' r ' r.

Di
i.

Hn ;? :: i=
e = lF

| ,:, E;

7-.? 3;--"! .5gEl

2a

.9

,uuj5 it --cr
u agc

ii;li. !.;!ii
I Fa

.u
o E o I o (u lt I I an c .o () o o o
(E

(!

eachof lengths, truck units involve two or more wheelbase Combination offtrackingon curves.The offtrackingfor semitrailer which resultsin some Datafor semidirectlyfrom this exPression' cannotbe obtained combinations Values models. andcomputer by usingscale wereobtained trailercombinations W B - 1 9 ' W B - 2 0 ,W B - 3 5 , M H l B a n dP / T d e s i g n o f U f o r t h e W B - 1 2 ,W B - 1 5 , vehicleson the basisof thesedataare shown by curvesat the right in Figure for of those a wB- l2: values III-22A.Valuesfor an A-Bus closelyapproximate for arenot shown:values a WB-29 are a WB- l8 arenot as wide asa WB- l5 and not as wide as a WB- 19 and are not shown' t b , T h e w i d t h o f f r o n t o v e r h a n g F o , i s t h e r a d i a ld i s t a n c e e t w e e n h eo u t e r the path of the outer front edge edgeof tire pathof the outer front wheel and o f i n e b o d y . T h e s ep a t h sa r e c o m p u t e db y g e o m e t r yf r o m t h e d i m e n s i o n s of the assumeddesign vehicles and are shown by the curves in Figure ilL228. Fs, The width of rearoverhang, is the radial distancebetweentheouteredge oftire pathofthe innerrearwheeiandthe innersideofthe body. For theP design of the the vehicle widthof bodyis0.3m greaterthan widthout-to-out rearwheels' makingFg=0.l5m.Inthedesigntruckvehicles,thewidthofbodyisthesame of as the widlh out-to-out rearwheels'and F, = Q' The exrra width allowance,z, is additionalradial width to allow for the This on difficulty of maneuvering a curveand the variationin driveroperation. andthe of valuethatvarieswith thespeed traffic width is an empirical additional roadsthe additionalrvidth has been of the curve. For open-alinement radius e x p r e s s ea s t h et b l l o w i n g : d
L --=-

rr
It

E
v

X : : -idX o -

rrr ,
<
J

iEi?;i
ilrfll
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where

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td

i - --: 1 ',t u , ( 'r

tlt

m Z = e x t r aw i d t ha l l o w a n c e . : km/h: and V = designspeed. R = curveradius.m.

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. .

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g)

trJ

tI

taJ

z
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ad qi !

.E a 5'l AT t aH a lr Ora
a (., (,

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d.i

usetlprinrarilytbr wideningof thc travcledwltv on opcn This cxpression. ot.curvc l cu . c s h i g h w u y ,is ,t l s o a p p l i c a b lte li n t e r s e c t i o n r v e sF o rt h cn o n n l tr r t t t g c n t i r e s o l v e sn t t la n c a r l yc o n s t a nv a l u eo f ' ( ) ' 6 r b y r r s r r t g Z r a c l ia t i n t c r s c ' c t i o n s . i l-rto l-r() n rr l t h c s p e e d - c u r v e r u eea r i o nis F i g u r el l l - 2 0 t b r r a d i ii n t h c r l n g c o l ott in diagrammatically FigureIll-l l. is locrtlcd m. This ltldc'drvidth.ls shttwn to way: actually it should be assunretl he $'cnli' the inner c'dge-ot-traveled ttrl i" f r d i s t r i b u t co v c rt h et r a v c l e dv l v w i d t ht t l l t l l o r v i r rt h c i n a c c u r l t c t l s t c c r i n g d cun'edpaths.

n9 g! o{ a

AASHTO--Ceometric Design of Highways and Streets

Elements

Design

t50 r40
Poss. veh. Tr u c k s

!50 i40 il0 t?o

e
F

r30

-*
E.

II
ro . .[iJ*r--t
o o Fg.

t20
o o c. lnner Edge of T r o v el e d

'r i - n, *o
Vehicie Vehicle

r0 t00 90 8o 70 60 50 40
30 20 to o-o.t

= O, l5 m For Possenger = O-O m For T.ucks O,r5 m For Possenger 0.0 m For Trucks

E :3 +L ltL

o o

F":

c o

r00
90 80 70 60 50 40 l0

+C o L
g

o +a

.F

o ) o
t

o
t

-_\ 3\
.c-

o
l

; c .E
f F

\. \.

o )
!

o &. c c
crl

)\\
,J\.

\
o.? 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

l Y id t h o f F r o n t O v e r h o n g' F 4 ( m )
( r ) r;dlh for A-8us rcy be ossumedthe soru os for Bus dosign vehicles. (2) fidths for tlt, tl8-19 ond lv8-2o rcy be o3sured lha s o m oo s f o r S i n g l e U n ;i T r u c k d o s i g n v s h ; c l e s ' il) 'lidlhs for Y8-l? ond f8-15 rcy be ossured lhe s o m eo s f o r t f 8 - 1 5 d e s i g n v o h i c l e s '

t0

Trock lt;dth, U (m)

Figure lll-22(A). Track width and overhang for design vehicles operating on curves.

Figurelll-22(B). Trackwidth and overhangfor de' on operating curves' sign vehicles

AASHTO-4eometric Desi

s and Steets

Elementsof Design

-proper

for between edgeC, allowance, provides theclearance clearance The lateral wheel path and for the body clearance between of-traveledway and nearest vehiclespassingor meeting,exclusiveof Z. On modem highways,wheel way are generally0.6 to 0.9 m, and thereare Tlearancesto the edge-of-traveled This clearance or bodiesof passing meetingvehicles. L2 m or more between per clearances laneof trafficof 1.2m or more. in results total lateral allowance For i.e.,about0.6 m on eachsideof the vehicles. CaseII a lower valueapplies. The total width, W, for separateroadways at intersectionsis derived by Valuesof U and F areobtainedfrom of summations the properwidth elements. about0.6 m for all radii of I 50 m or Figure lll-22. The valueof Z is constant, is appropriate C, clearance, of L2 m perlineofvehicles considered less. lateral A of for CasesI and IIl. For CaseII. a total clearance half this amountis assumed' i.e-,0.6 m for the stoppedvehicle and 0.6 m for the passingvehicle. formulas and factor valuesfor eachcaseare shown in Figure The separate no because passings the body overhangneednot be considered III-21. In CaseI II the width involvesU and C for the stoppedvehicleand are involved.For Case U and C for the passingvehicle.To this, is addedextra width due to the front overhangof one vehicleand the rear overhang(if any) of the other vehicle. at the passingthe stalledvehicleis accomplished low speeds, extra Because Z, curves, is omitted.For Case due to difficulty of driving on width allowance apply. III all width elements vehicle givenin Table are radiifor each design widthsfor various The derived valuesof U andF rverereadfrom FigureIII-22 for the III- 19. In the derivation, by the approximated adding trackwidth and turningradiiRr. whichwereclosely qf the inner edgeof tqmlng ro4dwity.R, clcaranees the radiu to apply widthsgivenin TableI II- l9 seldom use, required the design Forgeneral more than usuallymust accommodate the directty,because turning roadways primaritytbr P vehicles used are designed one type of vehicle.Even parkways trucks.At the other extreme.t'ew if any public by busesand maintenance the to highwaysare desi-uned accommodate WB-15 or longervehiclesfully. designvehiclesbecomethe of tbr Widths needed somecombination separate Suchdesignwidthsaregiven roadways. practical designguidetbr intersection wherethe ol in TableIII-10 tbr threelogicll conditions mi.redtraftlc.However. s l a r g e rd e s i g nv e h i c l e s u c ha s a W B - 1 9 c r ra W B - 3 5 w i l l b e u s i n ga t u m i n g as roadwayor ramp lhe facility shouldaccommodate a minimum their tuming design CaseI widthsfor theappropriate Theretbre, paths theCase condition. I tbr whether to be vehicle shownin TableIII- l9 should checked determine andradius shouldbe they cxceedwidthsshown in Table III-20. If they do. consideration I ivento usinsthewidthstbrCase shownin TableIII- l9 astheminimumwidths tbr the tuming roadwayor ramP. 'Iraflic is but P Condition A. Predominantly vehicles. someconsideration t t t g r v e nt o S U t r u c k s v l l u e s i n T a b l eI I I - l ( ) a r es o m e w h aa b o v e h o s e b r P : also
' ,.h;,'1,'.;'r T,hl,. lll l()

R a d i u so n Inner Edge R tm) PT

l)

C a s e I , O n e - L a n e ,O n e ' W a y O p e r a t i o n ' No Provision for Passinga Stalled Vehicle }IH/B

<7

SU

W B . I 2 W B . I s B U S A ' B U SW B ' I 9 W B ' 2 0W B ' ] 5

25 l0 50
t)

3.9 < r 3 . 9 5 .r 3.9 4.8 3.6 4.8 3 . 6 4.5

J,O

5.1 4.8 4.8 4.5 1.2

5..1 5.1 4.8 .1.8 4.8 4.5 4.5 1.5 4.5

6.9 5.7 5..1 5.I .1.8 4.8 4.8 .1.5 ,1.5

'7.8 6.6 6.3 5.1 5.1 5.1 4.8 4.8 4.8

6.0 5.'t 5.4 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.5 4.5 4.5

6.9 5.7 5.4 5 'I 4.8 4.8 4.8 4'5 4.5

7.8 7.5 6.9

o.J

8.7 7.8 7.8 7.1 6.3 5.7 5.4 5.4 4.5

ll.l 9.9 9..1 7.5 6.6 6.0 5.7 5.7 4.5

5.7
<^

100

4.2

3.6 t25 150 Tangent 3 . 6

5.1 4.5

a for with Provision Passing Stalled One'WayOperation II, Case One-Lane, TYPe bv Vehicle Anotherof the Same t5 25 30 50 t5 100 6.1 5.8 5.8
<,1 <i

8.7 8.1 't.2 6.3 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0

9.0 8.4 '1 .5 7.2 6.3 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0

8.7 8.I 7.5 't.2 6.9 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.1

10.8 13.2 9.3 9.3 10.8 8;7 8.7 10.2 8.4 8.1 7.5 7.7 6.9 6.9 6.1 8.7 7.8 7.5 7.2 7.2 6.1 7.5 7.5 7.2 6.6 6.6 6.3

tt

9.6 9.0 8.4 7.8 7.5 6.9 6.9 6.3

13.5 t4.7 1 8 . 6 t2.6 13.5 t 7 . l I 1.4 12.6 1 5 . 0 10.2 il.1 t2.0 9.0 10.5 1 0 . 5 7.8 9.3 9.6 6.6 6.6 6.3 8.7 8.1 6'1 9.0 9.0 6.3

5.'1

-). I I 2-5 ).1 150 Tangent - 5 . 1

C a s el l l , T w o - L a n e O p e r a t i o n ' E i t h e r O n e o r T w o - W a y ( S a n r eT 1 ' P eV e h i c l ei n B o t h L a n e s )
l-)

l5 30 50 75 l(x) ll.s i .50 Trnttcn(

7.8 10.5 10.8 |0.5 7.-5 9.9 1 0 . 2 9 . 9 9.3 7.-5 9.-3 9 . 3

i.: q.0

l:.6 ll.t 10.5 q.9

r 5 . 0 l l . l l l . 9 1 5 . 3 1 6 . 3 20.J ll.6 10.5 ll.'l l-1.4 l5.l 18.9 12.0 10.2 10.8 13.2 l4.Ll t 7 . l 10.,t 9.1 t0.1 ll.0 9.9 9..1 q.6 l0.ll s..1 9.0 9.1 l0.l 9.0 9.0 8.1 3.-1 tt.7 ll.-l s.7 8.1 8.1 9.9 9.-l 8.1 ll.9 ll.0 I LI
1.1.3 Jl..l I l.J

7.1
7.2 b.9 6.q 6.9

s.{
7.S 7.li 7.S 7.R

9.{) r{..1 7.ll 7.rt 7.8 7.rl

(1.{)

1.1.7 9 . - i 4.0 lt."l ll.-l S.l s.l s.j

s.7 s.l

l0 -s l 0 , s 9.9 l 0 . s tt.l s.l

designvehicles. different

AAS HTO-G eometric'D esi

Elementsof Design

W i d r h( m ) CaseI CaseIl One-Lane, One Wav One-Lane, OneWay Dperation No Provision Operarion With for Passing Provisionfor Passing Vehicle a Stalled Vehicle a Stalled
Design Tralfic and Condition Case lll Two-Lane Operalion Eirher 0ne-WaI or Two-Way

Radius on Inner Edge R (m) t5 25 30 50 75 100 t25 150

ABC 5.4 4.8 4.5 4.2 3.9 3.9 1.9 3.6 3.6

5.4 5 .r 1.8 4.8 4.8 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5

6.9 5.7 5.4 5.1 4.E 4.8 ,1.8 4.5 4.5

ABC 6.9 6.3 6.0 5.7 5.7 5.4 5.4 5.4 5.1

1.5 6.9 6.6 6.3 6.3 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.1

8.7 8 .r 7.5 1. 2 6.9 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.3

ABC 9.3 8.7 8..' 8.1 8 .| 7.8 7.8 't.8 7.5

10.5 9.9 9.1 9.0 8.7 8.4 8.4 8.4 8.1

12.6 |Lt t 0.5 9.9 9.3 9.0 8,7 8.7 8 .t

to A TrafficCondition may be assumed havea smallvolumeof trucks In general, volumeof largetruck; Traffic condition B, a moderate or only an occasional of 5 to l0 percentof the total traffic; and Traffic rrucks.e.g.. in the range Condition C. more and larger trucks. for are In Table III-20. smallervehiclesin combination assumed deriving passings theformer in widths,because CaseII widthsthanfor derivingCaseIII for Moreover,full offtrackingneednot be assumed areaprto be very infrequent. vehicles bedrifted can stalled vehicles. Oftenthe and boththestalled thepassing for clearance providingadditional ofroadway,thereby ro adjacent theinneredge vehicle. the passing The designvehiclesor combinationof different designvehiclesusedin of determination valuesgiven in Table III-20 for the threetraffic conditions' for assumingfull clearance the designvehiclesindicated,are:

Width Modification Regarding EdgeTreatment:

No srabilizcdshoulder Mountablecurb Baricr curb: onc side two sides Stabilizedshoulder.one or both sides Nonc Nonc Nonc None Nonc None

Traffic Condition Design

Case

C P P-P P-SU SU P-SU SU-SU

Add 0.3m Add 0.6m

Lane width for condition B and C on tangentmay be reducedto 3.6 m where shouldcris L2 m or widcr

None Add 0.3 m Dcduct shoulderwidth minimumwidth as under Case I

Add 0.1 m Add 0.6 m Dcduct 0.6 m wherc s h o u l d c r s 1 . 2m o r w i d e r i

I II III

wB-12 SU-SU wB-12 wB-12

Note: Traffic Condition {

= predominatelyP vehicles,but some consideration SU rrucks. tbr Traffic Condition B = sufficientSU vehiclesto govem design.but someconsiderarion lbr

s e m i t r a i l ev e h i c l e s . r Traffic Condition C = sufficientbus and combination-types ofvehicles ro govem design.

The combination lc!!srs,lqqh aqP:SU for Cale !!'geans thatthedesign of truck SU a allowsa P designvehicleto pass stalled design width in thisexample values of wasmadefor the allowance full In or vice versa. assunting clearance, C as discussed. will largervehicles vehicles, for designed .smaller roadways In ne-sotiatin-s and morecautionandskill b.rand havelessclearance will requirelower speed on thatcanbe sooperated these is but drivers: there a limit to thesizeof vehicles on The larger vehiclesthat can be operated turning roadnarrowerroadwavs. varvingtiom clearance waysof rhewidthsshownin Tablelll-20. but with partial to curves. nearlv for ofC, asdiscussed thesharper totalvalues one-halithe about curyes,are: tull valuestbr the t'latter

Tablelll-20. Designwidthsfor turningroadways.

Traffic Condition B. SufficientSU vehiclesto govern design,bur some consideration also given to semitrailer vehicles:valuesin Table III-20 for is Cases and III arethosefor SU vehicles Table III- 19.For CaseII. values I in are reduced explained as laterin this section. Trallic Condition C. Sufficientsemitrailer. WB- 12 or WB- 15.vehicles to govemdesign: valuesin Table III-20 for Cases and tll arethosefor WB- 12 in I Traffic Conditions A, B. and C are describedin broad terms because dara regrrdingtraffic volume,or percentage the total,for eachtypeof vehicleare of notavailable detlnethese to trafficcondirions with precision relation widrh. in ro

2t0

AASHTO-Ceontetic Design of Highway.s and Street.t

Elementsof Design

DesignTraffic Condition Case

lVidths OutsideTraveled Way Edges

I II III

wB-12 wB-t2 P-SU P- W B - 1 2 s u - w B - 1 2 w B -l 2 - w B -1 2

wB_15
S I JWB-12

wB-12 wB-15

The widthsin Table III-20 aresubject somemodificationwirh respecr to ro thetreatment theedge. shownat thebottomof thetable. occasional at as An large vehiclecan passanotheron a roadwaydesigned small vehiclesif thereis for spaceand stability outsidethe roadway and there is no barrier to prevent its occasional use.In suchcases width can be a little narrowerthanthe tabulated the dimension.Barrier curbs along the edge of a lane give drivers a senseof restriction, an occasional and largevehiclehasno additional spacein which to maneuver; this reason roadways for the shouldbe a little wider thanthe values i n T a b l eI I I - 2 0 . When thereis an adjacent stabilized shoulder. widthsfor Cases andIII the II andundercertain for Case on roadways tangent conditions I on may be reduced. II Case values nraybe reduced theadditional by width of stabilized shoulder but w i d t h sf o r C a s e : s i r n i l a r l y , a s e I I v a l u e s a 1 , b ee d u c e d y 0 . 6 n o tb e l o wt h e I I C m r b r n .C a s eI v a l u e s r em i n i m u r n so r t h ed e s i g n e h i c l e s n df u r t h e r e d u c t i o ns a l v a r i not in orderevenwith a usable shoulcler exccpton tangents. Whenbtrrier curbs q191sed bothsides. tabulatctlrvidths Cascs ancl I I shoulct increased on tor I I be $e by 0.6m, anda 0.3-nrincre is nccdcd Case I. bccause asc firr I operation passing on v W a s t a l l e d e h i c l ei s a t l c l ws p c - c d . h c r c s u c ha c u r b i s o n o n c s i d eo n l y . t h e a d d i t i o n a* i d t h m a y b c o n l r ' ( ) . - jp l i v t C a s c sI a n c li l I . a n d n o n e n e e db e l considered CaseIl. tbr D e s i g n s eo f T a b l c l l l - 2 ( )i s i l l u s t r a t e b y t h c t b l l o w i n ge x a m p l eA s s u m e u d . that the geomctriclayoutand traffic volurnctirr a specificmovemenr such are thlt one-lane. one-wa! opcrttionrvithprovi.siorr passing stalledvehiclcis litr a c a l l e d t b r ( C a s c I Il)n d t r l t ' t ' i c v o l u r n c i n c l u rIl0 tso I I p e r c c n t t r u c k s w i t h a n . c occasional largescrnitrailcr contbination which trat'fic tbr condition isdeemed C l p p l i c a b l eT h e n .w i t h a r a d i u s n t h c ' i r r n cc d g c - o l ' - t r e v c l wd y o f 5 0 r n . r h e . o r ca t l b u l a rw i d t hv l l u c i s 7 . 1 r n .\ \ ' i t h a l . l - m s t a b i l i z c d h o u l d c rt.h ew i d t hn r a vb e s p t r c d u c e do 6 . 0r n( s c cl o r v c r r r ro t ' T r r b llc l - 1 0 ) .W i t he b a r r i c c u r bo n c l c h s i d c . t l r i t s h o u l d c n o t l c s st h u n7 . - 5 r . b n

the or The roadwaywidth for a turningroadwayincludes shoulders equivalent way.Overthewholerange intersections. clearance outside traveled the of lateral the requiredshoulderwidth variesfrom none,or minimal, on curbedurban to The more general cases are streets lhat of an open highway crosssection. in discussed the fbllowingparaeraphs. Withina channelized intersection. shoulders turningroadwavs for are usually pavement unnecessary. lanes The maybeoutlined curbs, by markings, islands. or may be curbed The islands andthe general dimensional controlsfor the islands providethe necessary lateralclearances outsidethe edgesof the tuming roadway. In most instances turningroadways relativelyshort.and it is not the are necessary provideshouldersections to along them for the temporarystorageof vehicles. discussion islanddimensions be fbund in Chapter A of can IX. Wherethere a separate is forrighttums,itsleftedgeoutlines side roadway one of thetriangular island. theislandis smallor especially If important directing in movements, may be outlinedby curbsor pavement it markings. the other On hand,whenthetumingradiusis large,the sideof the islandmay be outlinedby guideposts. delineators, simply by pavement by markingsand the edgeof or pavementof the turning roadway.In any casea developed left shoulderis are normallyunnecessary. However, there should eitheranoffsetif curbs used be widthon theleft to avoidaffectin-e lateral the or a f airly levelsection sufficient of p l a c e m e n tf v e h i c l e s . o is roadwa;" in A shoulder usually provided theright sideof a right-turning on is rural areas. crosssection In the and generqf treatment, right shoiilder essenr s , s t i a l l yt h es a n r e st h es h o u l d eo l t h e o p e nh i g h w a y e c t i o np o s s i b l v o m e r v l r a t a s c a l e d l o * n i n w i c l t h e c a u s o f t h e i n t e r s e c t i oc o n d i t i o n sB e c a u s t u m i n g c b e n . e vehicles begivento providing havea tendency encroach. to consideration should heavy-duNright shoulders accommodate thesemore tiequentwheel loacis. to Althougha curb on the right side mighl be advantageous reducing in mainteof nance operations made necessarv vehicles huggingtheinside thecurveand by causingedgedepressions raveling.the introduction of'curbingadjaccnttr'r or shouldbe discouragcd. krw-speed For urbanconditions. high-speed highwavs in Curbsarediscussed grelterdctail curbingof therightedgeis normalpr:lctice. in ChapteIV. r theremav be tunting On large-scale channelized layouts andat interchanges. trom ()ther roadwavsof sufficientcurvaturelnd length to be well rernoved space bothsides. on roadwavs. These turningroadways shouldhavea shoulder antt Curbs.rvhenused.shouldbe locatcdat the outsideedce of thc'shoulder
mountable.

particulrrlyrJmps.passover drainrgestructures. Some tuming roadrvavs. passovcr or undcrotherroadwavs, rre adilcentlo a wrll or rock cul ()nonr' ()r

AASHTO-Geometi( Desi

hu'a s and Streets

Elements Design

ltJ

for the as or both sides.For theselocations, minimum clearances structures and in the currenteditionof the AASHTO bridee in established laterchapters (56), apply directly.In addition, designshouldbe tested the for specifications lateral curvemay requireabove-minimum as sightdistance, the sharp adequate clearance. Table III-2 I is a summaryof the rangeof designvaluesfor the described withoutcurbsor thosewith On general tuming roadwayconditions. roadways shoulder shouldbe of the sametype and section curbs,the adjacent mountable highway.The widthsshown are for usableshoulders. as that on the approach Where roadsidebarriersare provided,the width indicatedshould be measured For to the faceof the barrier,and the gradedwidth shouldbe about0'6 m greater. be it that conditions, is desirable rightshoulders surfaced, otherthanlow-volume - -sudace treated.or otherwisestabilizedfor a width of 1.2 m or more.

on be should allowedfor by widening curves. difficultyof steering andresultant b u t t h e a m o u n t c a n n o t b e d e t e r m i n e da s p o s i t i v e l y a s t h a t f o r s i m p l e i o f f t r a c kn g . Shoulder Width or Lateral Clearance Outside of Traveled Wa-vEdge {m)

Turning Roadway Condition

Shortlength,usually w i t h i nc h a n n e l i z e d intersection Intermediate long to lengthor in cut or on fill

Left 0 . 6t o 1 . 2

Right 0 . 6t o 1 . 2

1 . 2 o3 . 0 t

t 1 . 8 o3 . 6

Traveled Way Widening on Curves conditions to are Traveledwayson curvessometimes widened makeoperating on is needed certain to on curvescomparable thoseon tangents.Widening ( l ) T h e v e h i c l eo r t r u c ko c c u p i e s a c u r v e sf o r o n e o f t h e f o l l o w i n gr e a s o n s : front wheels g r e a t e r w i d t h b e c a u s er e a r w h e e l s g e n e r a l l yt r a c k i n s i d e difficulty in (offtracking)in rounding curves,or (2) the drivers experience t s t e e r i n g h e i r v e h i c l e si n t h e c e n t e ro f t h e l a n e .O n e a r l i e rh i g h w a y sw i t l t needfbr wideningon narrow lanesand sharpcurvestherewas considerable Lves,even though speedsgenerallywere low. On nrqdernhighwityl 4nd a w s t r e e t s i t h 3 . 6 - m l a n e sa n d h i g h - t y p e l i n e m e n t h e n e e df o r w i d e n i n gh a s c s b n l e s s e n ec o n s i d e r a b liy s p i t eo f h i g hs p e e d s ,u t f b r s o m e o n d i t i o n o f s p e e d , d to and width it remainsnecessary widen traveledways. curvature. the at a traversescurvewithoutsuperelevation low speed. rear Whena vehicle width The added axleis radialandtherearwheelstrackinsidethe fiont wheels. occupiedas comparedwith travel on tangentcan be computedby geometrytbr a Whena vehicletraversessuperelevated andwheelbase. of anycombination radius curve,the rear wheelsmay track insidethe front wheelsm()reor lessthan thc of Thrsis because the slip angleassumed on amountcomputed the tbove basis. of to by the tires with respect the direction travel.which resultsfiom the side positionof pavement rolling tires.The relative and between trictiondeveloped to on and the amountof frictiondeveloped depends the speed the wheelrrack.s or. by'superelevation when the counteract centrifugaltbrce not compensated of allon the tocounteract eft'ect ins slowlv.bv thelrictiondevelooed the speeds rear wheels by compc.nsated centrifugalibrce. With excessive nor The eft'ectof may even track outsidethe front wheels,an extremcsituation. to of variation laterll Dlacement thc rearwheelswith respect the front rvheels in

lateral clearTablelll-21. Rangeof shoulderwidthsor equivalent not ancesoutsideof turningroadways, on structure. whereneces(All dimensions shouldbe increased, tor sightdistance.) sary,
Derivation of DesignValues on in Wiclening curvesis the diff'erence width required a curye.W.,and that on to related W. hasseveral components width W,,. usedon a tan-gent. The required vehicle meeting namelythe following:trackwidth of each operation curves. on of per or passing. lateralclearance vehicle.C: width of tiont overhang the U: tbr F.r: vehicle occupying innerlaneor lanes, andwidth allowance ditTicultv the o f d r i v i n eo n c u r v e sZ . . Track rvidthU (fbrmula3 of FigureIII-23) is thesumof thetrackon tangent I . truck)lnd theamountof ofttracking The amount vehicle u (1.6m tbr a clesign p . l o s o f f t r a c k d e p e n do n t h er a d i u s f t h et u r n .t h en u m b c r o f n l c u l a t i o n o i l l t sa n d s Formula3 of FigureIII-l-l can be usedtbr an1 the lengths the wheelbases. of is The of cornbination rldius and numbcrand lcngthof wheelbascs. r:rdius the tilr pathof the mitlpointof the tiont axle: httwcver.lbr most dcsignpurposes the t'"vrl-lane highway-s radiusof the curve at the centcrlincmay be usedtor to C Ltteral clearance per vehicleis assumed be ().6. simplicitl- calculations. of 0 . 7 5 .a n d0 . 9 m t b r t r n g e n tl a n e on depends the tbr The width F. of thetiont overhan{ to be accountcd on curvc's vehicle. the and of of thc olthe curv-e. c.rtent thefrontclvcrhrtng theclesign radius

-, , ,,

214

AAS HTO--4 eome tric D esi

s and Streets

of Elements Design

lbaseof the unit itself. Formula4 of Fisure III-23 can be usedfor this computation. the caseof tractor-trailer In combinations, only the wheelbase of thGiractor is used. The extrawidth allowanceZisanadditional unit radialwidth of pavement allow for the difficulty of maneuvering a curve and the to on variation operation drivers. width is an empirical valuethat in of This additional varieswith thespeed traffic and the radiusof thecurve.For open-alinement of width hasbeenexpressed shownby formula5 in Figure roadsthe additional as Ifi-23. vehicle to To determinewidth W" it is necessary choosean appropriate to represent traffic on theroadandto serveasa basisfor design. The vehicleshould be a designtruck because oftlracking of the truck is much greaterthan that of a passenger in car. The differences track widths of the SU, WB-12, WB-15,

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19,WB-20andWB-35design trucksaresubstantial thesharp for curves

with intersections, for open highwayson which radii are usually associated but larger than 200 m, with design speedsover 60 km/h, the differencesare insignificant(Figureslll-22 andlll-23). The singlewheelbase the SU design of truck can be considered representative openhighwayconditions for and is the leastcomplexfor determiningrequiredwidth of traveledwayson curves.Where both sharper and largetruck combinations curves(asfbr 50-km/h designspeed) are prevalent, derivedSU wideningvaluesshouldbe adjusted the upwardin rvith accordance thenotes Tablelll-22.The suggested on increases thetabular of valuesfor two ranges ofradiusofcurvature general are andwill not necessarily resultin a tull lateralclearance or an extra rvidthallowance as shown in C Z. FigureIII-23 fbr the shorter radii.With the lower speeds volumes roads and on with suchqurvil!urer horygver. slightlysmallerclearances mqry qolqrable, be T h ew i d t hW . i s c i r l c u l a t eb y a d d i n g h ev a l u e sn f o n n u l a o f F i g u r e I I - 2 3 i I d t 2 usingeithertheibrnrulasor curvesto obtainU, F., andZ. Curvesareprovidecl vehicle tbr eightdesign trucksplusthebusdesign andmotorhomepullinga boat. If it is desiredto considerclthervehicles.such as specialpurposetrucks or vehicleswith characteristics recreational difl'erenttiom the standard desisn vehicles. turmulamust be used. the The resultingwideningvaluestbr thc assumed designconditionof an SU v e h i c l c n d t w o - l a n e i g i r w a y s r es i v c n i n l - a b l eI I I - l l . h l a

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(A,B). Traveledway widening on curves- basisof Figure llt-23

derivation.

AASHTO-4eometic Design of Highways and Streets

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w t o t w o - l a n eo n e - w a y r a v e l e d a y s .i . e . ,t o e a c hr o a d w a y f a d i v i d e d i g h w a y , t o h o r s t r e e tS t u d i e s h o wt h a to n t a n g e na l i n e m e ns o m e w h as m a l l e c l e a r a n c e s . t t t r v b e t w e e n e h i c l e s r eu s e d n p a s s i n go f v e h i c l e sr a v e l i n gn t h es a m e i r e c t i o n s a i t i d with meeting opposing ascompared of vehicles. Thereis no evidence these that smallerclearances obtained curvedalinement one-wavroads. are on of Moreover.driversarenot in position judgeclearancbs well whenpassing to as vehicles on a curvedtwo-wavhiehwayas whenmeetingopposing vehicles a curved on two-wav highway.For this reasonand because geometric all elements a on divided highway are mainrained a relarivelyhigh standard, to wideningon a two-lane, one-waytraveled way of a dividedhighwayshouldbe thesame rhat as on a two-lane, two-way highway.as notedin Table III-22. On fbur-lane undivided highways streets widening or the should double be the designvaluesindicated TableIII-22; also,rhevaluesof 0.3-,0.4-,and m in 0.5 wideningshouldbe doubledand usedin design. The abovevaluesare applicable open[ign*oy curves.For intersection for conditions,with generallysmallerradii on turning roadways, criteriafor the designwidthsaresomewhat different. These criteriaarepresented thesection in "Widths for Turning Roadways Intersections" this chapter,and design at in v a l u e s r eg i v e ni n T a b l eI I I - 2 0 . a

3.

4.

5.

the edge-ofFrom the standpointsof usefulnessand appearance. traveledway through the widening transitionshouldbe a smooth' on edgeshouldbe avoided. minor transition curve.A tangent graceful a highwaysor in caseswhere plan detailsare not available, curved and by transitionstaked eyegenerallyis satisfactory betterthanonelaid to be endsshould rounded In out on a tangent. any event,the transition edge. breakat the pavement avoidan angular on highway alinemenrwithout spirals,smooth and fining alinement of from attainingwideningwith one-halfto two-thirds the length resulrs the tangentand the balancealong the curve.This ltts a common along as The methodforattainingsuperelevation. insideedgemay bedesigned eitherby a width/length spiral,with controlpointsdetermined a modified ratio of a triangular wedge on the tangential approachor by tabular valuesbasedon a parabolicor cubic curve: also the edge calculated curve. transitionmay be effected by a larger radius (compounded) with by eyein thefield.on highwayalinement otherwiseit may be lined alongthe length in width usuallyis distributed spiralcurvesthe increase at of the spiral,and most or all the wideningis attained the SC point. plans,or else detailedon construction Wideningareascan be fully plansandfinal or standard can general controls be citedon construction detailsleft to the field engineer.

r \ t t a i n n r e n t f W i d e n i n go n C u r v e s o W i c l e n i n g h t t u l d c a t t a i n c d r a d u l l l yo n t h ca p p r o i r c h co t h ec u r v et o e n s u r e s g b ts sr1)ootll rea.sonably ulilcrlcrrrt ol'thec{gc-ol'-travclc{ way and to llit thc paths 'l'hc o f ' v e h i c ls c n t c r i n g r l c l v i r r st h cc u r v c . e o t i r l l o ui n g l r e t h ep r i n c i p ap o i n t s l o l c o n c c r n n r i c s i g r r ',h c v i r p p l v o b o t hc n t l so f h i g h ul v c u r v e . i I t s l. O r t s i r n p l cl u n s p i r a l e dc u r v e s ,r v i d c n i n g h o u l db e a p p l i e do n t h c s ) in.side edgc orrly.On curve.,; rvith spiral.s. designed wideningrnay bc p l a c e d n t h c i n s i d co r d i v i d e de q u a l l yb e r r v e etn ec u r v ei n s i d e n d o h a o u t s i r l c I n t h c l a t t c r n t c t l t o d . x t c n s i i l no i t h c o u t c r - c d g ea n g c n t . c t a v o i i . l I s l i g h tr c v c r s c u r v co n t h eo u r c rc d g c .I n c i t h c rc a s e h e f i n a l s c t r t r l r k c tc c n t c r l i n u n,d t l c s i r a b l u n vc c r r r mllo n s i t u d i n t l j o i n ts h o u l t l l ly , bt pllccd nridrvur' lrctvut'cn ctlgcsot'thc u'idcnedtnrvclcdway. thc C u r v cw i d c n i n gs l r t l r r l b c r r t t a i n c gd r r d u a l lo l c r a l e n s t hs u t ' f i c i c n t d .r v t o n u r k ct h c r v h o l co l ' t h ct n r v c l e d l v t i r l l v u s a t r l cA l t h o u g ha l o n g w . t n t r t s i t i o ns d c s i r l b l c t i r r t r a t ' f i c p c m t i t t n i t r n t r vr c s u l ti n n a r r t t w i o . r t h l r. * i d c n i n g s h o u l r lb c u t t l i r r c dr l v c r t h c s u p c r e v u t i o nr u n r l l ' l ' le l c r r g t l rh u t s h o r t c rl c n g t h su r c s ( ) n l c t i n t cu s c d .C h u n g c s n w i d t h . s i r t o r r l r r r l l:r t r L r l r lc c t ' t c c t c tiln u t l i s t u n c c t ' . 1 (t)o 6 0 n r . h b o Sight Distanceon Horizontal Curves t e a e t A n o t h e r l e m e no l ' h o r i z . o n t u l i n . r " n , i s t h es i g h td i s t l t n c a c r o s sh e i n s i ( l c ( s u c ha s w a l l s .c u t s l o p e s . o f c u r v e s .W h e r e t h e r e a r e s i g h t o b s t r u c t i o n s to a on barriers) the insideof curves. design provide and buildin-cs. longituclinal in may requireadjustment the nomrirlhighwaycross sight distance adequate of Because be cannot removed. if in or section change alinement theobstruction and in number.type. and and crosssections in the many variables alinement i s p o o l o c a t i o n f p o s s i b l c h s t r u c t i o n s . e c i f i c t u d vu s u a l l l i s n c c c s s a rty r r c ' a c h a s a c o n d i t i o nU s i n gd e s i g ns p e e d n d a s c l e c t c d i g h td i s t e n c c s i l c o n t r o l .t h c . atl.justmcnts shouldchecktheactualconditionandmakcthc nL'cessilrv designer s l m l n n e rr n o s tf i t t i n gt t l p r o v i d e d e q u a t e i q h td i s t l n c e in the

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StoppingSight Distance curvc.thc sight line ls a chordot thc usein designof a horizontal For general l o d e s s t o p p i n g i - U h ti s l a n c i st n e a s u r e ld n g t h ec e r r t e r l i n c c u n e .a n dt h ca p p l i c a b l e c l F i g u r e sl l - l + A a n dl l l - l - l B a r ed e s i g n h a n s h r l o f t h ci n s i t l ea n e t r t t u ntd ec u r v c .

AAS HTO--C eometric D esi

Elements Desi

221

for middleordinates clearsightareas satisfythe upper to showingthe required respectively, stopping of sightdistance required curves for andlower values, of variousradii. values TableIII- l. sightdistance Thesedesignchartsutilizethestopping of at in The overlapof the ranges the higherdesignspeeds this tableprecludes developmentof a single design chart. However, use of the two charts in combination provides the same result; namely, a value that exceedsthe in in minimumestablished Figurelll-24A, but not thevalueestablished Figure

w . s a e l I l - 2 4 8 , w i l l p r o v i d e c c e p t a b ls t o p p i n g i g h td i s t a n c eA s w a st h ec a s e i t h h n s t h es t o p p i n g i g h td i s t a n c eis T a b l eI I I - l , a v a l u ea t o r a p p r o a c h i ntg eu p p e r p e r a b l i m i t s h o u l d e u s e d sa m i n i m u mw h e r e v e c o n d i t i o n s e r m i tb e c a u so f t h e safetythat is provided. increased o g T h e v a l u ea t o r a p p r o a c h i n t h e u p p e rl i m i t i s a n a p p l i c a t i o n f g e o m e t r y s , f o r t h e s e v e r a ld i m e n s i o n s a s i n d i c a t e di n t h e d i a g r a m m a t i c k e t c ha n d s a . o f o r m u l a s n t h e f i g u r e s T h e s ef o r m u l a s p p l yo n l y t o c i r c u l a r c u r v e l o n g e r . t f t h a nt h e s i g h td i s t a n c eo r t h e p e r t i n e n d e s i g ns p e e d F o r a n y d e s i g ns p e e d c o t o t h er e l a t i o n f R t o M i s a s t r a i e h l i n e .R e l a t i o n s f R , M ' a n dV i n t h e s e h a n

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radius Figurelll-24(A). Range uppervalues- relation of between valueof middleordinate necessary provide and to stoppingsight distanceon horizontal curves.

radius belween Rangeof lowervalues- relation Figurelll-24(B). necessary provide to andvalueof middleordlnate curves. stoppingsight distanceon horizontal

AAS HTO--C eomeIri c D esi

-- ---

. T o r m sc a n b e q u i c k l y c h e c k e dF o r e x a m p l e , i t h a n 8 0 - k m / hd e s i g ns p e e d w a n da c u r v ew i t h a 3 5 0 m r a d i u s a c l e a rs i g h td i s t a n c e i t h a m i d d l eo r d i n a t e , w b e r w e e n . 3 m ( l o w e r v a l u e )a n d7 . 5 m ( u p p e rv a l u e )i s n e e d e d o r s t o p p i n g 5 f s i g h td i s t a n c eA s a n o t h e r x a m p l e f b r a s i g h to b s t r u c t i o n o n d i t i o nw i t h . e . c M = 6 . 0 m o n a c u r v e w i r h a 1 7 5 m r a d i u s ,r h e r e s u l r i n g s i g h t d i s t a n c ei s approximatelyat the uppervalue of the range for a speedof 60 km/h. H o r i z o n t a ls i g h tr e s t r i c t i o n m a y o c c u r w h e r et h e r ei s a c u t s l o p eo n t h e s i n s i d eo f t h ec u r v e .F o r t h eh e i g h tc r i t e r i au s e df o r s r o p p i n g i g h td i s t a n c e s of 1 0 7 0 - m mh e i g h to f e y e a n d r 5 0 - m m h e i g h ro f o b j e c t ,a h e i g h to f 6 0 0 m m m a y b e u s e da s t h e m i d p o i n to f t h e s i g h t l i n e w h e r er h e c u t s l o p eu s u a l l v o b s t r u c t s i g h t .T h i s a s s u m e t h a tt h e r ei s l i t t l e o r n o v e r t i c a lc u r v a t u r eF o r s s . a h i g h w a y w i t h a 6 . 6 - m t r a v e l e d a y , l . g m s h o u r d e r s , . 6 - md i t c h s e c r i o n . w 0 nd I :2 eut slopes, sightobstructionis about 5.5 m outsidethe cenrerline the of the inner lane. This is sufficient for adequare sight distanceat 50 km/h when curveshavea radiusofabout 80 m or more and at g0 km/h when curves have a radius of about 300 m or more. curves sharperthan these would r e q u i r ef l a t t e rs l o p e s b e n c h i n go r o t h e ra d j u s t m e n t s . t t h e o t h e re x r r e m e . , , A highwayswith normal lateraldimensions more than9 m provideadequare of s t o p p i n g i g h td i s t a n c e a t c u r v e s v e r t h e e n t i r er a n g e f d e s i g ns p e e d s n d s s o o a curves. I n s o m e i n s t a n c e se t a i n i n gw a l l s , c o n c r e t e e d i a ns a f e t yb a r r i e r s a n d r m , o t h e rs i mi l a r l ' e a t u r ec o n s t r u c t eo n t h ei n s i d eo f c u r v e sn r a yb e o b s t r u c t i o n s s d a n d m u s t b e c h e c k e d b r s r o p p i n g s i g h d i . s t a n ca d e q u a c yA s a n e x a m p r e , f . t e . a n o b s t r u c t i o n f t h i s t y p eo f f s e t I . 2 m f r o m t h e i n s i d ee c l g e - o f - t r a v e l e d y o wa o 3 - - h a sa r ' i d d l e o r d i n a t e f a b o u r . 0 q , A t Q 0\ m / ! r h l sp r o v l d q s 4 f e q u l rs iq h t 4 1g i i t l r n c e w i r c ' nc u r u c s h a v e r a d i u s o f a b o u t 5 - 5 0 o r m o r e . I f t h e o f f s e t m w i d t h i s i n c r e a s e t lt l - 1 . -n t . A c u r v ew i t h a 3 2 0 n r ( o r n r o r e )r a d i u sp r o v i d e s l a d c q u a t e i c h t d i s r a n c c t t h es a m cg 0 _ k n t / h p e e d T h e s a m ew o u l d b e t r u e s a , s . t b r e x i s t i n g u i l d i n g s r s i m i l a ro b s t r u c t i o ncsl nt h e i n s i d e f c u r v e s . b o o W h e n t h e n e c t l e d t o p p i n g i g h td i s t a n c e o u l d n o t b e a v a i l a b l e e c a u s e s s w b t h e r a i l i n g o r I l o n g i t u d i n ab a r r i e rc o n . s t u t e sr h e o b . s t r u c t i o n . t e r n a t i v e s l if al s h o u l db e c o n s i d e r e do r b o t hs a t e t ya n d e c o n o m i cr e a s o n sT h e a l t e r n a t e s t . a r c : i n c r e a s eh c t l f f s c t t o t h e o b s t r u c t i o ni.n c r e a s c h e r a < J i uo r r e d u c et h e t t s d e s i g n p e e d H t l r v c v c ra n va l t e r n a t i v s c l e c t e d h o u l dn o t r e q u i r e h e w i d r h s . . c s t t l f t h e s h o u l d e ro n t h e i n s i d c o f t h e c u r v e t o e x c e e d3 . 6 m b e c a u s e h e t p o t e n t i ae x i s t s h a td r i v e r s i l l u s et h e s h o u l d e r is e x c e s s f t h a tw i d t h a s l l w n o a p a s s i n { r t r a v e ll a n c . o As citn bc sccn fronr FigureIII-2.1Aand tll-2-lB. rhe methotJ presented is onlv e.tactw'hc'n troththe vehicleand the sight obstruction locatedwithin are u l c i l r n l r s f r n es t m p t ch o r r z o n t a lu r v e .w h e n e i t h c rt h e v e h i c l e r t h e s i g h t o c o o b s t r u c t i o l il s s i t u a t c db e y o n dt h e l i m i t s o f t h e s i m p l e c u r v e . t h e v a l u e s o b t u i n c d a r e o nalp p r o x i n r a t e . T h e s a m e i s t r u e i f e i t h e r t h e v e h i c l e o r t h e s i c h t l

o b s t r u c t i o no r b o t h ,i s s i t u a t e d i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f a , w s p i r a ro r a c o m p o u n d c u r v e .I n t h e s e n s t a n c e sh e v a l u eo b t a i n e d o u l d r e s u l t i t, w in middre rdinate o valuesslightly largerthanthoseneeded satisfy to the selecred stoppingsight d i s t a n c eI.n m a n y i n s t a n c e st,h e r e s u l t i n g d d i t i o n a r a c l e a r a n c ei r r n o t b e * significant.whenever FiguresIII-24A and lil-24|are nor applicabre. is it advisable checkthe designs to eitherby urilizing graphicar procedures by or utilizing a computationar method. Ref'erence (59) provides a method for computingthe needed values.

PassingSight Distance T h e m i n i m u m p a s s i n g i g h t d i s t a n c e o r a t w o - l a n er o a d s f or srreets about i four timesasgreatas the minimum stoppingsight distance at thesamespeed. To conform to thosegreatersightdistances, crear.sighr areas rheinsideof on curvesmust havea width greatryin excess thosediscussed. of The formuras indicatedon Figuresrrl-24A and In-248 are directry appricabre passing for s i g h td i s t a n c e u ta r eo f r i m i t e dp r a c t i c av a r u e x c e p t b r e o n r o n gc u r v e sA c h a r t . demonstration similar ro Figures ilI-24A and ilI-248 *oura b. of varue p r i m a r i l y i n r e a c h i n g e g a t i v e o n c r u s i o n- t h a t n c s i t w o u r db e d i f f i c u r t t o m a i n t a i np a s s i n g i g h td i s t a n c e n o t h e rt h a nv e r y f l a t s o curves. P a s s i n g i g h td i s t a n c es m e a s u r eb e r w e e n h e i g h t f e y e s i d a o of 1070 m and m heightof objecrof r 300 mm. The sighrrine near rhecenrer of the areain.side a c u r v ei s a b o u t5 0 0 m m h i g h e rt h a nf o r s t o p p i n g i g h td i s t a n c e . s T h er e s u l t a n t lateral dimension for normar highway eross-sections in cut between the c e n r e r l i no f t h ei n s i d e a n e n dt h em i d p o i n t f t h es i g h t e r a o r i n ei s f r o m r . r t o _ 1 . 2 m g r e a t e t h a nr h a tf o r s t o p p i n g i g h td i s t a n c e h o w na b o v e . r s s It isobvious hat r fbr many cut sections. practicardesign tbr passingsight disrancemusr bc confinedto rangent and very frat alinements. Even in frartenain.these design criteriacall fbr keepingrheareas insiileof curvesclearfor a widrh rhatin some instance.s exrendbeyondthe normalright_of-_way may line. I n g e n e r a l 't h e d e s i s n e r u s r u s L ' g r a p h i c am e t h o d s m r ro chc,ck rghr s d i s t a n c e n h o r i z o n t ac u r v e s . h i s m e t h o di s i n F i g u r e o l T I I I - - -a n d d c s c r i b e d r i n t h e a c c o m p a n y i nd i s c u s . s i o n . g

General Controls for Horizontal Alinement

undcrprevious headings. numberof a controls recognizetl practice. arc -reneral in Thesecontrolsare not subjcctto ernpirical firrmuladerivarion. or but thev are r m p o n a nt b r e f f i c i e n t n d s m o o t h - t l o w i nh i g h w a v sE x c c , s s i v e a g . .urr.,ur. n,

EIements Desi

225

poorcombination curvature of limit capacity, cause economic losses because of costs,and detractfrom a pleasing increased travel time and operating appearTo evidences poordesignpractices. general of the ance. avoid these controlsin ihe following paragraphs shouldbe usedwherepracticable.
l.

L.

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as Alinementshouldbe asdirectional possible shouldbeconsistent but with the topography properties and with preserving developed and community values.A flowing line that conformsgenerallyto the naturalcontoursis preferable one with long tangents to that slashes throughthe terrain. The construction scars can be kept to a minimum and natural slopes and growth can be preserved.Such design is from a construction maintenance and standpoint. general, desirable In the numberof short curyesshouldbe kept to a minimum. Winding alinement composedof short curves should be avoided becauseit qualities usuallyis a cause enaticoperation. of Althoughtheaesthetic of curving alinementare important,passingnecessitates long tangents on two-lane highways with passingsight distanceon as great a percentage the length of highway as feasible. of on In alinementpredicated a given designspeed,use of maximum The curyaturefor that speedshould be avoidedwhereverpossible, designershould attemptto use generallyflat curyes,retainingthe the maximumfor the mostcriticalconditions. _eeneral, central In angle permit,so of eachcurveshouldbe as smallas the physicalconditions This centralangle that the highway will be as directional possible. as .shouldbe absorbedin the longest possible curve. but on two-lane paragraph notedin the preceding highwaysthe exception applies. alinement always should sought. be Sharp curves not Consistent shoultl at be introduced theendsof long tangents. changes from areas Sudden of of flat curvatureto areas sharpcurvatureshouldbe avoided.Where where sharp curvature must be introduced,it should be approached. possible, successively curvesfrom thegenerally curvaby sharper flat ture. angles. curves shouldbe suttlciently For smalldeflection long to avoid of theappearance a kink. Curvesshouldbeat leastI 50 m longtbr a central angleof 5", andthe minimumlengthshouldbe increased m fbr each 30 in The minimum lengthof horizontal curve I " decrease thecentralangle. be on mainhighways. should about3 timesthedesisnsped, L.,,,,, L. or = -lV. On high speed controlled-access facilities thatuseflat curvature. h ofcurve doublethe minimum length, L.,,..= 6V. or than tangent flat cun,ature Other or shouldbc avoidedon high, long frlls.In the absence ofcut slopes, shrubs. trees abovethe roadwav, and

and adjust the it is difficult for driversto perceive extentof cun'ature to theiroperation the conditions. circularcun'es. in 6 . Cautionshouldbe exercised the useof compound While the use of compoundcuryesaffords flexibilily in fitting the the highwayto the terrainand othergroundcontrols. simplicitywith to which suchcuryescan be usedoften temptsthe desi-sner usethem wherecuryes theiruseshouldbe avoided Preferably withoutrestraint. introin curveswith largedifferences curvature aresharp. Compound to approach a circular that ariseat a tangent ducethe sameproblems curve. Where topographyor right-of-way restrictionsmake their use the necessary. radiusof the flatter circular arc, R,' shouldnot be more than 50 percentgreaterthan the radiusof the sharpercircular arc, R', curveon compound i.e..R, shouldnot exceed1.5R,. A several-step is suitable as a form of transition to sharp curyes as this basis in previouslydiscussed the section"CompoundCircularCurves."A spiral transitionbetweenflat curvesand sharpcurvesis even more in On desirable. one-wayroadssuchas ramps,the difference rad!iof curveis flatterthan if thesecond curvesis not so important compound the first. However, the use of compoundcurves on ramps,which is two in results a flat curvebetween sharpercurves' notgoodpractice. Such a change be avoided. should in 7 . Any abruptreversal alinement w i t h i n h i s o r h e ro w n l a n e 'I t i s m a k e s t d i f f i c u l tf b r a d r i v e rt o k e e p i and both curves adequatelJ-. erratic also difficult to superelevate suitabl;" designed can in A may result. reversal alinement be operation two curvestbr between the by ineludinga.iq!ficien!leqglhof laqgent lengthwith spirll an runoff. or preferably equivalent ,up.releuotion curvesshouldbe thesum of the reverse between The distance curves. as runoutlengths. defined and runotTlengths thetangent superelevation ( distancei.e'.morc "superelevation Runofl" If sufficient in thesection to than 100 m) is not available permit the tangentrunoutlengthsto thereis a longlengthwheretheedges retumto a normalcrownsection, are of roadwavandcenterline at thesameelevationandpoortransverse runofflcngths the In can tlrainage beexpected. thiscase. superelevation until they abut.thusprovidingonc lnstillltitneous shouldbe incre:rsed slopes' thereis lcss cross waysrvith.straight For levelsection. traveled and 100 to of the difficultyin retuming edges roadwav a normulsection m mav be decreased. of or 8 . The "broken-back" "flat-back" alrangement cunes t h a v i n g l short tancentbetweentwo curvesin the samedirection)should bc -wii\ avoidedexcept where very unusualtopogra h dicttte otherwise.Except on circumt'erential i g h w r v s . condition.s curvcs to be in thc sanle most di'iversdo not expect succeeding

t AAS HTO--1} eome r i c D esi

and Streets

Elemenlsof Design

227

9.

curvesin opposite conditionofsucceeding the direction, preponderant h a b i t i n d r i v e r sf o r f o l l o w i n g d a direction eveloping subconscious in is Use alinement alsonotpleasing appearance. of them.Broken-back wherein thereis some or curvealinement. spiraltransitions a compound for is superelevation, preferable suchconditions. ofcontinuous degree usually is not applied when the connection The term broken-back will length.Even in this casethe alinement is tangent of considerable when both curvesare clearlyvisiblefbr in be unpleasant appearance ahead. somedistance distortionthe horizontal of To avoid the appearance inconsistent carefully with the profile design. alinementshould be coordinated in Generalcontrolsfor this coordinationare discussed the section "Combination Horizontal of and VerticalAlinement."

Grades throughuniformoperation to shouldbe designed encourage Roadsand streers towards is a means discussed as designspeed previously out. use of a selected Design of theroador street. features geometric of thisendby conelation various but highwayfeatures' upon tbr many and valueshavebeendetermined agreed in relationto design on have beenreached roadwaygrades few conclusions of and are on characteristics grades discussed relations vehicle-operaring speed. section' in are to giadesand their lengths designspeed developed this

on Characteristics Grades Vehicle-Operating with respectto tu' Passengercars. The practicesof passenger of"'uto's that acceptance nearlyall passenger iary greatly,but thereis a general grades gradesas steepas 4 to 5 percentwithout appreIur, .un t"uaity negotiate ciablelossinspeedbelowthatnormallymaintainedonlevelhighways' ratios, including some compactand except for cars with high mass/power cars' subcompact with that on compared upgrade' on showthatoperation a 3 percent Studies underuncongested car on passenger speeds the level.hasonly a slight effect conditions.onsteepergrades.thespeedsdecreaseprogressivelywithan genercar passenger speeds On in increase the ascendinggrade. downgrades' but local conditionsgovern' sections ally are slightly higherthanon level than is on Trucks. The effectof grades truckspeeds muchmorepronounced sped of trucks on level seetionsof ca?s.AvErage of on speea.s passenger cars'Trucksdisplayup of speed passenger the highwayapproximates average or and downgrades abouta 7 percent on in increase speed to obou,a 5 percent on to operation the level'On as on in moredecreaie speed upgrades compared by that can be maintained a truck is dependent the upgrades maximumspeed ratio' grade and the mass/power of prilarity on the length and steepness the that power. other variables dividedby theengine mass vehicle whichisihegross speed' gradeare the entering over the enrirelengthof speed affectthe average ortly minor . an w i n d r e s i s r a n c e . d s k i l l o f t h e o p e r a t o rT h e l a s t t w o c a u s e s n v a r i a t i o n is t h ea l e r a g e P e e d ' the to conducted dctermlne havebeen of studies truckperformance Extensive tractiveeftbrt. and gross antl seDarare combinedetfectsof roadwaygrade,

VERTICAL ALINEMENT Terrain o o h o The topography f the landtraversed asan influence n the alinement f l , t a t a r o a d s n ds t r e c t sT o p o g r a p h yl o e s f t ' e ch o r i z o n t aa l i n e m e n tb u t i t i s m o r e . v e v i d e n t i n t h e e f f e c t o n v e r t i c a l a l i n e m e n t .T o c h a r a c t e r i z e a r i a t i o n s , a i s e e n g i n e e r g e n e r a l l y e p a r a t t o p o g r a p h yn t o t h r e ec l a s s i f i c a t i o n sc c o r d i n g s to terrain. as L e v - etle r r a i n r l h a tc q l d i t fo n w h q l eh i g h V 4 y9 i g h 1 d ! s t a n c e s .- c o v e r n e d i , l b y b o t h h o r i z o n t a a n d v e r t i c a lr e s t r i c t i o n sa r e g e n c r a l l yl o n g o r c o u l d b e c o m a d et o b e s o w i t h o u t c o n s t r u c t i o n l i f ' f i c u l t y r n t a j o re x p e n s e . i c w l i s t h a t c o n d i t i o n h e r et h e n a t u r a s l o p e s o n s i s t e n t lry s e R o l l i n gt e n a i n slopes gradeand whereoccasional steep the roador street aboveand fall below and verticalroadwayalinement. to ofl'ersomerestriction normalhorizontal where longitudinaland trlnsverse terrain is that condition Mountainous are of to changes theelevation thegroundwith respect theroador strcet abrupt in requircdto obtain and sidc hill exci:vation frequcntlv arc arrdwherebenching and vcrticalalinement. horizontal acccotable -fcrrain pertainto the generalchartcterof a specificroute clas.sifications areasthat have all the or corridor.Routcsin vallcys or passcs mountainous characteristics roadsor strcctstravcrsinglevel ttr rolling terrainshouldbe of grades. stecpcr rolling tenain gencrates classified lc'vclor rolling.In general. as cilrs.andmountainous specds belowthose passcnger of causing to truck.t reduce tcrrain lggravltcs lhc situation.resultingin some trucks opcratinglt c spccds.

63)' (30. vehicle mass 3t, 32' 33' 3'1. is of on of of eft'ect rateandlength grade thespeed a typicalheavytruck The
shown ln Flgures lll-iJrt

ly 90 km/h' up its how far a truck.starting climb tiom any speed to approximate befbrea certlin or unitbrm of or grades combinations grades travelsup various

AAS HTO--C eomaIri c D esi g n of H ighu'at,s atrd St

of Elements Design

llv

with speed reached. in.stance, an entering is For speed approximarely km/ of 90 h, thetruck travelsabout500 m up a 6 percent gradebeforeits speed reduced is climb is about2l km/h.This is determined starting thecurvefor a 6 percenr by on grade corresponding 50 km/h for which thedistance 450 m. andproceecling to is alongit to the point wherethe distance 300 m more.or 750 m. for which rhe is speedis about27 km/h. Figure III-258 shows perrbrmance when the truck approaches gradeat or belowcrawl speed. the The truck is ableto accelerate to a speed 40 km/h or moreonly on grades lessthan3.5 percent. of of Thesetotal dataserveas a valuableguide for designin appraising effect of truckson the traffic operationfor a given set of profile conditions. Travel time (and,therefore, speed) truckson grades directlyrelated of is to the mass/power ratio. It has been assumedthat vehiclesof the same mass/ power ratio have similar operatingcharacteristics. Hence,this rating is of considerable in assistance studyingthe performance trucks.Normally, the of mass/power ratiois expressed termsof grossmassandnetpower.It hasbeen in found that truckswith a mass/power ratioof about 180kg/kW haveacceptable operating characteristics from thestandpoint thehighwayuser. of Sucha mass/ powerratioassures minimum speed about40 km/h on a 3 percent a of upgrade. Thereis evidence that the automotive industrywould find a mass/power ratio o f t h i sm a g n i t u d e c c e p t a b la s a m i n i m u mg o a l i n t h ed e s i g n f c o m m e r c i a l a e o vehicles. Thereis alsoevidence thatcarrieroperators voluntarilyrecognizare i n g t h i sr a t i oa st h em i n i m u mp e r f b r m a n cc o n t r o li n t h el o a d s l a c e d n t r u c k s e p o of diff'erent power,the overallresultbeing that mass/poweratio of rruckson r highw4y,s i14pfqySd lqcery ygqr!,_Thi!!,silluslrale{ !y I.lgqre !!!-26, in hils which comparessuch ratios as developed from infbrnrationobtained in conjunctionrvith nationwidebrakeperfbrmance studiescondumedin 1949. t 9 - 5 5l.9 6 3 , 1 9 7 , l 9 1 l . a n d 1 9 8 - 5 .h e d a t as h o w ,l b r e x a m p l et,h a tt b r a g r o s s 5 T vehiclemassof 18.000 theaverage kg mass/power ratiodecreased from about 2 2 0 k g / k W i n 1 9 4 9 t o a b o u t1 9 0k g / k W i n 1 9 5 . 5 , a b o u rt 5 0 k g / k w i n 1 9 6 3 . . ro to about 130 kg/kW in 1975ro abour 100 kg/kW in 1911.and to about 80 k g / k W i n l 9 t i 5 .T h i s d e c r e a s erd t i om e a n s r e a t e p o w e ra n d b c t t e r l i m b i n g a g r c e b i l i t yo n u p g r a d e s . T h e r ei s a t r e n dt o w a r d l a r g e ra n d h e a v i e rt r u c k sw i t h a s m r n v a s t h r e e t r a i l e ru n i t sa l l o w e do n c e r r a i n i g h w a y sn s o m eS t l r e s .S t u d i e sn d i c a r e h a t h i i r a s t h e n u m b e ro f a x l e si n c r e a s e sh e m a s s / p o w erra t i o i n c r e a s e s ...r k i n ga l l t. T llctors into accountit scemsprudentand on thesafeside to usea mass/power r r t i o o f 1 8 0k g / l i W i n d e t e r m i n i n s r i t i c a l l c n g t ho f g r l d c . H o w e v e r .t h e r e c w i l l b e l o c a t i o n s h e r et h e l t l O k g / k w m a s s / p o w er a r i ow i l l n o r b e a p p r o w r priate.Where this occurs.desi_uners encouraged utilize either a more are to r e p r e s e n t a t i vr a t i o r t r a n a l t e r n a t e n e t h o dw h i c h m o r e c l o s e l y f i t s t h e e r c o n d i t i o n s .A l 9 t i 6 s t u d v ( 6 3 ) i n d i c a r e sm e a s u r a b l e i f t ' e r c n c e s m o n s d a

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AAS HTO--C eometr ic D esign of H i g hwa s and Steets

Elements Design

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Figurelll-25(B). Speed-distance curvesfor a typicalheavy truckof 180kg/kWfor acceleration percent (on gradesup and down).

87.5 whichequal exceed or lossfor vehicles Speed Figurelll-25(C). trucks and percent alltractor'trailers single-unit of on all roads.

232

AASHTHeometic

Desi

and Str

Elements Desi

233

J]U

t
('l

x
F

u
L

o
,r/

c) I o oE
QD F

t5u
t"r/

/ ,6
o

o =
t00

/ { n-

{ /
' t'/

t c e r t a i nt r u c k c l a s s e sI.t r e c o m m e n d sh a t t h e s p e e dd i s t a n c e e l a t i o n s h i p r v g i v e n i n F i g u r eI I I - 2 l C f o r a n " 8 7 . 5 p e r c e n t i l e e h i c l e "p r o v i d e sa b e t t e r t w v i n d i c a t i o n f s i n g l e n i tt r u c k s t h o s e m a l l e r 2 - a x l er u c k s i t h g r o s s e h i c l e o u , s with GVM rating to mass(GVM) rating over 4500 kg and to tractor-trailers datashownin Figure the maximumallowableon the highways. Performance reductions grades than III-25C indicateslightly differentvaluesfor speed on i n d i c a t e dn p r e v i o u s t u d i e s . i g u r eI I I - 2 5 C s h o u l dt h e r e f o r e e c o n s i d e r e d i F b s curyes for trucks on as an alternateto Figure III-25A for speed-distance grades. vehicles grades Recreationalvehicles. ofrecreational on is Consideration not ascriticalasthatoftrucks. However,on certainroutes, suchasdesignated routes,where the low percentage trucks may not otherwise of recreational warrant a truck climbing lane, sufficient recreational vehicle traffic may indicatea demandfor an additional lane. This can be evaluatedby using the designchartsin Figure lll-27 in the samemanneras for trucksdescribedin the preceding section of this chapter. Recreationalvehicles are of many types and towed trailersof includingself-contained motor homes,pickup campers, vehiclesvary so sizes.Because characteristics recreational the of numerous much, it is difficult to establish designvehicle.However,a recentstudyon a vehicles. The critical the speedof vehicleson gradesincludedrecreational wasconsidered be a vehiclepulling a traveltrailerand the chartsin vehicle to vehicleare basedon that FiguresIII-27 and III-30 for a typical recreational assumption.

50

v
5

4
r0

.l
F

f
Controt Gradesfor Design III-25 through III-28.and of Maximum grades. thebasis thedatain Figures On it in to according the gradecontrolsnow in u.se a largenumberof States, is guide valuesfor maximumgrades design. possible arriveat reasonable for to Maximum gradesof about 5 percentare consideredappropriatetbr a design generalll' speed I l0 km/h. For a designspeed 50 km/h, maximumgrades of of on If depending topography. only the more ure in the rangeof 7 to I 2 percent. thata maximumgradeof 7 or S important highways considered. appears are it percentwould be representative 50-km/h designspeed.Control gradesfor for between designspeeds intermediate are the 60-.70-.80-,90-, and 100-km/h aboveextremes. classof highwayand For the maximumgradecontrolsfor eachfunctional street, see ratherthan as l The maximum designgradeshould be usedinfrequently valueto be usedin mostcases. the otherextreme, shortgrades fclr lessthan At the l-50m lnd fbr c.ne-wav downgrades, maximumgradientma,vbe about I

15

20

?5

30

15

AJ

Gross lleight ( thousonds of kg)

r949
| 9)5

|963

|975 Sfudy | 9 7 7 S t u d y l# | 9 8 5 S t u d y HH

Flgure lll-25.

Trend in mass/powerratlos from 1949 to 1985 basedon average datafor all typesof vehicles.

AASHTHeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Elementsof Design

235

percentsteeper. For low_volumerural highways,gradesmay be 2 percent steeper.

--

..qui,.grades roadway ::::f i::i*:.1i11'_:i':sfrequentry,hunn"i, ,,,.p..,i,unthe profite adequate for dlainage. Drainale a]r.,i*i];in"o.J#ff] "r.
Critical Lengths of Grade for Design Maximum gradein itserfis not a comprete designcontror.It is necessary arsoto consider Iength particular the ofa gradi in relation desirable icleoperation. to veh The term "criticarrengthof gradel'is usedto indicate maximumrength a the of designated upgrade whicha Ioaded on truckcanoperate withoutan unreasonable reduction in speed.For a given grade, lengths less than critical result in acceptable operationin the de.sired rangeof speeds.If the desiredfreedomof operation to be maintained grades is on rongerthancritical,designadju.stment suchas change in^location reduce to grades additionof extralanesshouldbe or made. The data for criticar rengthsof grade are used with other prtinent considerations (such trafficvolumein relation capacity) as to to detennine rvhere addedlanesare warranted. To estabrish designvarues criricar for rengths gradetbr whrchgradeabirity of of trucks is the determiningtactor,dara or assumptions neededfor the are tbllowing: I. Sizeandpowerof a represenrarive or truck truck combination beused to as a designvehiclealong wirh the gradeability data tbr this vehicle. A loaded truck,powered thatthemass/power so ratiois aboutlll0 kg/kW. is represenrarive thesizeandtypc vehicle of of normally u s e d b r d e s i g n o n r r oo n m a i nh i g h w a y s . b a t a f c l inFigureII-25A I andB apply ro sucha vchicle. The darain FigureIII-25C applies t. vehicles rhesingle-unit of truckan.ltractoi-rrairercras.ses wirh v e h i c l e sn t h e s e l a s s c s . i c j
T

ir,. ,u'J*}#..l]i; w'rth curbed high.waysor streets,Iongitudinal grades shourd be provrded to facilitate surfacedrainage. minimunigrade A for the usualcaseis 0.5 percent, but a grade of 0.30 percentmay be usei where there is a high-type pavement accuratery sroped andsupported firm subgrade. of everiflartergrades on use may be justified in specialcasesas discussed in subsequent particurar chapters. attention shourd givento the<Iesign stormwater be of inletsandtheirspacing to keep the spreadof water on the raveled way within torerabre rimits. Roadside

grades.on highwaysvirrualy uncurbed are ,,,llil,,TlLi:::,:'::]I111]:::, without objecrionwhen rhecrossstopeis adequate drain to

(\
14g

E (tt ctl o)

o o

I
|r)
O

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c|.)

o o g o o o

c
ot
Or

It

F-E

c o -9 .g o
q)
(E

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(It

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c I

o () o
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ar@

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@F(otr) st)

(\
o

(o(l)

7 : . ..8 , 6i o: a*g
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YO +rO

( q . / u r > l )P e e d S

o = .9
TL

AAS HTO--C eometr ic D esi

237

J.

Speedat entrance criticallengthof grade. to The average runningspeed related design as to speed beused can to approximate speed vehicles the of beginning uphill climb. an It is, ofcourse, subject adjustment approach to as conditions may Wherevehicles determine. approach nearlylevelgrades, on the runningspeed can be useddirecrly.For a downhill approach it should be increased somewhat, and for an uphill approachit shouldbe decreased. Minimum speedon the gradebelow which interference following to vehiclesis considered unreasonable. No specific data are availableon which ro base minimum tolerablespeeds truckson upgrades. is logical to assume of It that theseminimum speeds in direcrielatibn to the designspeed. are Minimum truck speeds about40 to 60 km/h for the majority of of highways(on which designspeeds abour60 to 100 km/h) are probably are not unreasonably annoying to following drivers unable pass two-lane to roads, on ifthe timeintervalduring which they are unableto passis not too long. The time interval is not likely to beannoying two-lane on roads with volumes well below their capacities. whereas is likely to be annoyingon two-lane it roadswith volumes nearcapacity. Lower minimumtruckspeeds probably can be tolerated multilanehighwaysratherthanon on two-laneroadsbecause thereis more opportunityfor and less difficulty in passing. Highwaysshouldbe designed rharrhe so speed-s lruets will nat be redueed of enoughto eauseirualcrable conditions the followins drivers. tbr

for rate exceeds km/h with the involvement being2.4 timesgreater l5 reduction of a 25-kmlh reductionthan for a lS-km/h reduction.On the basi.s these as criterion used the it be that relationships,is recommended a l5-km/h reduction guidefor determining general criticallengthsof grade. o T h e l e n g t ho f a n y g i v e n g r a d et h a t w i l l c a u s et h e s p e e d f a r e p r e s e n t a t r u c k ( 1 8 0 k g l k W ) e n t e r i n gt h e g r a d e a t 9 0 k m / h t o b e r e d u c e db y tive v a r i o u sa m o u n t sb e l o w t h e a v e r a g er u n n i n g s p e e do f a l l t r a f f i c i s s h o w n r g r a p h i c a l l y n F i g u r el l l - 2 9 . T h e c u r v es h o w i n ga l 5 - k m / h s p e e d e d u c t i o n i g u i d e f o r d e t e r m i n i n gt h e c r i t i c a l l e n g t h s f o d i s u s e da s t h e g e n e r a l e s i g n

40 0 0

a ts
o 3500

3i <i
cF !o 9o
:L

1000

E=5
vr-

. >!

^o

2500

I
I
/

**f
cX

I iJ
OU

2000

!:l
l-

Studies showthatregardless theaverage of speed thehighway.thegreater cln a vehicledeviatcs fiom this avera_qe speed greater chances becoming the its of involved in an accident. one such study (J5) usecl rhc.speeddistributionoi vehicles travelin-q hig.hways one stare, in and related to the accident it involvemcnl rateto obtainthe rate for trucksof four or morc axlesoperating level on grades. The accident involvement ratestirr truckspeed reductions 10. l-5.2-5 of and .l()km/h weredeveloped assumin[the reduction theaverage in speed all of vehicleson I gradewas -10percentclf the truck speedreductionon lhe same g r a d eT h e r e s u l t s f t h i sa n a l v s i s r es h o w ni n F i g u r eI I I - 2 8 . . o a The commonbasisfordetermining criricallengrhof grlde is a reduction in spc'ed trucksbelow the average of runningspeed. The ideal would be tbr all traffic to oDerate this s at This. however.is not practical. the nast.the In general praclice hasbeento usea speed reduction 2_5 of km/h in truck runnrng specd belorvthc. evcrarerunningspeed rll traftlc.As sht-rwn FigureIII-28, of in the accidentinvolvemcntrlte increases siqnificantlv ',r'hcn thr. truck sDecd

r500

!; to
o, ,o ao. Ic
l

| 000

500

-'-/
c ,0 20 Jo (km/h) Speed Reduction

rate of trucks lor which runFigurelll-28. Accidentinvolvement ning speedsare reducedbelow averagerunning Ref.35). speedof all trafflc.(Source:

g r a d e .S i m i l a ri n f o r m a t i o n o r r e c r e a t i o n avl e h i c l e s a y b e f o u n di n F i g u r e f m

I tr - 3 0 .
Where theenteringspeed lessthan90 km/h, as might be the casewherethe is approachis on an upgrade,the speedreductionsshown in Figures III-29 and III-30 areeffectedover shorterlengths wheretheapproach ofgrade.Conversely. is on a downgrade, probableapproach the speedis greaterthan90 km/h and the truckor recreational vehiclewill ascend greater a lengthof gradethanshownin the figures beforethe speedis reducedto the valuesshown. The methodof usingFigureIII-29 to determine critical lengths gradeis of demonstraled the fbllowingexamples. in Assumethata highwayis beingdesigned 100km/h andhasa tairly level for to directreadingon the heavyline in FigureIII-29 approach a 4 percentupgrade; showsthe critical length to be 280 m. If instead,the designspeedwere 60 km/ h, the initial and minimum tolerablespeeds the gradewould be different,but on for the samepermissible speed reductionthecriticai lengthwould still be 280 m. In anotherinstance, critical lengthofa 5 percentupgradeapproached the by a 500 m length of 2 percentupgradeis unknown. Figure III-29 showsthat 500 m of2 percentupgraderesultsin a speedreductionofabout I I km/h. The chart furthershowsthat the remaining allowablespeed reductionof 4 km/h will be madeon 100m of 5 percent upgrade. Where an upgradeis approached a momentumgrade,heavytrucksoften on to increase speed. sometimes a considerable degree orderto maketheclimb in in the upgrade as high a speed possible. as This factorcan be recognized at in designby an increase the permissible in speedreduction. remainsfbr the It to dcx;igner judge to whatextentthespeed truckswsuld increase thebottom sf at of the momentumgradeabovethat generallyfbund on level approaches. It appears that a speedincrease about I 0 km/h can be considered moderate of for downgradesand a speedincrease l5 km/h for steepergradesof moderate of with momentum lengthor longer. thisbasis. permissible On the speed reduction gradesbecomes25 or 30 km/h. For example.where there is a moderatelength in of 4 percentdown-{rade advance a 6 percentupgrade,a permissible of speed reductionof l5 km/h can be assumed. this casethe critical lengthof the For upgrade about300 m. is 6 percent The criticallength gradein FigureIII-29 i.s of derivedasthelengthof tangent grade. Wherel vertical curveis partof a criticallengthof grade, approx an imate gradelengthmust be used.Where the conditioninvolves equivalent tangent vcnical curyesof TypesII and IV in FigureIII-38 and the algebraic difference in gradesis not too great,the measurement critical lengthof grademay be of
rnrcle bruFFn rhF w.ni..l fidinr(6Iinr.^..ri^6 (Vplt Wh.F v.ni..l ."w.s.f

\ \

\ \\ I

Speed Reduct on in km,zh

I

I
o
!

\ \

f,
F

o cr, oL

I
\s0
40
30

c o ()
L (D

o-

-- ----

x
\ \
0 r00 :00 100 400

25\

>>

500

600 700 800

900 r0L'r0

Length of Grode, (meters)

Types I and lll in FigureIII-38 are involved,particularlywherethe algebraic diffcrence grades appreciable, is one-quanerof venicalcurvelength in about the mav be considered Dartoi the crrde underconsiderttion. as

typical assumed for lengths grade design, of Figurelll-29. Critical speed= 90kmih. entering heavy truckof 180kg/kW,

240

AASHTMeometric

Desi

and Streets

of Elements Design

Speed Reducti on

t/ 'i' xnzn ./ in ''""" I 25

\tl

ll

!4 o L o
c'!

: o

r5

effect on capacityand can also have a detrimental Steepdownhill grades volumes and numerousheavy trucks. safety of facilities with high traffic for conditions, thereareindications Althoughcriteriaare not established these ( l3) thattrucks in nearly great as downgrades low gearproduce descending steep an effect as on an equivalentupgrade.Therefore,there are instanceswhere shouldbe given to providing a truck lane for downhill traffic. consideration the criterionfor determining criticallengthof gradeis design The suggested the In as notintended a strictcontrolbutasa guide. someinstances telrainor other to or physicalcontrolsmay precludeshortening flatteninggrades meet these guidecannot design greater thanthesuggested Wherea speed reduction controls. type of operationmay result on roadswith numerous be avoided,undesirable capacity andin roadswith volumeapproaching panicularly two-lane on trucks, on some instances multilane highways. Where the length of critical grade is consideration should be given to providing an addeduphill lane for exceeded, particularlywherevolume is at or nearcapacityand the slow-movingvehicles, truck volume is high.Datain FigureIII-29 canbe usedalongwith otherpertinent and to particularly volumedatain relation capacity volumedata considerations, warranted' to determinewhere such addedlanes'are for trucks.

Tf

to
Climbing Lanes Climbing Lanes for Two-Lane Highways General. Free{om and safety of operationon two-lane highways,besides are sections. adversely by beinggoverned theextentand fiequencyof passing gradesof sufficient by afi'ected heavily loadedvehicle traffic operatingon t l e n g t ht o r e s u l ti n s p e e d sh a t c o u l d i m p e d ef o l l o w i n gv e h i c l e sI.n t h e p a s t , provisionof extra climbing lanesto improve safeoperationhas beenrather of cost.However.because the increasing of limitedbecause extraconstruction theselanesare more comoccurringon grades, numberof seriousaccidents o a i l n m o n l yi n c l u d e dn o r i g i n a c o n s t r u c t i op l a n s n da d d i t i o n alla n e s n e x i s t i n g potential created projects. The accident improvement highwaysbuilt assat'ety i i h b y t h i sc o n d i t i o n a sb e e nd r a m a t i c a l l yl l u s t r a t e dn F i g u r eI I I - 2 t i . a A h i g h w a ys e c t i o nw i t h a c l i m b i n g l a n e i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d t h r e e - l a n e b h i g h r v a y . u t a t w o - l a n eh i g h w a y w i t h a n e x t r a l a n e f o r v e h i c l e sm o v i n g u s l o w l y u p h i l l s o t h a to t h e rv e h i c l e s s i n gt h e n o r m a ll a n et o t h e r i g h t o f t h e m p a . c e n t e r l i n e r en o t r e t a r d e dT h e s ev e h i c l e s a s st h e s l o w e rv e h i c l e s o v i n g y t u p g r a d eb u t n o t i n t h el a n et o r o p p o s i n g r a f f i c ,a so n t h ec u s t o m a r t w o - l a n e . c r o a d . A s e p a r a t e l i m b i n g l a n e e x c l u s i v e l yf o r s l o w - m o v t n gv e h t c l e si s o p r e t e r r e do t h e a d d i t i o no f a n e x t r a I a n ec a r r y i n gm i x e dt r a f f i c .D e s i g n s f t l a id l w h t w o - l a n e i g h w a y s i t h c l i m b i n g a n e s r ed e m o n s t r a t en F i g u r e l l - 3 I ( A

c o o s)

500

I0 0 0

r500

2000

2500

Length of Grode (meters)

Figurellh30. Crltical lengths gradeuslnganapproach of speed of vehicle. 90 km/hfor typicalrecreational (Source: Ref.28).

AASHTO--CeometriL' Desi,gnof Highways and Streets

Elements

f i y a n d B ) . C l i m b i n g l a n e sa r ed e s i g n e d o r e a c hd i r e c t i o n n d e p e n d e n t lo f t h e t o t h e r . D e p e n d i n go n t h e a l i n e m e n ta n d p r o f i l e c o n d i t i o n s , h e y m a y n o t t h e r ei s a c r e s tw i t h a l o n g g r a d eo n e a c hs i d e . It is desirable providea climbing lane,asan extralaneon the upgrade to side tratficvolumeandheavyvehicle volume of a two-lane highwaywherethegrade, combine to degradetraffic operationsfrom thoseon the approachto the grade. Wherethey havebeenprovidedtherehasbeena high degree compliance of in with low volumes, theiruseby truckdrivers. highways On onlv anoccasional car maynotbejustifiedeconomiisdelayed, climbinglanes, although desirable, and cally evenwherethe critical lengthof gradeis exceeded. where For thesecases slow-movinsvehicleturnoutsshouldbe considered vehicles volumes slow-moving seriously impede normalflow of traffic. of on Theseare discussed under the sectionon "OperationalLane Improvements Two-LaneHighways." and criteria,reflecting economicconsiderThe following threeconditions to ations,shouldbe satisfied justify a climbing lane: l. 2. 3. per Upgrade traffic f'lowrate in excess 200 vehicles hour. of per tlow rate in excess 20 vehicles hour. Upgrade truck of e O n eo f t h e f b l l o w i n gc o n d i t i o n s x i s t s : . A l5 km/h or greaterspeedreductionis expected a typical fbr h e a v yt r u c k . . Level-of-service or F existson the grade. E . A r e d u c t i o n f t w o o r m o r e l e v e l so f s e r v i c ei s e x o e r i e n c e d o when moving from the approach segnlent the grade. to

C ' l m b ln g L a n e s -A-

C l l l r b l n gL a n c s0 v e r l a p o l n g n C r e s t o -8-

The upgrade flow rateis detennined multiplvingthepredicted existing by or design hour volume by the directionaldistributionlactor tbr the upgrade clirection and dividing the result by the peak hour tactor (the peak hour and in directionaldistributionfactorsare discussed ChapterII). The numberof by florv rateby thepercentupgrade trucksis obtained multiplyingthe upgrade ageof trucks in the upgradedirection. T r u c k . s .A s i n d i c a t e di n t h e p r e c e d i n gs e c t i o n .o n l v o n c o f t h e t h r e e i o c o n d i t i o n s p e c i f i e dn i t e m3 m u s te x i s t .T h e c r i t i c a ll e n u t h f g r a d et o e f t ' e c t i r a l 5 k m / h t r u c ks p e e d e d u c t i o ns f b u n du s i n gF i g u r eI l l - l - 5 Co r F i g u r eI I I - 2 9 . w r T h i s c r i t i c a ll e n g t hi s c o m p a r e d i t h t h e l e n g t ho f t h e p a r t i c u l ag r a d eb e i n g o i t o b c x a m i n e dl.f t h ec r i t i c a l e n g t h f g r a d e s l c s s h a nt h el e n c t h f t h eg r a d e e i n g This evaluationshould be done first bccause studieditcm -l is satisfied. the wlll Deexceeded lor mosI rnsttnces w c n t r c a l c n u t no c s o f a c l i r n b i n u a n ei s b c i n gc o n s i d c r e d .e n c e o f u r t h c r v a l u a t i o nu n d e ri t e n t I h n -l will bc reuuired.

-f
\-

l?r)d+
S h o ud ? r L i n ! l

Pa:slng Lanc Scctlons on lrl,ldlnq Al Jnelrcnt n

a

Figure lll-3't. Climbing lanesand passing lanesections twoon lanehighways.

244

AASHTO--$eometric' Desisn of Highway; sryl SJLeej.r

Elements Desig,n

:::-'

:j-]:

::=-:

wherethecriticallengthof gradeis exceeded for ustification climbinglanes from the standpoint highway capacity. of may be considered The procedures usedare thosefrom the HCM (13) for analysis specificgrades rwo-lane of on highways. The remaining conditions item 3 areevaluated in usingthese HClvl procedures. effectthattruckshaveon capacity primarilya functionof rhe The is speed differencebetween average the ofthe trucksandtheaverage runningspeed of thepassenger on the highway.Physical cars dimensions heavytrucksand of characteristics havea bearingon the spacethey their pooreraccelerating also in the traffic stream: average the occupy dual-tired truck controlsabout 130to grade, 220 percent(0 percent TableIII-23) thespace ofthe average passengercar dependingon the averagespeedof the car. On individual gradesthe effect of trucks is more severethan their average of EffEctover a longersection highway.Thus,for a given volumeof mixedtraffic a and a fixed roadwaycrosssection, higherdegreeof congestion experienced is on individual gradesthan for the averageoperationover longer sectionsthat include downgradesas well as upgrades.Determination of design service volume on individual gradesrequiresthe use of truck factorsderivedfrom the geometrics the gradeand the level of serviceadoptedby the highway agency of for useas thebasis design thehighwayunderconsideration. for of car Passenger equivalents derivedare given in Table III-23 for variouscombinations so of percent ofgrade, lengthofgrade,and average upgrade speed. The relationship speed between average the upgrade and the level of serviceis shownin Table ill-24. in If thereis no l5 km/h reduction speed i.e.,thecriticallen_eth gradeis of not exeesderl- the level ot service on the grade should be examined to . f co d e t e r m i nie l e v e l - o f - s e r v i Ee r F e x i s t sT h i si sd o n eb y c a l c u l a t i ntg el i m i t i n g h service Uowratefor level-of-service andcomparing rateto theactual D flow this rateon the grade. The actualflow rateis determined dividing the volumeof by traffic by thepeakhourthctor.If theactualt'low rateexceeds serviceflow rate the Whenthe actualflow rateis lessthanthe limiting at levelD, item 3 is satisfied. value.a climbing laneis not warranted this criteria. by the The tbllowinq tbrmulais usedto determine limitinc t'lowratefbr levelot-service D: SFD- 2800 x (V/C)n x fu x f* ^ i" * (,

shoulder andrestricted factorfor narrowlanes f* = adjustment width. carson factor for the operationof passenger f" = adjustment graoes. of fn" = adjustmentfactor for the presence heavy vehiclesin the traffic stream. (V/C)D is determined from Table III-26 using an averageupgradespeedof 65 km/h and the percentof no passingzonesfor the gradebeing examined. fu is obtained from Table III-25 using the known or projected directional distributionon the upgrade. f* is obtainedfrom Table III-27 using appropriatelane and shoulderwidths. f is obtainedfrom the formula: fr=l/[l+(Polo)l Where: cars and; Pe= proportionof passenger = o.o2 (E - 8.,) Io

for car E is the basepassenger equivalent a given percentof grade.lengthof car from Table III-23 and E, is the basepassenger selected grade,and speed, from TableIII-23. gradeand a lpeqd alsoselected for equivalen1 qQ percen! from the formula: t,,, is determined fn,= l/[ + Pn,(E,,,- l)] Where; = Pn* proportion of heavy vehicles in the traffic streamor the vehicles, plus recreational proportion trucksplus buses of E n ,= I + ( 0 . 1 5+ P , / P n ,()E - l ) Where: and: traf in of P,= proporlion trucks theheavyvehicle flc stream previously from TableIII-li. as E is determined described

Where:

SFo = total serviceflow rate in both dircctionstbr prevailing D rordwayandtraffic conditions. level-ot'-service in tbr

(V/C)D = ratioof tlow rateto idealcapacity le.rel-of-service D. tbr tr = irdjustment factorfor directional distribution.

AAS HTO--C eomeI ric D esi g n of H i ghu'a

and Steets

of Elements Design

247

HCM (f3) providesaddirional detailsand a worksheet guide and ro organize computations the requiredby this procedure. This procedure also is available software desktop computers, as for reducing handcalculations. the A sample calculation shown in FigureIII-32. is The remaining conditionto examine neither theotherconditions item if of of 3 aresatisfied a two-levelreduction the level of service. evaluate is in To rhis criterion, the level of servicefor the gradeand the approachsegmentmust b determined. Since this criterion would be considered only a very limited in numberofcases, is notdiscussed detailherein. it in The procedure uses above the equation forSFo,but with appropriate valuesfor thevariables level-of-service for A, B, C. The valuesareselected from Table III-23 rhroughTableIII-27. The level of serviceon the gradeis comparedto the level of serviceon the approachto ..,,- -. ,..,..dg1ermine reductionin operations. the Becausethere are so many variablesinvolved that hardly any given set of conditionscan be properly described typical, a detailedanalysissuchas the as one described recommended is whereverclimbing lanesare being considered. T h e p o i n t w h e r e a n a d d e dl a n e s h o u l d b e g i n d e p e n d s n t h e s p e e d s t o a w h i c h t r u c k s w i l l a p p r o a c ht h e g r a d ea n d o n t h e e x t e n to f s i g h t d i s t a n c e r e s t r i c t i o n s n t h i s a p p r o a c h .W h e r e t h e r e a r e n o s i g h t d i s t a n c er e s t r i c o t i o n s o r o t h e rc o n d i t i o n sc a u s i n gl o w - s p e e d p p r o a c h e s , e e x t r a l a n e a th m a y b e i n t r o d u c e do n t h e g r a d es o m e d i s t a n c eb e y o n dt h e b e g i n n i n go f t h e u p g r a d e e c a u s eh e s p e e d f a t r u c k w i l l n o t b e r e d u c e d o t h e p o i n t b t o r w h e r ei t c r e a t e s n t o l e r a b l e o n d i t i o n s o r t h e f o l l o w i n g d r i v e r su n t i l i t i c f h a s t r a v e l e da c e r t a i nd i s t a n c e p t h e g r a d e .T h e o p t i m u m f o r c a p a c i t y u w o u l d o c c u r f o r a r e d u c r i o ni n r r u c k s p e e dt o 6 0 k m / h b u t a l 5 - k m / h d e c - r e a sie f r u i k s p e e db e l o r v t h e o p e r a t i n gs p e e d ,a s < J i s c u s s e n t h e n id p r e c e d i n ,s c c t i o n" C r i t i c a l L e n g t h so f G r a d ef o r D e s i g n , "w o u l d b e t h c e m o s t p r a c t i c a r e d u c t i o n b t a i n a b l er o m s t a n d p o i n t o f l e v e l o f s e r v i c e l o f s a n d s a f e t y 'T h i s I 5 - k m / h r e d u c t i o nw h i c h g e n e r a l l y o r r e s p o n dts t h e . . c o s p e e dv a r i a t i o n e t w e e n d j a c e n lt e v e l so f s e r v i c e . s t h e a c c e p t e d a s i s b a i b f o r d e t e r r n i n i n g h e I o c a t i o n a t w h i c h t o b e g i n c l i m b i n , el a n e s .T h e t d i s t a n c cf r o m t h c b o u o m o f t h e g r a d et o t h e p o i n t w h e r et r u c k s p e e d s a l l i l - i k m / h b e l o w t h c o p e r a t i n cs p c c d m a y b e d e t e r m i n e d r o n r F i g u r c f I I I - l 5 C o r F i g u r e I I I - 2 9 d e p e n d i n go n t h e r n a s . s / p o w e a r i o t t f t h e rr a p p r o p r i l t e t r u c k . F o r e . r a m p l c .a s s u m i n qa n a p p r o a c hc o n d i t i o n o n r v h i c ht r u c k sr v i t h a t t t 0 - k g / k Wm a s s / p o w erra r i oa r e t r t v e l i n s w i t h i n a f l o w h a v i n st n o p e r a t i n g p e e d t ' 9 0 k m / h , t h e r e s u l r i n g - 5 - k m / h p e e d s o l s r c d u c t i o n c c u r l ia t d i s t a n c e s f a p p r o x i r n a t e l y_ 5 0 o 3 0 0 m t ' o rg r a d e s o o l t v a r y i n ul r o n r7 t o - l p e r c e n t W i t h a d o w n u r t d ca p p r o a c hh e s e i s r a n c e s . t d
\'oulu oc longcr. an(l wltn an upgradc approilclr they would be shorter. D i s t l n c c s t h u s d e t e r n r i n c dn r a v b c u s e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e p o i n t a t w h i c h a

(;rade lvo)

Lenglh of (irade (km)

Average Upgrade SPeed(km/h)

l.tt 0.5 |.0 t.5 2.0 2.,5 .1.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 1.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 0.5 L0 L5 2.0 2.5 ..1.0 .1.0 5.0 6.0
().5 |.0 t.5 1.0 1.5 .i.0 J.0 5.0 60 {).5 L{) 1.5 l()

t.6 2.1
l-o

t.5 1.9 l.l 2.8

t..l 1.8 2.0 2.9 t.1 1.9

a1

r.3
t.1 1.9
f I

l.-l .1.6 6.6 1 0I. t.l.I 20.6 59.9 91.4

t.6 .1.5 6.0 7.6 9.9 18.7 29.8

{ t.o

l-6 1.8
t I

\a

2.6
1n

1.5
ao

2..1
11

.5.1 lJ.6 I t.1 17.4

4.9 6.E 9.1 t2.1 2.0 2.7 3.4 4.6 5.9 7.5 I 1.5 16.8 27.3

4.0

).) 't.2
1.9 7.3 3.0

9.1

3.6 4.8 6.0 '1.4 1.8 2-l 2.6

J.J

3.1 4.3 5.3 6.1 1.8 2.t 2.5 3 .I 3.7 4.5 6.4 8.5 I 1.0 1.9
l.)

3.0 3.1 1.3 5.1 1.7 2.0 ?.4 2.8 3.4 4.0 5.3 6.8 8.5 1.8
;,J

3.6 5.4 9.8 16.7 25.2 41.7 67.8 * * 4.4 '7.6

2.8 4.0 6.1 9.0 13.5 l7.l 34.5 53.7 60.2

2.4 3.1 4.2 5.8 7.5 9.6 14.8 22.8 4t.2

4.6 5.9 8.7 1 2I. t 7. 6 2.0

4.1 5.0 7.3 9.9 r3 . l 1.9

3,? 5.0 14.-3 tl.l 28.2 11.6 46.tt ?0.-.1 79.s 3r.l * .1-1.8 r *

2.3 2.5 1.0 3.7 4.3 5..1 7.ll 6.0 10.6 tl.I 15.0 I l.l ?6,1 19.5 4l.t) 3l ,o * 54.6
Llt {..r.. 7.0 I L.5 lf,.S lj.l .17.1

3.6 l.? 1.2 4.7 5.4 6 .| 7.0 lJ.4 t4.-5 l 1.4 22.1 16.5 -19.I ?1.8
)l)

1.0 3.9 .1.9 6.? 9.7 I1.7 19.0

1{)

2.8 3.4 4.? 5.0 1.3 g.tt 12.9 t.9

l_ -1

.1.'l 9.7 10.6 l7.lt 7lt.()

1.7 6..i I l.J I l.{) Jl.0 .r5.-i .

) ) 1.4 L r 1.6 .1.-t .5.J 6.2 ll.l It.b ll.l{ tl.8 17.l .1.1..5 1.r.7 -ilt.6 5 4 .I 65.0

2.1 .l.ti -s._1 i.l q.8 | ?.lr 21.6 .l:.0 :.1 .r I J.rr 6.7 q4 H.{) l.r.l s()s

1.6 1.6 J.tt 6.-1 $..s l.r.q l?..1 J.1.0 l.: J.{) J.: 0.1 S..i lt.,) iJ I .tlS

-.1.1 J.l -5..1 6.f, I0.-s 15.0 I I..l

l. I :.3 .l s 5.1 6.6 SS
t( |

5.9 l:.i
I l.b

:.)
r0

J t) 5 t) 6 t)
' S1tcd not Jtlrrn.thlc,!n grr(lc \Pccrlrc(l

J.I lo I f'.b to s Jo o :-: '

. 1 I. . t .l S.lt lq.l 15.: lql 51.1

:.1 J.l 6.1 I l..r 17.0 16..1 .l l.{)

LJ 1o 5 .1 t t .l | 1.7 | i..) 11 . 5

oln

l:.() :q{)

l n t e r p o l l t c ,Il r o m v r l u c \ r n l l C I l { I - l )

c l i r n b i n gl a n c b e s i n s .W h c ' r e c s t r i c t i o n su p g r a d ca p p r r t a c h c s .r o t h c r r . o

for car Tablelll-23. Passenger equivalents specificgradeson E ruralhighways, and E"(13). two-lane

AAS HTO-Ii eome tric Desi

Level of Service

Average Upgrade Speed(km/h)

A v e r a g eU P g r a d e Speed (km/h)

Percent No PassingZone 0 20 40 60 80 100

A B C D E F

>90 >80 >10 >60 >4M0" <40-60'

390 85 80
t)

10 65 490 85 80 70 65

0.21 0.40 0.66 0.88 1.00 1.00 0.r9 0.38 0.63 0.85 0.98 l.00

0 .l 7 0.36 0.6r 0.83 0.97 1.00 0 .l 5 0.34 0.58 0.80 0.94 0.99

0 .l 4 0.31 0.57 0.79 0.95 1.00 0.13 0.29 0.54 0.76 0.92 0.99 0.09 0.25 o.4'l 0.68 0.84 0.94 0.98 0.04 0 .1 7 0.37 0.58 4 0.7 0.86 0.9t 0.98

0.t2 0.29 0.54 0;r6 0.93 L00 I 0.1 0.27 0.51 0.73 0.90 0.99

0.08 0.27 0.5r 0.74 0.91 1.00 0.08 0.25 0.49 0.71 0.89 0.99 0.06 0.21 0.41 0.61 0.79 0s2 0.97 0.02 0.13 0.30 0.49 0.65 0.80 0.86 0.97 0.00 0.0.r 0 .l 7 0.ll 0..18 0.61 0.71 0.s6

0.06 0.25 0.19 0;12 0.90 L00 0.06 0.23 0.47 0.69 0.88 0.99 0.04 0.14 0.39 0.59 0;t'7 0.90 0.96 0.01 0 .l 2 0.28 0.46 0.61 0.76 0.E7 0.96
0.00 0.Gl 0 .l J 0.18 0.J-1 7 0.-5 0.6It 0.sJ
br trrdcr

The exactspeed which capacityoccursvarieswith thepercentage lengthofgrade, at and traffic composition,and volume: computationalprocedures provided to find this are

Tablelll-24. Levelof servicecriteriafor specificgrades(13).

590 85 80

-70 Vo of Trafftc on Upgrade 65 60

t)

0.15 0.34 0.59 0.81 0.95 0.98 1.00

0.06 0.25 0.50 0.70 0.89 0.96 0.99 L(Xl 0.00 0.l r 0.16 0.56 0.81 0.92 0.()7 t.fi)

0.12 0.29 0.51 0.73 0.87 0.95 0.98

0.06 0.1I 0.12 0.ff 0.81 0.90 0.94 0.98 0.00 0.09 0,19 0.51 0.71 0.31 0.s7 0.9-l

0.08 0.23 0.43 0.64 r 0.8 0.93 0.97 0.02 0 .r 5 0.33 0.53 0.68 0.82 0.81J 0.97
0.m 0.06 0.20 0.37 0.54 0.68 0.76 0.88

Adjustment Factor 0.58 0.64 0.70 0.78 0.87 1.00 1.20 1.50

690 85 80

100 90 80 70 60
5r)

/)
10 65 60 50 790 tt'5 rt0 7-5 70 65 60 50

0.u)
0.07 0.?4 0.44 0.62 0.7.1 0.79 0.91

40 30

Table lll-25.

Adjustmentfactor for directionaldistributionon speciticgrades, fd.

'Rrtio of llow rrrc to tdcal crprcrtv oi l.S(X) g;ph' rssumtng Passcn8cr crr oPcration rs unrifcctcd 'Pcrcctlt No Passtng Zonc Intcrp()lrlc t()r tnlcmrc(liiltr'vltlttcs of \OTilS: Rrtttnd 'Pcrcctlt Crrrlc" to lhc ncxl hlSher Intcscr vuluc' vrlucs in llCV ( l'1)'

lntcmrlatccl fron

versusspeed'percentgrade Tablellt-26.Valuesof v/c ratioa no percent passingzonesfor specificgrades(13)'

AASHTA-Ceometric Desi

251 o.fapproaching trucks, extra rhe :1:]::"rl:"':,ol^",-".'""*":o:ed of th gra e ir,. i. ei" ;;;" '*" lanewoutd e d ;il"J ;J,l : 3;::;"^."':::: : :,L:^': should preceded a tapered be by "j section o"rlruit-y " ,ui,;"";;;i o o f 2 5 :| , b u t
T h e c r o s s l o p e f a c l i m b i n gr a n e s u s u a i l y a n d r e d s o i h i n r h es a m e a n n e a s m r the additionof a raneto a murtirane highway.Depending ug.n.y'f..;;.;. on this designresultsin either a continuation the of cross-sropeir a tane with slightly more crosssropethan the adjacent throughlane.on a supererevared sectionthe crosssropeis generailya continuation of the sropeusedon the throughlane. Desirably, shourder theouteredgeof a crimbing the on laneshourdbe as wide astheshoulder thenormaltwo-rane on section, particurarry wherethereis bicycle traffic.conditions,however, may dictateotherwise, particurarry whenthecrimbing lane is addedto an existinghighway.A usabre shoulderof r.2 mwidth or greater acceptable. is Althoughnot wideenoughfor a stalled vehicleto compreterv cleartheclimbing rane, this r.2-m shoulder combination in with rhecrimbingrane generallyprovidessufficientwidth for both the stalled vehicleand a slow_speed passing vehiclewithout needfor the ratterto encroach on the throughrane. In summary'crimbing ranesoffer a comparativery inexpensiiemeansof overcominglosses capacityandproviding improvedoperation in wherecongestion on grades caused srowtrucksin combinationwith is by high traffic vorumes. As discussed earlier thissection, in crimbingranes arso provideimproved safetv. on someexistingrwo-rane highways additionof climbingIon.r.outi J.r., the reconstruction many yearsor indefinitery. new for on designs crimbingIanes couldmakea two-lane highwayadequate whereas muchmorecostlymurrirane a highwaywouldbe necessary withoutthem.Climbingranes *or."n,"J run.o. thecriticallength grade exceeded, of is rever-of-service "r. Eor Fexists the_gradc, on or, the levelof service thegradeis at reast on two revers rowerthanthe lcverof sL'rvice tht appioac'h. erception to thcsc warrants oh An woul<ibe where overridin-t safetyconsiderations clictare addition'f the lane regardless the of gradeor trafTic volume.

a t l e a s r5 0 m l o n g .

Usable. J.6-m Shoulder Lanes widrh Los Losb tm) A.D E >t.8 r.00 L00 l.) 0.96 0.99 t.z 0.92 o.9'7 0.6 0.81 0.93 0.0 0.70 0.88

J.J-m Lanes

3.0-m Lanes
Losb E

Los A-D 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.75 0.65

"f

2.7-m Lanes Los A.D 0.70 0.68 0.65 0.57 0.49

Losb E t

0.94 0.93 0.92 0.88 0.82

Los A-D 0.84 0.81 o.77 0.68 0.58

Losb E

i
I I
I

0.87 0.r.t6 0.85 0.81 0.75

0.76 0.75 0.'14 0.70 0.66

-1 _l

' Where shoulder widrh is differer o Factor applies for all spee<.rs **tltr"J"?f?.il

the roadway' uw averagc shoulder widlh.

Tabfem'27. Adiustment factors for the combinedetfect of narrowlanesand restricted shoulder wiOtn, 1f01. i*
The ideardesignwould be ro exrendthe crimbingranero a point beyondrhe crest, wherea typicaltruckcouldattaina speed thatis within l5 kmnrJie rpe.,f of theothervehicres with thedesirabre speed ingat reast km/h,approximatery be 60 at level-of-service Eventhismay not D. be prac'ticar many instances in because of the suchacoq!irion a practicar ".;.1;;;;;;; pointto endrheaddedrane where l:r is therruckcan returnto the nonnal ranewithout undue interf'erence with other trarric _ in particular, wherethe sight cristance becomes sufricientto permit passing *iri sat'ety whenthereis no'ncoming rralficor, pref'erabry, at rearteo m iefona rrri. poinr'In addirion. correspon<Jin-q a rength rop"'. oi shourd providedto pcrmit be thetruckto returnto thenormarlane.F-or exampre. a highwaywherethesaf.e on passing sightdistrncebecomes avairable m teyond thispoint,the 30 truck ranc should extend rn prus60 m or g0 m beyondthe 30 crest. pru.s additionar an rcngth tbr taper'pret'erabry a rati. of 50: r ar but with a lengrhof at reast ml 50 A c l i m b i n gl a n cs h o u r d l c ' s i r a b rb e a s t y w i d e a s r h et h r o u g h a n e s I t s h o u r d l . b e s . c o n s t r u c t ct h a ti t c a ni r n m e d i a t e r y d b e r e c o g n r z ea . s n e x t r ar a n e n . n c da i

,
I
I

unduly disrance long required trucls,, tbr

ffiJJr;::::

-- 4 .1

Climbing Laneson Freer,r,ays iVlultilaneHighwa.vs and ( l e n e r a l . C l i r n b i n gl a n e s . a r t h . u g ht h c . y r e b e c . n r r n s . r c p r e v a l c n th a r c a m . n . t b e e n s e d se x t e n s i v e ro n f r e e w a v s n dr n u l t i r a n e u a y o h i g h w a y sp c r h a p si r r . t t h e r e a s o nh a tm u l t i l a n e a c i l i r i e s r o r ef r e q u e n t l y t i n h a ds u f f i c i c n c l p i l c r r ' 'r ( ) t h a n d l et h e i r t r a f l i c r o a d .i n c r u d i n g h e n , r r r n , rp c r c c n t a g e t r rlt'skrrv-rno'rns v c hi c l e s v i t hh i g h m a s s / p o w e a r o sw i r h o u t r rr i b e i n g r n g e s r c tc.r i r n b i n gr l n c s c r g c n e r a l l y r e n o t a s e a . s i l vu s r i f i e d. n m u l t i l a n c a j r i r c i l i t i c s r . s n t w o_-t ltagn c ; , .r . il h i g h w a v sb c c a u s c ' n t w o - l a n ef l c i l i r i c . sv c h i c l c s o t.llowing rlthcr.sl.rr,cr

becrearry nrrrkcdin the :::i:ll'1.manncr fbr rcquired a.s any t*.r-ranJ,ooi, in.tuJingy"rrn* harricr lincstilr n()-pil.\sing.zones. Rdequatc srgns thc beginning at u p g r a d e s u c h u s " S k l w e r T r a f f i c K e e p R i g ' h t ' . o r . . t r u c k s I l s e p i o h r r . , of, thc. r ' n, ,.m
r L ' cs t o w - m o v i n g e h i c l e sn t o t h ec l i m b i n g l v i l a n e . h e s e n do r h e r T a appropnatcsi,gn.s and markingstbr truck climbing l,ines mav be fbund in ' s c c t r o nls - l l . 2 B - t { . l C . l 9 . a n d B - t B _ 8 f t h e M L i T C D( 8 ) . o

j]liilli"TI

of rhe normai two-lane highway should

r s n o t p r c s c n t n m u l t i l a n ef a c i l i t i c s A s l o w - m r l v i n g o . v c h i c l ci n t h e n r n n l l r t r l h l l t n c ( ) L 'n ( ) t n t p c t l t h ci i l l l r l r v i nv t h i r . l c s t d s i c u ( i l t i l t . l t rrtr : r r l i l r r r r \ \ :l , , f r , , \ .

yLrrrrrs.)rrr upsraocs arc rrequenllv prcventcd bv r_lpposinl trlific l'ront using thc ldjacent rraffic lanc tbr pa.ssini. whcrcus such u burrier t. irs usc

AASHTHeometric

Desi

of Elements Design

l!/oBKSHEErEqLgEeEEqAPlt
9t! ld6trllcrrrm Ii|N
4[l

rrcr
Tw:

I FO I I O R K S H E E T R S P E CF I C C R A O E S
PL0T SF vs SPed

Poge 2

Ch*lcd

by:

L GEOMETRIC DAIA
/\5bb

?A^
O-G s _6.9 t 9.3t DegnSrrrd: /Co Grrr:-6_t. t tlo Prsrg Zmlr . lr/b 3 b

x p o60 a c v, bo o o 40
L CD dlo l

AJOf,TH

N. TR^'TICDAIA Totrlr,blum.lorhDir.'5OO fbrRrrc-\ofun-PH[ "$ DncrrqulDrtibtgltr 18t6<C-qqqztnJ.b-tI 6O/4Q .' tn'l a tl

-t4iL-J?9*

o.qt

PHF,$1-L-

tt FACrOns A.llEl^, roR tu. goLvlNG ADJLISTMENT f**-llp+P,"(E.-1)l tr-l / ll - P,l,l I + l.-00:(E-E,) | Ex!- I + (0.25 Pr,x,)G- t)
remai P" i
(b/bl |

lo0 5oo
t

l,

I ,

(PrlP".)

2000 (vPh) Service Flor Roto rooo 1500

90

85 .17 874'4 5 s 8 o ' . ' t 7 ' , . 4 5 2t 9 . L

?a

/.8 1.60 1A /.6

432
)?

-lA

4s.d
24.2
t1.l

i.'n()

lntersection of Copocity Speed vs Flow curve with Service Flow Rote vs Spoedcurve defines Copocity' qF, ond Spoed ct CoPocitY, 56.

B.d
q.1
-l '1,

1n -7n

o. t6
u' 1<

312 t 7 . l

/ { i B o l i z s .: t6
. 8 8 23

VI.

A L E rEa O F S E R V I C E N A L Y S I S
LOS A B C D E

65

7 7 170 /.3
2,E00 x

s t 1 . 1 7t t o 6 l 6 . L
19..4 (b/b)

./.5

-,/)
X x

3.8
6-6
f, t

o.34 o.4l
tr"

(from

SF lYorksheet)

Actuc I Flow Rote

Conments: Si nce fho octuol f l ow rote exceeds the service flow rote for I evol -of-sorvi ce D o clinbing lone should be consi dered.

_1.

:r
1-

l-----n a---74 L,_________:-:r

(-------=-;1
| /ti I

a
I

s4sl
J ' J l

IV. SOLVlliG 'OR SERVICEFLOW R TE

+ i
v/< X f. rI

5F

rrltl
90 (LOs ) ^

! !

o
ta

2.t00 2.t00 2.t00

,o2
/3
)q

-r<

0r
ao (Los 8)
7 5 (LOSC)

87

-7^ '7 t-

60
1/1

nq

64
t(A

/6
. /,L

i I
1

t I I 1

t-|

' tr-A l roo

Levo I of :er-vt ce

--6eu J v t I t

l--_ 2 _F t__ )

2,too
1.t00 LE00

7d
DI

Rta

6 5 (LO5 D)

466
| 794

801 87
1(

.34

{ ;

50

92

tl

Flgurelll-32. Samplecapacitycalculation, grades on two-lane hlghway.

gradeson two-lane Figureltl-32. Samplecapacitycalculation' (Contlnued) highwaY.

AAS HTO-{; eometr i c D c:;i

Hi.qhn'uvs and

Elementsof Desi.gn

.-

r t a t i l t h ea b u t t i n ga n ea n dp r o c e e dv i t h o ud i f f i c u l t y , l t h o u g hh e r e se v i d e n c eh u t r m i d s s a f e t ;i-s e n h a n c e w h e nv e h i c l e sn t h et r a f f i cs t r e a m o v ea t t h es a m e p c c d , fbr highwaysare normallydesigned 20 yearsor more in thc furure. Because j b o f r h e r e s l e s sl i k e l i h o o d f c l i m b i n gl a n e s e i n g u s t i f i e do n m u l t i l a n e a c i l i r i e s i years afterconstruction eventhoughtheyarc roadstbr several thanon two-lane tbr deemed desirable the peakhoursof the designyear.Wherethis is thecase. in thereis economicadvantage designingfor. but deferringconstruction of, . f o c l i m b i n gl a n e s n m u l t i l a n e a c i l i t i e sI.n t h i s s i t u a t i o ng r a d i n gt b r t h c ' f u t u r e additional grading initially.The necessary tbr climbinglaneshouldbe provided to a climbing lane is small when compared that requiredby the overallcross section.If, however.even this additionalgrading createsa problem, it is adjacent thc to to acceptable, althoughnot desirable, usea narrowershoulder providedon a normalsection. cljmbine laneratherthanthe full shoulder where climbing primarily a rural condition,there are instances Althou-eh are important ClimbingIanes particularly will be necessary urbanareas. in lanes fbr freedomof operationon urban tieeways where traffic volumesare high in with appreciablc streets and fieeways arterial to On relation capacity. olderurban for it grades no climbinglanes, is a commonocculrence heavytraftlc,which and move well, to queueup on grades, may otherwise in earlier thischaptcr, highways discussed fbr Trucks. As in thecase two-lane of are neecl fbrclimbinglanes criticallengths grldc. of dcrerminants theprincipal volurttcs passengercars, servicc in of eft'ects truckson gracles terms equivalent of fbr thenextpoorerlevclof'scrvicc, and levelof servicc, Uow rates fbr thedesired It previously thischapter. is tltc in cliscusscd Criricallengthof gradehasbt-'en spe'c'cl high rwrss/ oi which reduces opcrating qf qpgratle the lc'ngrh q partjculqr trat't'ic.'l'hc of powcr rrucksl-5knr/h belorvthc opcratingspeed the rer.rrrining is a tocf't'cct l-5krn/htruck specdrccluction lilund using, critictl lcngrhol'graclc o t i l l o F i g u r e l l - 2 - 5 C r F i g u r e l l - 2 9 r v h i c h s c o m p a r e do t h el e n g t h f t h cp l r t i c u l a r o g m d eb e i n - u x a n l i n c dI.f t h c c r i t i c a ll c n g t ho f g r a d ei s l e s st h a nt h c l c n g t l t f c of grlde beingstudicdconsideration a clinrbinglane is rvarrantcd. car In dcterminingservicevolume the passenger equivllent for trucks is lt havclcss tacilitics that on agreed trucks nrultilane It signiticant tacror. is gcncrally rll' Contpitrisott r.tlcct in tlctcrring fttllt>wingvchicles than on two-lane roacls. and ol'gradc. pcrcclll pcrccnt grade. of lertgth pitsscnse equivulcnts thcsamc' tilr rctr tn the clearlyillustrltes ditttrcncc Tablc of rrucks. ro\-rr.vcen III-llt andTableIII-2-1 tacilities. lnd nrultilane tirr pl.sscnser cquivalcnts trucks two-lanc of clr . h I n t h c m a t t c ro l ' . i u s t i l , v i ntg c c o s t o f p r o v i d i n ga c l i m b i n gI a n c 'a l a r g e r l l c r o l u r n cs l r o u l tb c r h c c r i t c r i o n a s i n t h c c l s c o t ' . j u s t i f r i n g l i r n b i n g a n c s i l r , l I arrdwill tttleratc highcrtlcgrcc bccause highrvtyuscrsaccept trro-llrrcrttatls. (poorcr lcvcl of sen'icc)ttn individual grudesthan ovcr of congcstion
()f sccti()ns hisltrvuv. .\s a tniltter()i practicc, thc scrvicc volutne on an intlividual g r a t l c s l t t l u l t lt r ( ) lc \ c c c d t h a r l r r t l r i n c d v u s i n g t h c n c \ t p ( x ) r c rl c v e l o f ' s c r v t c c b

Grade (Vc)

Length (km)

Et'

TcTrucks and Buses <2

AII

l5 1.5 t.5 l.5 1.5 2.0 3.0 3.5 1.5 ?.5 4.0 5.5 6.0 6.0 1.5 4.0 7.0 8.0 8.0
I .-5

1.5 t.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 3.0 3.0 1.5 7.0 3.5
,t<

1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5

1.5 1.5 l.5 r.5 r.5 2.5 2.5

1.5

l.-\

l.)

0.0- 0..1 1.5 0 . 1- O . l t 1 . 5 08- l.l 1.5 l . 1- t . 6 2 . 5 1.6 2..14.0 >2..1 .1.5 0 , 0- 0 . 4 1 . 5 0.J- 0.8 3.0 0.8- 1.2 6.0 | . 2- t . 6 7. 5 t.6 - 2.4 8.0 >2.4 8.5 0 . 0- 0 . 4 1 . 5 0.1- 0.8 5.5 0 . 8- 1 . 2 9 . 5 r . 2- 1 . 6r 0 . 5 >t.6 I1.0 0.0- 0.1 2.0 0..1 0.-5 6.0 0.-5 0.tt 9.0 0 . 8- l . l l l . 5 l . l - 1 . 6I . 1 . 0 >t.6 1.1.0

1.5 r.5 r.5 2.0 1.0 3.0 t.5 2.5 4.0 5.0 5.5 5.5

1.5 l.5 l.5 l.-5 r.5 1.5 r.5 l.5 1.5 l.5 l.5 1.5 2.0 2.O 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0

t.5 1.5 2.0 4.0 4.5

2.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 4.5 1.5 3.0 5.0 5.5 6.0 t.5 3.0 5.0 7:0 7.0 7I) 2.0 2.5 3.5 4.0 4.0 t.5 3.0 4.5 5.0 5.0 I .-s 3.0 .1..s 61) 6.5 6.-5
l..s .1.0

5.0 5.0 1.5 3.5 6.0 6.5 7.0

l._5 4.o 6.0 lt.O

1.5 2.5 3.0 3.5 3.5 t.5 2.5 4.0 4.5 .5.0 t.5 2.5 .1.0 6.t) 6.0 6.0
1.0 -1.-5 6.0 7..5 7,5 7.5

1.5 2.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 1.5 2.5 3.5 .1.0 J.5 t..5 2.0 l.-5 5.0 ,s..s 5.5
1.0 -i.0 5.5 6.5 h.5 6.5

r.5
4.0 6.5 7.0

/.-')

I.5 3.0 5.5 6.0 6.0 1.5 3.5 ,5..5 7.O 7.5 7.-5

2.0 t.5 4.-s .1.0 7.o 6 . 0 9 . o ll:-5 9 . . 5 9.0 9 . . 5 9.0

u.0 tt.0
.1.0 6.0 u.0 9..5 9.5 9..i

0.0- 0..1 .1.,5 ..1.-5 -r.0 0..r- 0.5 9.0 6.,5 6.0 9..5 tt.-5 0.-s O.ttlt.5 0 . s- l . l r . 5 . 0 I t . 0 10.0 l . t - 1 . 6I . s . 0 I 1 . 0 1 0 . 0 > 1 . ( ) 1 . 5 . ( ) l l , 0 10.()
\()t['.:

3.0 2..s .5.0 .5.0

7.0 q.0 (),() 9.() 6..5 .u.0

6.0 It.O 1i..5 l l . 0 r.1..5 s . r )

lirr.lnl 'liur-

liJlcngthotrrxdcfrllson.rtrlurrdrry'condttron. Ihccquivnlcltlr(nnthcl(tn(cr-{t:trlce.rlc{orrtru'c.1 * r , , 1 " \ t c ' c p c rt h r n t h ( . ' - ; \ h ( ) w n , u \ . ' t h c n c \ t h r g h c r g r l l c c r t c q r r $ o r s r r - i . r r t ch r g l t r r l r s .

Tablelll-28. Passenger-car for equivalents trucks and buseson (13). unitormupgrades

256

AAS HTO--C eometr ic D esi

Highu

and Str

Elementsof Design

257

fromlhat usedfor thebasicdesign. The oneexception thattheservice is volume derivedfrom employinglevel-of-service shouldnot be exceeded. D Generally,climbing lanes should not be considered unlessthe upgrade directional traffic volume is equal to or greaterthan the level-of-serviceD servicevolume for two of the lanesof a four-lanehighway with the normal percentage trucks.In mostcases when theservice volume.includingtrucks, of i s g r e a t e r t h aln 0 0 v p h p la n d t h e l e n g t h o f r h e g r a d e a n d t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f t r u c k s 7 are sufficientto considerclimbing lanes,the volume in terms of equivalent passenger is likely to approach evenexceed capacity. increase cars or the An in the numberof lanesthroughout highway sectionwould represent better the a investment thanthe provisionof climbing lanes. A climbing lane is also generallynot warranted four-lanehighwaysfor a on ''directional service volume below 1000 vphpl regardless the percentage of of trucks.Although a truck driver will occasionally passanothertruck undersuch conditions,the inconvenience hazardwith this low volume arenot sufficient and to justify the cost of a climbing lane in the absence appropriate of criteria. The procedures outlinedbelow based informationin theHrglrn,ay on Capacity Manual (13) areusedto considerthe traffic operational characteristics the on gradebeingexamined. The maximumservice flow ratefor the desired levelof service,togetherwith the flow rate for the next poorer level of servicc is determined from Table III-30 for multilanehighwaysother than freeways or Table III-3 I for freeways.If theserviceflow rateon thegradeexceeds thatof thc next poorerlevel of service, consideration a climbing lane is warrantcd. of In ordertouseTableIII-30 orTableIII-3 l, thefree-flowspeed mustbe determincd or estiqlqled. Thq frep llow,ipged Qqnbe delermined me4suring mcart by thg speedof passenger cars under low to rnoderate flow conditions(up to l3(X) pcphpl)on thef acilityor similartacility:it canbeestimated from thespeed lirnit by assuming is I I km/h higherthanthe speedlimits on highwayswith 60 t<r it 70 km/h and 8 km/h higherthan the speedlimits on highwayswith U0 to 9() km/h speedlimits: or it can be assumed be 2 km/h lower than thc tl5thto percentile speedwhen the latteris 60 km/h to 5 km/h lower when the llsthpercentile speedis 100km/h. is grade(upgradc) The service flow rateon a multilanehighwavor freervay determined tiom the equation:
\t

NV fn* =

numberof lanes(eachdirection)' a to or passing expected pass point of volume(number vehicles in one hour). and vehicles(trucks'buses' factorro adjustfor theeffectofhe-avy stream' in vehicles) the traffic recreational

Where fn" is computedfrom the formula:

fi" = l/[l + P, (E, - t) + P*(E*- l)]

E'' = where:E' *:'ln:Hil;trJ-ffi:'::'::l'H:ilil[T:::'. from TablesIII-28 and III-29 as

may be obtained for appropriate the sectionfor which a climbing lane is being considered. vehiclesin Pl P* =the proportionof trucks and recreational the traffic stream. is analysis shownin Figure of An example a freewayclimbinglanecapacity

III-33.
Grade (Vol 7o RVs Length (km)

E*' l0 l5
l.a l.!

20
t1

tq
t)

<?
.l .l

All

0.0-0.8 >0 . 8 0.0-0.J 0.J-0.8 >0.s 0.0-0.J 0.J-0.8 >0.$ 0.0-0.J 0..1-0.s >0.rt

t.2 t.2 1.2 t.2 2.0 1.5 t.? t.2 2.5 2.5 -1.0 2.-5 2.5 4.0 4.5 4.0 6.0 6.0 2.0 3.0 1.5 1.0 J.0 {.-5

t.2 1.2 1.5 t.2 2.0 2.5 2.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 -1.0 r.0

t.2 t.2 l.-s 1.2 2.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 l.-s 3.5 .1.0

|.:
|.L l.)

t.2 2.0 2.0 1.5 2.-5 3.0 2'5 3.0 ,1.-5

1.5 t.2 2.0 2.0 1.5 2.5 2.5 2.0 3.0 .1.0

l,? 1.2 1.2 r.2

tl lf

I.2 I a I.2

1.5 2.0 1.5 2.0 2.,5 2.0

15 -l.t)

t.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.0

15 1..5

.2 .5 .5 t.5 2.0 2.0 L-s 1.0 :.0

\()Tti:lf|cngrhtlfgrrtlcir|Isrlntxrundarycondilion'lhccquivalcnllromlhcl(n8cr-Srldccltcs()rvl\useo cltcSory' For rny grrdc \tcc[Er than']6 shown. usc thc tlcxt highcr 8rudc 'firur- or stx-lanc tghwavs. h

Vp

(N)(PHFXfh")

vehicles for equlvalenls recreational Tablelll-29. Passenger-car on uniformgrades(13)'

Where:

V - serviceflow rate tbr the segmentto be analyzed. P P H F= pc'ak variationin traffic flow within hour lactor(temporal p r e v i o u s l d i s c u s s eid C h a p t c 'IrI ) . v t h eh o u ra s n

AASHTO-CeometiL' Desi

Elementsof Design

Ei_3 [
=>
r:>
rl
>:

gE? T;r1E

'I

aa=t;.;:l !

a
>t=

Level of Service

Maximum MaximumService Maximum v/c Flow Rate Density (pcPhPl) Ratio {pc/km/h)

= SPEED ll0 km/h FREE-FLOW B 9.9 t1.9 19.9 22.8 Var. 700 l 120 1644 2015 2200 Var. r 0.3 8 0.509 0.111 0.916 1.000 Var.

rr?c .rtr3 -c-3J

;
;'lF 5
cr)

sqli : 2

n U

I'i == i 3[ s = = ; i
ir
5c

rte c

.n

E F

3
o) o tr g

FREE-FLOWSPEED= 100km/h A B C D E F 600 960 t440 t824 2200 Var. FREE-FLOWSPEED- 90 km/h 6.2 9.9 14.9 19.9 22.8 Var.
o.i

j;
x.:> .(9tr

icoo-:

\:

>u{ c&

Rdr-r

3A
i.Y

T.: i: F '3Et
lr

r8e88 - o;clcq 3 c -

-9 id

5 E o (u c) =
L

0.2'72 0.436 0.655 0.829 1.000 Var.

o
(l)

H: >'>

:F
It >? :>

.9 o an
I

rt n E F

9.9 14.9 19,9

: I .-1

sHi
=j-aI :3F?3
;;;i= 7->

x.:>

; >,=

o
6)

Var.

-550 880 I 320 1760 2200 Var.

0.2-50 0..100 0.600 0.800 1.000 Vtr.

J
?!

r i* i'i i *-

c;
tc

ta
2-:

+
o o F

a)

sections criteriafor basiclreeway Tablelll-31. Level-of-service (13).

highrvll-. whcn rhe gradc being invcstigatcdis ltlcatcd on a nrultilartc llrncwidths' t1'pc. includingrnedian mustbeconsitiered otherfactors sometimes e l r r r c f i cll e a r u n ca n dl c c e s sp o i n td e n s i t y ' t H o r v e v c r .t h c s e * . o u l d n o t n o r m a l l y b c I c o n s i d c r l t i r l ni n m a k i n g l t o p t l c t c r m i n a t i t tw h e t h e r r t l v i s i o n f a c l i m b i n gl a n ew t l u l t lh c l t l v l n l a g . e 6 u s ' n s b f T h c s ef t c t 6 r st r c t c c ( ) u n t e dg r i n r h ee n a l y s i s y n r l k i n g l r d j u s t r l r c nitn t h e i n T a b l e I I I - - 3 (t)b r m u l t i l a n ef l c i l i t i e s o t h e rt h l r nf r e e u a v s frec tlorv s

1.2
ia
=Z

. ='>

: i<

:=

a1

::
-7

<.or33

AASHTO--CeometricDesign of Highwavs and Srreets

Elementsof Design

n d f o r r e c r e a t i o n a a n d u n f a m i l i a rd r i v e r p o p u l a t i o n sF o r i n f o r m a t i o n n l . o c o n s i d e r i n gh e s ef a c t o r si n t h e a n a l y s i s e f e r t o t h e H C M ( l J ) . t r u n d e r c e r t a i nc i r c u m s t a n c ets e r es h o u l db e c o n s i d e r a t i o o f a d d i r i o n a l h n lanes to accommodatetrucks in the downgrade direction. This is accom_ plishedusingthe sameprocedure described as aboveand usingthe passengercar equivalents rruckson downgrades Table III-32 in placeof the valucs for in fbr trucksand recreational vehicles upgrades. on

ceomer,ry and givcn obscruct. iona .

condicione;

3.5 m Iancs,

no

:I | 2n

'r,' .trd,,.!ra:^rrlgrh

Downgrade

(vo)

Length (km)

Er" l0 l5 1.5

' 5t; Dcrigrn spccd ' Fercenc Truckr o.ss; -8, oorv -fJ6'oEnl]fF-. j t' (rablc rrr-28); fn - r/(1 + 0'05(? - 1) | ' 0'11 iio'-mfr,r
i

2.Solution:LOSCi.dcairedonthl'rupgrldrt'clloaoffracuey' tl.xinw! rpced . Scrnricc raBc ffov ..liti'cc 15{{ PcPhPl (Trblc flov racc ailhou! tor t S C lor III-31) cl'inbing N(PHD tw lrnc 110 kn/h frcc flor

20
t.)

<4
+
I

Alt <6 >6

5 5 6 6

<6
>6 <3 >3

r.5 t.5 2.0 1.5 5.5 1.5 7.5

I t
I

1.5
t.)

r .5
2.0 1.5 4.0 1.5 5.5

2.0 1.5 4.0 1.5 6.0

1.5 t.5 1.5 3.0 1.5 4.5

, : ;
i

,t' J '

t u" . O-O#$h-n - 1848 PcPhptlLosD, (rablerrr-31)

highways. " Four or six-lane

scrvicc

flov

r a g c wich

climbing

lane

Tablelll-32. Passenger-car equivalents truckson downgrades. for

Clirnbine lanes on multilane roads are usually placed on thc ()ittcr or right-hand sideof theroadway shownin FigureIII-34.The principles as fbrcrrlss points, slopes. locating for terminal andlbrdesigning terminal lor areas tapcrs or climbinglanes discussed are earlierin thischapter conjunction in with trvo-lunc highways. principle.s equall.v These are applicable climbinglanes multilanc to on tacilities. prime tactorbeing that of determining locationof thc uphill the the tcrminus the climbing luneat the point whcrca satistactory of specdis attuincrl by trucks.preferably about l-5km/h bclow the operating speed the highway. of Passins sightdistance ncednot be considered.

v,' NC#Z;
(Assuming alI truckg uee clinrlcinq lane)

v.2100 (0.0s) (2?oo) ' 2565 PcPhPl

u" .

toj#r,

- r 3 s op c p h p l ' L o s c ( r a b l e r r r - 1 1 )

by the The des:'rcd Los c for chis frccuay aeccion ic eccerncd of a clrmbrnq I'n6 ts u"" oi a clrmbrng lane and conrrderacron D' ctnce wrchout a clrnbrng lanc lavcl of servtca is uarranced,

problem- freeway truck climbinglane Figure lll-33. Example analysis four'lanefreeway.

/,o./.

AASHTMeometric

Design of Highways and

Operational Lane Improvementson Two-Lane Highways PassingLane Sections Two-Lane Roads on Passing lanesections, four lanes width, areconstructed two-lane in on roads to provide the desiredfrequencyof saf-e passingzonesor to eliminateinterference from low-speed heavyvehicles. both.where a sufficientnumberandlength or of safe passingsecrions cannotbe obrainedin the designof horizontaland verticalalinement alone,an occasional section tbur lanes of may be introduced asshownin FigureIII-3 lc to providemoresections lengthsafefor passing. and such sections particularly are advantageous rolling terrain, in especially wherc alinement winding or the profileincludes is critical lengths grade.In rolling of ' .'terrain a highway on tangentalinementmay haverestrictedpassingconditions eventhoughthe gradesare below critical length.Use of a four-lanesectionover someof the crestsprovidesaddedpassing sections bothdirectionswherethey in aremostneeded. Four-lanesections shouldbe sufficientlylong to permitseveral vehicles Iine behinda slow-moving in truck to passbeforereaching normal the section two-lanehighway. of Sections offour lanes introduced explicitlyfor passing purposes neednot bc divided because there is no separation opposingtraffic on the two-lanc of portionsof the highway.The useof a median,however,is advantageous and shouldbe considered highwayscanying -500vph or more, particularly on on highwaysto be ultimatelyconverted f,ourlanesdivided. to The introductionof a tbur-lanesectionon a two-lanehighway does not n e c c s s a r i liy v o l v en r u c ha d d i t i o n ag r a d i n g . f u l l s h o u l d e w i d t h i s n o t a s n l A r necessary bccause likely volunres are much lessthan fbur-lanecapacity. thc v c h i c l e si k e l y t o s t o pa r et ' e w . n dt h c r ei s I i t t l ed i f f i c u l t yi n p a s s i n g v e h i c l c l a a with only t',r'o rvheels the shoulder. shoulder on A width of 1.2to l.tl m may Lx: adequate. Thus.if the normalshoulder width on rhetwo-lane highwayis 3.0 rn. a [ .8- to 2.-l-mrvidenins thc roadbed eachsideis all thatmay be requircd, of on The additional lanesshouldbe at least3.0 m and pret'erably or 3.6 m widc. 3.3 anclin no caseshouldthe travelcd way be lessthan l2 m wide. The transitions bctwccnthe two-lanc and the tbur-lane pavemenis shouldbc w l o c a t e d h e r et h e c h a n g ei n w i d t h i s i n f u l l v i e w o f t h e d r i v e r .S e c r i o n o f s four-lanehighway.panicularlydividedsections. longerthanabout-l km may causethe driver to losc a scnseof awareness a that the highway' basically is trvo-lane tacility.It is csscntial, thcrelitrc. thattransitions lo two tiom tour lanes lrtncs properlyrnurkcd bc and itlentificdwirh pavement to markingsand.signs alcn the drivcr that hc or she is lpproachinga section rwo-lane on of highway rl rt exceptto pass anoon l passing nlustbc pcrtbnncdrvithclution. An advance sicn betbrethc endof thc tirur-lanehish\rav is particularlvirnponantto inlbrm driver of the narrow r r x r t l . , v :l r v u t l .t S r c s c c r i o nB - t i to f t h c \ l t i T C D { 8 ) . ) hc l

. ;
I

.t , I
I i I

Crntlrl lnc Stltlon

Figurelll-34. Climbinglane on multilanehighway'

AASHTO--Geometric Design of Ht

s and Str

of Elements Design

following is a summaryof the design procedure be followed in to providingpassing sections two-lane on highways:

t . Horizontaland verticalalinementshouldbe designed provideas to

much of the highwayas feasible with sightdisrance safefor passing. (SeeTable III-5.) 2 . Wheredesignservice volumeapproaches capacity, effectof lackof the passing in sections reducing levelofserviceshouldbe recognized. the (SeeTable lll-26.) J. Where designservice volumeapproaches servicevolumefor thc the nextpoorerlevelofservicebecause oftrucksclimbingup longgrades. considerationshould be given to constructingaddeduphill laneson critical lengthsof gradeas shown in Figure III-31. Where the extentand frequency passingsections of madeavailableby applicationof items I and 3 are still too few, consideration shouldbc given to the construction four-lanesections. of Severalhighway agencies havepioneered methodsfor providing successful morepassing alongtwo-lane opportunities roadsin additionto those discusscd in preceding sections relating climbinglanesandfour-lane to sections. Sorne ol' the more recognized thesemethods, of three-lane sections, turnouts. shouldcr d r i v i n g a n d s h o u l d e r s e c t i o n sa r e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e F e d e r a l H i g h w a y guide"Low CostMethodsfor Improving'l'ralAdministration's informational fic Operations Two-Lane Roads"(36). A synopsis portionsof rnatcriul on of found in thls gulde pertaining!q thesedesignqis presented the .succcqlt!141 in sections. More detailed criteriafor these will be found in the rruidc. methods

approachtoeachtaperislecommended'Theselectionofanacceptablesitealso ne.d,toconsiderthelocationofintersectionsandhighvolumedrivewaysin On a roadsectionwhere orderto minimizethe volumeof turningmovements purringisencouraged'Further,otherphysicalconstraintssuchasbridgesand shoulder' shouldbe avoidedif they restrictprovisionof a continuous culuerts Aminimumlengthof300m,excludingtapers'isneededtoassurethat passin the added delayedvehicleshavean opportunityto completeat leastone the bottleneck lane.where sucha laneis iiovided to reducedelaysat a specific A lane addedto neededlength is controlled by the extent of the bottleneck' shouldbe long enough'over0'5 km' toprovide improueovirall traffic operations in traffic platooning.The optimal lengthis usually l '0 to reduction a substantial beyonda mile the reductionin platooning 2.0 km. As the addedlaneis increased platooning benefitstypically resultin reduced operational diminishes. generally dependingon volumes and passingopportunities' fbr 5 to l5 km downstream next addedlane is After that normal levels of platooning will occur until the encountered. lanewidths of The width of an addedlaneshouldnormally be as wide as the for the abutting shoulderto be a the two-lane highway. It is also desirable width in theadded the possible shoulder minimumof 1.2m wide andwhenever two-lanehighway.The transition sectionshouldmatchthat of the adjoining safe and tapersat each end of the section should be designedto encourage length should be computedfrom the The lane drop taper efiicient operarion. W = Width in meters' MUTCD (b) formutaL = (0.6)WS(L = Lengthin meters' taperis lengthfor the laneaddition in S = Speed km/h) while the recommended of half to two-thirds the lanedrop length' in laneis partiallyaddressed the 1'tresigningand markingof an additional lanes for markings these centerline the MUTCDiS) *hi.h indi.utes appropriate However' the ls well as the signing and marking of lane drop transitions' MUTCD(8)doesnotaddresssigninginadvanceofandatthelaneaddition.A of "Passing Lane I Km" shouldbe placedin advance each signwith rhelegend and following vehicles laneadditionin orderthatdriversof both slow-moving lane.Additional signs3 ro vehrclescan prepare makeeffectiveuseof the addecl the they may reduce trustration because are ro l0 km in advance alsodesirable themthat by vehicle assuring followinga slow-moving of lnd impatience tJrivers be installed to theywill soonhaveanopportunity pass'In addition'a signshould atthebeginningo|thelaneadditiontapertoassurethattheslowermovingtratfic kccpsto the right.

I
a

I
I Three Lane Sections An addedlanecan be providedin one or both directions travel to improvc of tratfic operations a bottleneck leastto thesamequality of serviceasad.jrccnt at at on road sections. Also they are providedto improveoveralltratTic opcnrtions two-lane highways reducing by delays passing opportuni' caused inadequate by ties over significantlengthsof highways,typically l0 to liX) km. Whcn an additional laneis providedto improvetrafficoperations overa lengthof road.rt is frequently .systematically regularintervals. constructed at The location ofthe added laneneeds appear to logicalto thedriver.Thc valuc than wherepassing of it is more obviousat locations is sightdistance restrictcd on long tangents whrch provtdepassrng opportunrtles. the other hand.Inc On at selection a siteshouldrecognize needfor adequate of sightdist;rncc holh the thelaneadditionandlanedroptapers. minimumsightdistance 3fi) m on thc of A

i T

I
I
I

I t

AASHTO--CeometricDesign of Highways and Streets

of Elements Design

267

S h o u l d e rD r i v i n g A tumout is a widened,unobsrructed shoulderwhich allows slow-moving vehicles pull out of thethroughlaneto give passing to opportunities followine ro vehicles. The driverof theslow-moving vehicle, therearefollowingvehicles. if is expected pull out of the throughlane and remainin the tumoutonly long to enoughfor the following vehicles passbeforeretumingro the throughlane. to when there are only one or two following vehiclesthis maneuver can bc accomplished without it being necessary the driver of the vehiclein the for turnout stop.However, whenthisnumberis exceeded will require tJriver to it the to stop in order for all the following vehicles to pass. Tumouts are rno$l frequently used on lower volume roads where long platoons are rare and in ..difficult terrainwith steepgradeswhereconstructionof an additionallanemav not be cost effective. Suchconditionsareoften found in mountains, coastalandscenicareas wherc more than l0 percentof the vehicle volumes are large trucks and recreational vehicles. The tumoutsshouldonly be providedwherethe fbllowingcon<litions existor can be provided: L 2. 3. 4. A minimum sightdistance 300 m in eachdirection; of width from the edge-of-traveled ol'5 m: An available way A firm and smoothsurface and; A r n i n i m u m e n g t h f t u r n o u itn c l u d i n ga p e r ss h o w ni n ' f a b l cI I I - l . l l o t a (tapers generallyl5 to 30 m in length). are for customhasbeenestablished a In partsof the United States, long-standing vehicles moveto theshoulder whenanother vehicle to approaches slow-moving from therearandreturnto the travellaneafterthefollowing vehiclehaspassed. paved generallv whereadequate shoulders existandin effect occurs Thepractice turnouts. This customis regarded a as functionas continuous shoulders these to courtesy other motoristsrequiringlittle or no sacrificein speedby either While highway agencies may want to permit such use as a vehicleoperator. withouta major capitalinvestment, opportunities means improvingpassing of that in all likelihood shoulderdriving is currently they need to recognize considering shoulder by driving as a prohibited law. Thus,a highwayagncy legislation authorize to suchuseaswell passing probablywill needto propose aid with the campaign familiarizevehicleoperators to asdevelopa public education newlaw, shouldevaluate mileageof two-lane highwayswith the Highwayagencies quality beforedecidingwhetherto pavedshoulders well as their structural as shouldbe thatwhereshoulder aid. A consideration allow theiruseas a passing sitesbut ratherwill common,it will not be limitedto selected drivingbecomes are occur anywhere the systemwherepavedshoulders provided.Another on widthsof at least3.0 m and preferably m are is 3.6 consideration thatshoulder Also the effectshoulder may haveon the useof the highway required. driving Because the practicehas grown up by bicyclistsshouldbe a consideration. promote suchusehasbeencreated. throughlocalsigningno special signingto

-...

A p p r o a c hS p e e d( k m / h )

V l i n i m u r nL e n g t h ( n r ) "

ShoulderUse Sections vehicles of pavedshoulders use at Anotherapproach to permitslorv-moving is selected This is a more limitedapplication by sitesdesignated specificsigning. of shoulder by slow-moving vehicles in thanshoulder d:iving described the use previous Typicllly. driversmove to thc shoulder only klng cnoughfor section. lilllowing vehicles pass to and thenretumto the throughlanc.Thus.thescction tunctions an extended enables highwayagcncvto a as turnout.This approach promote is to inticipated use shoulder only wheretheshoulder adequate handle traffic loadsand the need tbr more frcqucntpassing opportunities has bcen p c s t a b l i s h e d t h el a r g ea n l o u n o i v e h i c l e l a t o o n i n g . by t rn gcnerallyrangcin lcngth fiorn -100 to 5 km. Usc Shoulder usc s!'ctions should rre -i.6 only be markcdwhereshoulders at lcast3.0 m and pret'erably m s irlont wrt atestructural strength supponthe antlc to grxrdsurtace attention on Particular needs bc piaced to conditions required. are ( l h c c r l n d i t i o n f t h es h o u l d cb e c a u sd r i v e r s r eu n l i k e l vt o m o \ ' e( ) v e r ) n t o a c o r e

-10 -50 60 70 80 90 I00

60 7-5 90 l(x) l:0

l-i()

170

"i\laximumlc-ngth shouldt'c 100 nr to avoid usc of rhe turnou!ls u p:rssin{ lJnc.

Tablelll-33. Recommended lengthsof turnoutsincludingtaper.

u\:tFc tlesirablePropcr . sitning andrnarking alsone.ccssarv to lnrrx both inti/.c lrrc l n d a s s u r c a l co p c n r t i t l r t s . s

However, signing shoulder secrionsnotaddressedtheMurcD since of use is in (8)it witt be necessary create to special signing developed others. by

shoulder it is rough,brokenor covered if with debris.Signsneedto be erected 4 loth the beginningand end of the sectionwhere shoulderuse is allowed.

t. !, t, f, r

^,lr

R.ti'rtEc. R.!trtsEc. Batlttlac. R.ti'ttrac. v.b,icl. x.1gbt

IEarllal Crrdl..Et Ro11l!| oEort E i'gAt 91ot,. L.De|t!

EmergencyEscapeRamps General where long, descending grades existor wheretopographic and locationcontrols require such grades on new alinement, the design and construction of an y escape ramp at an appropriate locationis desirable rhepurpose for of slowing and stopping an out-of-control vehicle away froln the main traffic srream.An out-of-control vehicle generally is the result of an operatorlosing control of the vehicle because loss of brakeseither through overheating of or mechanicalfailure, or failure to downshift at the appropriatetime. Specific guidelinesfor the design of escaperamps are lacking at this time. However, considerable experience with ramps constructed existing on highways lcd to has the designand installation effective of rampsthataresavinglivesandreducing propertydamage. Reports and studies the existingrampsindicatethat thcir of operationalcharacteristics providing acceptable are deceleration ratcs and affordinggood driver controlof the vehicleon the ramp. Forces thatact on everyvehicleto aft'ect vehicle'sspeed the includccnginc, braking.and trae tive resistance forces.Ingine and brakingresistancc l'orccs can be ignoredin the designof escape rampsbecause rampshouldbe tlcsigrrcd the for the worstcase,in which the vehicleis out of gearand the brakesystent hls tailed. The tractive resistance forcecontains foursubclasses: inertial. rolling, air. andgradient. Inertialand negative gradient forcesact to maintainmotionof thc vehicle, while rolling,positive gradient, air resistance and forces to rctardits act motion.FigureIII-35 illustrates actionof the variousresistance the tbrcesonir vehicle. Inertialresistance be described a tbrce that resistsmovenrcnt can as ol'rr vehicleat restor maintains vehiclein motion.unless vehicleis actcdtln by a the someextemaltbrce.Inertialresistance <lr must be overcome eitherincreasc to decrease speed a vehicle.Rollingand positivegradient the of rcsis(ance lbrccs arc available overcome inertialresistance. to the Rolling resistance a general is ternt usedto describe resistance motion at the arcaof contactbctwccnit the to vehicle'stiresand the roadwav surtace and is onl iclble whena vchiclcis in motion.It is int'luenced thc type and displacement o[ by characteristics thc surfacingmatcrialof the roadway.Eachsurtacingmaterialhas a cocfl'icicnt. e x p r e s s eid k g / 1 0 0 0k g o f g r o s sv e h i c l em a s s( G V l v l )( T a b l el l l - , 1 - l l . h i c h n w

E
q

fDgl.

z
in actingon vehicle motion. lll-35. Forces Figure
of the determines amountof rolling resistance a vehicle.The valuesshownin have been obtainedtiom varioussources Table III-34 for rolling resistance estimate. the throughout countryand are a bestavailable as is Gradientresistance dueto theeffectof gravity andis expressed the force For gradient venical distance. requiredto move the vehiclethrougha given ramp.thevehiclemust bc tbrceon an escape rcsistance providea beneficial to a gravity.In the casewherethe vehicleis descending against movingupgrade. tbrcesto available the therebyreducing is grade, gradient resistance negative. by i's resistance influenced the The amountof gradient slowandstopthevehicle. percent of of toralmassof the vehicleand the magnitude the grade'For each 0k s g r r t l e . t h e g r a d i e n t r e s i s t a nl c e ig / l t ) 0 0 k g w h e t h e r t h e g r a d e i s p o s i t i v e o r

SurfacingMaterial
Portlandcementconcrete Asphaltconcrete Gravel,compacted Earth,sandy,loose loose Crushedaggregate, Gravel, loose Sand Peagravel

Rolling Resistance (ks/1000 GVM) kg

Equivalent Grade (vo)'

l0 t2 l5
JI

50 100 150 250

1.0 1.2 1.5 3.7 5.0 10.0 r5.0 25.0

"Rollingresistanceexpressedasequivalentgradient. Table lll-34. Rolling resistance of roadway surfaclng matorlals. of resistance air resistance, force The remaining component tractive is the resulting effectofair on thevarious from theretarding surfaces ofthe vehicle. resistance speeds at above km/h andis negligiblc Air causes significant 80 a has of in under km/h.Theeffect air resistance been 30 neglected determining the bed, a length thearrester thusintroducing smallsafety of factor. --

+'ieed and Location gradient, Eachgradehasits own uniquecharacteristics. Highwayalinement, vehiclcs. speed contribute thepotential to length, descent and forout-of-control problems a downgrade oftcn be will operational on For existinghighways public.A ficld officials,truckdrivers, thegeneral reported lawenforcement by or pavemcnt gouged guardrail, reviewof theproblemgrademay revealdamaged locations whereoperators heavyvehiclcs of surfaces spilledoil indicating or an a For facilities escsPc havehaddifficulty negotiating downgrade. existing expericncc as is Accident rampshould provided soonasa need established. be (fornewfacilities on accident experience similarfacilities) tnrckopcratiou and judgement frcquently with engineering uscdaslhc on thegrade combined arc oo runaway ramp. Oftentheimpact a potential of determinant a truckescape for to will provide reason c{xl' centeni adjacent activities population or sufficient is analysis, thc on in in analyzing operations the grade, additionto accident "CradeSeverity Rating System." described as below.

escap rampsshouldbe avoided.For example,a second escape Unnecessary ramp would not be requiredjust beyondthe curve that createdthe needfor the initialramp. While there are no universal guidelines available for new and existing facilities,a varietyof factorsareusedin selectingthe specificsitefor an escap rcquiringanalysis a ramp.Eachlocationpresents differentarrayof designneeds factors,including topography,length and percentof grade,potential of these speed,economics,environmental impact, and accident experience.Ramps suchas numberof runawayvehicles, shouldbe locatedto interceptthe greatest grade and at intermediatepoints along the grade where an at the bottom of the accident. out of control vehicle could causea catastrophic at any feasible location where the main Escaperampsgenerally may be built roadalinementis tangent.They should be built in advanceof main line curvature that cannot be negotiatedsafely by an out-of-control vehicle and in advanceof populared areas.Escape ramps should exit to the right of the main line. On divided multilane highways, where a left exit may appearto b the only feasible location, difficutties may be expectedby the refusal of vehicles in the left lane to yield to out-of-controlvehiclesattemptingto shift lanes. involving runawaytruckscanoccuratvarioussitesalong Althoughaccidents a grade, locations having multiple accidentsshould be analyzed in detail. Analysis of accidentdata pertinentto a prospectiveescaperamp site should includeevaluationof the sectionof highway immediatelyuphill to includethe curve.. to and amountof curvaturetraversed, distance and radiusof the adjacent For new andexistingfacilitiesthe "crade SeverityRatingsystem"may be brqke uscful in locating an escape ramp. The systs!tr usqs 4 prqdetq1q41qg! on speed a grade.It also a limit (260'C) to establish safedescent remperature along at braketemperatures 0.8 km intervals expected canbe usedto calculate the clowngrade.The location where brake temperaturesexceed the limit indicates point that brakefailurescan begin to occur,leadingto potential the runaways, An integral part of the evaluation would be the determination of the maximum speedwhich an out-of-control vehicle could attain at the proposed speedcan then be usedas the minimum design site.This highestobtainable for speedfor the ramp. The 130- to 140-km/hentering speed,recommended the to represent extremecondition and thereforeshouldnot design.is intended be used as the basis for selecting locations of escaperamps. Although the a variables involved make it impossibleto establish maximum truck speed ramps, it is evident that anticipatedspeeds warrant for location of escape as determinations to usedfor design.The traffic on the roadway.the operator the needshouldbe the safetyof the other along and at the bottomof the vehicle,and the residents of the out-of-control dictatetheneedfor morethan grade. escape ramp,orrampsif theconditions An

AASHTMeometric Designof Highways and Steers

of Elements Design

uld be located whereyer gradesare of a steepness and length to be potential hazardsand topographicconditions will permit construction.

Types Emergency escape ramps havebeen classified a varietyof ways. in Threebroad categories used classifyramps gravity,sandpileandanester to are bed.Wirhin , these broad categories, basicemergency four prcdominate. escape rampdesigns Thesedesigns the sandpile are and threetypesof arrester beds,classified by grade:descending grade,horizontalgrade,and ascending grade.Thesefour in types illustrated Figure arc III-36. Jfre gravity ramp has a pavedor denselycompacted agggatesurfoee;-' relyingprimarilyon gravitational forcesto slow andstoptherunaway. Roling I resistance forces contribute little to assist stopping vehicle. in the Gravity are usuallylong,steepandareconstrained topographic by controlsandcostc. Whileagravityrampstops prcvent forwardmotion,thepaved surface cannot thc vehiclefrom rolling back down the ramp gradeand jackknifingwithouta l positive mechanism. capture Therefore, gravityrampis theleast the desirablc of theescape ramptypes. Sandpiles, composed loose, sand of dry dumped therampsite, usually are at The no more than120m in length. influence gravityis dependent theslopc of on The in of thesurface. increase rollingresistance supplied theloose is by sand. Deceleration characteristics ofsandpiles usually are severe thesand bc and can Because thedeceleration affected weather. of characteristics, sg14!pi!.c the by !s lessdesirable thanthe arrester bed.However, locations whereinadequatc at exists another of ramp, sandpile beappropriate for type the because space may of its compact dimensions. parallelandadjacent thc escape ramps constructed are to Descending-grade through These ramps loose bed lanes thehighway. of use aggregate anarrcster in sctg the to to increase rollingresistance slowthevehicle. Thegradient rcsistance rampl in thedircctionof vehiclemovement. a rcsult,thedescending-gradc As the canberatherlengthybecause gravitational effectis notactingto helprcduce thespeed thevehicle. rampshould The have clear,obvious of a rcturnpathto tho who highwaysovehicleoperators doubttheeffectiveness therampwill fccl of theywill be ableto rctum to thehighwayat a rcduced speed. ramp Whercthetopography accommodate a horizontal-grade can it. escapc isanotheroption. on Constructed anessentially gradient, horizontal-grrdc flat the in ramprelieson the incrcased rolling rcsistance from the looseaggrcgate en arTesterbed to stoptheoutofcontrolvehicle,since bcd. is zero"This typc of rampis longerthanthe ascending-grade arrester

SAN4ILE

C. HORIZOilTALORAOE

ta.r.!

trofia. b rlcl

il|. baa.r.

.t rt

trt

o. alcaxorao oiaDt

escaperamps. Flgurelll-36. Baslctypes ot emergency

AASHTHeometric

Design of Highways and Slrreets

Elementsof Design

ramp is the ascending commonly usedescape type with an rurester bed. Ramp installations of this type use gradient resistanceto advantage. in supplementingthe effects of the aggregate the arresterbed, and generally. to reducingthe lengthof ramp necessary stop the vehicle.The loosematerialin the arrestingbed increases rolling resistance, in the other typesof ramps, the as while thegradientresistance downgrade, oppositeto the vehiclemovement. acts The loosebeddingmaterialalso servesto hold the vehicle in placeon the ramp gradeafter it has come to a safe stop. Each one of the ramp types is applicableto a particularsituationwherean emergencyescaperamp is desirableand must be compatible with established location and topographiccontrols at possiblesites. The procedures used for the analysis truck escape rampsareessentially sameforeach of thecategories of oFtypcs identified. The rolling resistancefactor for the surfacing material uscd in determining the length required to slow and stop the runaway safely is thc difference in the procedures.

costly or not needed'Widths of ramps in width was unreasonably use rangefrom 3.6 to l2 m' The surfacingmaterial used in the arresterbed should be clean, not and have a high coefficient of rolling resistance. easily compacted, predomiis When aggregate used, it should be rounded,uncrushed, nuntty u iingle size, and as free from fines as possible'The use of dueto will aggregate minimizetheproblems single-size predominantly retentionand freezingas well as minimizing requiredmainmoisture tenance,which must be performed by scarifying when the material compacts.Such material will maximize the percentageof voids' theriby providingoptimum drainageand minimizing interlockingand to A materialwith a low shearstrengthis desirable permit "on,pu"iion. the tires. The durability of the aggregate should be pnerration of evaluatedusing an appropriatecnrsh test. Pea gravel is representative of the materialusedmost frequently, although loosegravel andsandare also used.A gradationwith a top size of 40 mm has beenused with states.Material conformingto the AASHTO gradain success several

Design Considerations and numerousintemal resisThe combinationof the aboveexternalresistance actsto limit the maximum speedof an out-of-control tanceforcesnot discussed vehicle.Speeds excess 130to 140km/h will rarely,if ever,be attained. in of for ramp shouldbe designed a minimum enteringspeed of Therefore,an escape 130 km/h, a 140 km/h designspeedbeing preferred. Several formulas and to at softwareprogramshavebeendeveloped determinethe runawayspeed any po-nt on the grad-ThtSe methbds can bE uset to eatabliali a deSignspeedfoi alinements. specificgrades and horizontal escape rampsinvolvea numberof The designand construction effective of as considerations follows:
I l.

tion #57 is effective if the fines are removed' depth with a minimum aggregate 5 . Anester bedsshouldbe constructed can reducethe effectiveof of 0.6 m. Contamination the bed material bed by creatinga hard surfacelayer up to 300 mm nessofthe arrester depthup to I 000 thick at thebottomof the bed.Therefore,an aggregate bd,the wheels arrester As mm is recommended. the vehicleentersthe the bed material,thus of the vehicledisplacethe surface,sinking into the in To the increasing rolling resistance. assist decelerating vehicle ftoma mjnimum of?5 smoorhln thed-pth of th bd sho[ld be ta-pered in mm at the enrry poinr to rhe full depth of aggregate the initial 30 to bed of 6. A positivemeans drainingthearrester shouldbe providedto help 60 m of the bed.

To safelystopan out-of-controlvehicle,the lengthof the rampmustbe the sufficientto dissipate kineticenergyof the moving vehicle. The alinementof the escaperamp should be tangentor of very flat curvatureto relieve the driver of unduevehicle control problems. more to The width of the ramp should be adequate accommodate than one vehicle becauseit is not uncommon for two or morc vehicles to have need of the escaperamp within a short time, A minimum width of 8 m may be all that is possiblein some arcas' Desirably,a width of 9 to l2 m though greaterwidths arepreferred. h i c l e s . R a m p w i d t h s l e s s t h a n i n d i c a t e da b o v e h a v e b e e n u s c d thata widcr in successfullv somelocationswhereit was determined

of prot"rt the bed from freezingand avoid contamination the alrester by fed material.This can be accomplished grading the baseto drain, interceptingwater prior to enteringthe bed. underdrainsystemswith outlets or edge drains. Geotextilesor paving can be used transverse and the bed materialsto prevent infiltration of the subbase between from dieselfuel or which trap water.where toxic contamination fines bed may be spillageis a concem,the baseof the arrester othermaterial with concreteand holding tanks to retain the spilled contarnipaved

natesmay be provided. ro 7 . The entrance the ramp must be designedso that a vehicle traveling the preceding ramp as possibleshould be providedso that an operator .npi safely.The full lengthof the ramp shouldbe visibleto the "un

HTO--4 eometri c D esig n of H i ghwa AAS

and

of Elements Design

8.

for vehicleoperator.The angleof departure the ramp shouldbe small, usually 5' or less.An auxiliary lane may be appropriate assistthc to vehicle operatorto prepareto enterthe escaperamp. The main roadway surfaceshould be provided to a point at or beyond the exit gorc so thu both front wheels of the out-of-control vehicle will enter the arrestcr and bed simultaneously, the operatorwill havepreparation timc bcfore actual deceleration begins. The arresterbed should be offset laterally from the through lanesan amount sufficient to preclude loose material being thrown onto the throughlanes. Accessto the ramp must be madeobvious by exit signing to allow the operatorof an out-of-control vehicle time to react,so as to precludethc possibilityof missing the ramp.Advancesigning is rcquircdto inform

| -'=
where:

v2

t54&;g

m; L = distanceto stop (i.e.' the length of the anesterbed)'

= entering velocity, km/h; G - percentgradedivided bY 100; and gradient as expressed equivalentprcent R = rolling resistance divided bY 100 (Table III-34)' at a site selectedfor an For example,assumethat topographicconditions (G = + 0' l0)' ramp limit the ramPto an upgradeof l0 percent emergencyescape Tlearresterbedistobeconstructedwithloosegravelforanenteringspeedof to be 0.10.The lengthnecessary 140km,/h.Using Table III-34' R is determined =Yzl 254(Rt G)' For this casethe length of the arrcster is determinedfrom L bed is about 400 m' Whenconditionsdictateadesignwherethearresterbedmustbeconstnrcted as shown in Figure III-37' the using more than one gradealong its length' such grade is determined with the entering speedof the vehicte ar the end oi the nrit of gradient'and resistance the as speeA the initial velocity (V'), lengthgiptug:' -254L(R tC)' The finalspeed the materialin bedby uringti,".quution:vi,=vz' velocity for the next grade. The the end of the first gradJi, usedas the initial at changeof gradeon the ramp until ,p..4 of the vehiclels determinedaf each vehicle' ,uffi.i.n, length is providedto stop the out-of-control an emergencyescaperamp with Figure III-37 showsa plan and profile of typical aPPurtenances. WhentheonlyfeasiblelocationforanescaperampwilInotprovidesufficient vehicle' it should be length and grade to completely stop an out-of-control device' attenuation positive. ,up!|"*.nt"d with an acceptable capability ,rnlp i, to Le provided with full deceleration where a full-length ,.lastchance;'device should be consideredwhen the for the design speed,a serious' aonr"qu"n..s of leavingthe end of the ramp are that treatment should be designedwith carc to,insure en"d The use of a ramp theadvanngesoutweighthedisadvantages.Thehazardtoothersastheresultof escaperamp may be more an out-of-controltruck ovemrnning the end of an of the truck' The abrupt important than the harm to the driver or cargo load' shifring of decelerationof an out-of-control truck may cause ^the harmful occurpotentially shearingof the fifth wheel, or jackknifing' all the cargo' rencesto the driver and

of rampandto preparc the a driverof theexistence anescape well in advance the decisionpoint so that the operatorwill haic of or ramp.Rcgula: enough time to decidewhether not to usetheescape
tory signs near the enrance should be used to discourage other motorists from entering, stopping or parking at the ramp. The path of the ramp should be delineated to define ramp edges and provide nighttime direction. (See the MUTCD (8).) Illumination of the approachand ramp is desirable. The characteristic that makesa truck escaperamp an effective safety by devicealsomakesit difficult to retrievea vehiclecaptured the ramp. A service road locatedadjacentto the arresterbed is neededso the vehicle can useit without becomingtrappd wreckerandmaintenance s width gf thiq t4ngshoqldbe at least3.0 m, rqfhe be4dl4gmaleJrq!.The

9.

with roadis paved maybesurfaced gravel' but Preferably service this ofanout-of-control such Theroad should designed thattheoperator be bed. vehicle will not mistake service the roadfor thearrester usually located adjacent thearesterbedat 50 to to anchors, 10. Wrecker r to the l0Om intervals, needed secure tow truck whenremoving are about30m vehiclefrom thearrester Oneanchor bed. shouldbelocated the in advance the bed to assist wreckerin retuminga capturcd of can roadway. localwrcckeroperators bc vcry vehicle a surfaced The to locating anchors. the helpfulin properly stop it and will eventually As a vehiclerolls upgrade, losesmomentum to requircd bringthc the because theeffectof gravity.To determine distance of and vehicleto a stop with consideration the rolling rcsistance gradicnt of (30): equation maybe used rcsistance. followingsimplifred the

w i t hl : 1 . 5

as the "last chance" have been usedat the end of ramps in severalinstances with an array of crash dcvice.At leaston. .r.up" ,urnp i,o, beenconstructed

AASHTMeometric Desisnof H

of Elements Design

end of cushionsinstalledto preventan out-of-controlvehicle from leaving the a gravel bed the ramp. Furthermore,at the end of a hard surfacedgravity ramp, runawayvehicleto or attenuarorafiay may sufficiently immobilize a brakeless the keep it from rolling backward and jackknifing. Where banels are used, so that barrelsshouldbe hlled with the samematerialas usedin the arresterbed, of any finer material does not result in contamination of the bed and reduction the expectedrolling resistance.

Brake Check Areas or Turnouts or pulloff areasat the summit can be used for brake check areas provide an opportunity for an operator 1o inspect mandatory stop areas to equipment on the vehicle and to insure the brakes are not overheatedat the the beginning of the descent.In addition, information about the gradeaheadand provided by diagrammatic signing or selflocation of escaperamps can be for servicepamphlets.An elaboratedesignis not necessary theseareas.The area from the shoulder or a widened can be a pauea lane behind and separated to shoulderwherea truck can stop.Appropriatesigningis necessary discourage casualstoppingby the Public.

-d
E

t
F

I b g
o o b

(,

t !
) I
a I

E o E o E
F

Maintenance using power equipalresterbedsshouldbe reshaped After eachuse,aggregate Since as necessary. ment io the exGni possibleand the aggregatescarified of shouldbe cleaned tendsto compactover time, the beddingmaterial aggregate of characteristics and contaminants scarifiedperiodicallyto retainthe retarding power equipmentfor the bedding material and maintain free drainage.Using workers time for the maintenance the work in the anesterbed reduces exposure of to a runawaytruck desiringto usethe facility' Maintenance theappurtenances as shouldbe accomplished necessary.

I
I

(9 a I c

l(t

* o t

CD tl.

VerticalCurves General Considerations

grades may be any one tangent Verticalcurvesto effect gradualchangebetween result in a designthat is safe,comfortablein simple in applicationand shoul<l The fordrainage' majorcontrol and pleasing appearance. adequaie in operation.

AASHTHeometric

Design of Hi

sandS

of Elements Design

281

fe operation on crest vertical curves is the provision of ample sight

Minimum stopping sightdistance distances the designspeed. for shouldbc piovidedin all cases. Wherever and economically physically feasible, morc Further should used. be additional liberal stopping sightdistances sightdistance points. at should provided decision be
Considerationof motorists' comfort requires that the rate of changeof gradc be kept within tolerable limits. This considerationis most important in sag verticalcurveswheregravitational and verticalcentrifugalforcesactin thesame direction. Appearancealso should be considered.A long curve has a morc pleasing than appearance a shortone,which may give theappearance sudden ofa break in the profile due to the effect of foreshortening. Drainage of curbed roadways on sag vertical curves, Type III, Figurc 1fl48, requirescareful profile design to retain agradeline of not lessthan 0.5 percent or, in some cases,0.30 percent for the outer edgesof the roadway. Although not desirable, flatter grades may be necessary in extenuating circumstances. For simplicity the paraboliccurve with an equivalentvertical axis centered on the vertical point of intersection(VPI) is usually used in roadway profile ofthe horizontal design.The vertical offsetsfrom thetangentvary asthe square from the curve end (point of tangency).The vertical offset from the distance as tangentgradeat any point along the curve is calculated a proportionofthe VPI, which is AL/800, wherethe symbolsare as shown verticaloffset at the pointson the curve in FigureIII-38. The rateofchangeofgrade at successive distance, equals and the of amountfor equalincrements horizontal is a constant divi{ed !y tlrg length alsebr4icdjferyqgqletween lnlelqectio! tange!t gradeq of curve in meters, or A/L in percent per meter. The reciprocal L/A is thc horizontal distancein metersrequiredto effect a I percentchangein gradicnt and is, therefore,a measureof curvature. The quantity L/A, termed "K," is useful in determining the horizontal distance from the vertical point of curvature (VPC) to the apex of Type I curves or to the low point of Type lll curves.This point where the slope is zero occurs at a distancefrom the VPC equal to K times the approach gradient. The K value is also useful in determiningminimum lengthsof vertical curves for variousdesignspceds. on Other detailson parabolicverticalcurvesare found in textbooks highway engineering. or ofcritical clearance other controls,the usc because On certainoccasions. of unsymmetricalvertical curves may be required. Becausethe conditions dictating the needfor thesecurvesare infrequent,the derivationand usc of the

U o.
F

.-1.:-

;c - 'o e
!o c3
00 lrJ
E,6

rl
.(,
o>c0
;ttriC)

&.
J (J FG IJ

(.)

PooO) c!9c, oq q s rel=o o+oFEt:o

b , g-:= c
I

i
I

E
F

ulFO Na= oaE= a!l!ool cg'c15

d F O d

oecL

-T

F arl

u &

I
I
tF

(-)

: = o = I
tl.
I l

lrl A

U A F

herein. usein suchlimitcd For havenot beenincluded formulas curve datafound in a number refer to unsymmetrical instanees, texts. engineering

MsHTHeometric

Designof

of Elements Design

VerticalCurves Minimum lengthsof crestverticalcurvesas determined sight distance by requirements generally satisfactory are from the standpoint safety, of comforl andappearance. exception An may be at decisionareas, suchassightdistance to rampexit gores, where longer lengths necessary. are Referto thesection this in chapter concerning decision sightdistance. The basic formulas for length of a parabolicvertical curve in termsof algebraic difference grade sightdistance in and follow: WhenS is lessthanL.
AS2

When S is greaterthan L,

4M L = 2S-A

(4)

l=

roo(lEh; dz4f +

WhenS is greater thanL,

L=25-

2oo(.F-,' * ,[-nrf

(2)

A where: L = length of vertical curve, m; S = sightdistance, m; A = algebraicdifferencein grades,percent; hi = heightofeye aboveroadwaysurface,m (nomally 1070mm/ 1000mm/m) hz = height object aboveroadway surface,m (normally 150mm/ l0O0 mm/m) When the height of eye and the height of object are 1070mm and 150mm, respectively, usedfor stoppingsight distance. as When S is lessthan L. AS2

--

4M

(3)

of lengths vertical The Designcontrols- stoppingsightdistance. required value the of 4 3 and for differentvalues A to provide upper fromformulas curves in are speed shown Figure design for sightdistances each ofstopping oftherange values of on lengths, thebasis rounded III-39.Thesolidlinesgivetherequired The equations. dottedline for K = 39.39gives from these of K asdetermined values 70 km/h for comparison. for unrounded where lines,indicates these curveat thelowerlef! crossing Theshortdashed of = L line,thevalueof K, or length vertical S = L. Notethatto therightof theS of exprcssion the in change A, is a simpleand convenient curveper percent isapositivewholenumber value single Foreachdesignspeedthis designcontrol. controlin termsof The of thatis indicative therateof verticalcurvature. design thus,A andL designspeed; of K coversall combinations A andL for any one of The valuetabulation. selection in separately a design not need be indicated is in ofcurve meters equal length the because required is curves facilitated design the L in in difference grades percent, = KA. Conversely, the to K times algebraic K withthedesign value. allcurves by is of checking plans simplified comparing as curves of for K the TableIII-35 shows computed values lengths vertical III- l, for each Table sightdistances, ofstopping of for required therange values in as of values K arerounded shown the For speed. directusein design, design tinesin Vahies K areTlottedzsthcsolid Of iighr column.Theupper,rourxled values, the but values K arehigherthancomputed of FigureIII-39.Rounded are differences notsignificant' plot values than whereS is greater L (lowerleft in FigureIII-39),computed to line by asa curve(asshown thedashed for 70 km/h)thatbends theleft,and the because sightlinepasses are tengths zero of for smallvalues A thercquired practice. Mostof design desirable not does represent Thisrelation overtheapex. a as expressed either single curve, of length vertical use States a minimum the nowin use of or speeds, a function A. values design for value, range different a and speed in the 30 about to 100m. To recognize distinction design range from curves of lengths vertical practice, minimum of therange current to approximate V or speed, L.,n= 0'6V where is in the 0.6 as areLipressed about times design show adjustments asthe terminal These perhourandL is in meters. kilometers vertical linesat thelowerleft of FigureIII-39.

AASHTA--Geometric De

of Elements Design

Deslgn Spced (km/h) 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 tm il0 t20

Assumed Speedfor Conditlon (km/h) 3G30 zl0..l0 47-50 55-60 63-70 TGEO 77-90

Coeflicient of Frictlon I 0.40 0.38 0.35 0.33

Stopping Sight Dlstance tor Design (m) 29.629.6 44.444.4 57.+62.E 74.3-U.6 9 4 . 1 -1 0 . 8 l I 12.8-t39.4 t3t.2-t68.7 157.G205.0 t79.5-246.4 202.9-285.6

Rale of Verticsl Curvaturt, K (lensth(m) oer % ol Al Computed 2.17-2.t7 4.884.88 E.rG9.76 t3,&t7.72 21.92-30.39 31.49{8.10 42.6t-70.44 61.01-1(X.02 79.75-tSO.2E 101.90-201.9t) Rouodcd for DcslStr

85-rm 9 l - rl 0
98-I 20

0.3 r 0.30 0.30 0.79 o.2E 0.28

3-3 5-5 9-t0 l4-tt 22-31 3249 43-7 | 62-t05 t$t5l t02-292

Tablelll-35. Deslgncontrolsfor crestvertlcalcurvss.

t6 x o ro o
L

t4
I'

Ctr

r!o
o c o LR o-

rF F

E6 (,
o L4 A o

I
I

| 00

200

300

400

500

600

700

L L=Minirrumength of Crest verticol Curve (m)

The abovevaluesof K derivedwhen S is lessthanL alsocan be usedwithout of thanL. As shownin FigureIII-39,extension enor whereS is greater significant of linestomeettheverticallinesforminimum lengths verticalcurves thediagonal resultsin apprcciabledifferencesfrom the theoreticalonly where A is small and little or no additionalcost is involved in obtaininglongerverticalcurves. The lower K factorsforeach speeddevelopedin Table III-35 werebasedon the assumptionthat most vehiclesreducetheir speedin inclementweatheror on wet detail in the section"Sight Distance"in this in pavements. discussed greater As fail chapter,studiesconductedin recentyearsoftraffic on wet and dry pavements sight a Nevertheless,rangeofvaluesofstopping hypothesis. this stated to support distancehavebeencomputedbasedon friction factors for wet pavementsand on equal to the averagerunning speedand the design speedofthe vehicular speeds highway.FigureIII-4Oprovidestherequiredlengthsofverticalcurvesfordiffercnt for valuesof A to provide the lower rangeof stoppingsight distances eachdesign speed(basedon the correspondingnrnning speed). For night driving on highwayswithout lighting,the lengthof visible roadway is thatroadwaywhich is directly illuminatedby theheadlightsof thevehicle.For valuesusedfor design certainconditions,the minimum stoppingsight distance have limitations exceedthe lengthof visible roadway.First, vehicle headlights on the projection distancefor the light intensity levels that are required for When headlightsare operatedon low-beam,the reduced visibility purposes. candlepowerat the source plus the downward projection angle significantly Thus, particularlyfor high-speed restrictthe lengthof visibte roadwaysurface. visibility disconditions,stopping sight distancevalues exceedroad-surface of regardless whetherthe roadway by the lowlbgaq headllghts tan99s 1{orded citrvesthe aiea foicrest vertiCal profiG ii teueioruerticattyiurving. Secondly, the headlightbeam point of tangencywith the roadway surfaceis fbrward of only indirectillumination.Sincethe headlightmounting and shadowed receives (typically about 600 mm) is lower than the driver eye height ( 1070mm height for design),the sight distanceto an illuminated object 150 mm in height is ratherthanby thedircct line of controlledby the heightof the vehicleheadlights zonemust!e high enoughto extendinto the sight.Any objectwithin the shadow headlightbeamto be directly illuminated.On the basisof formula I , the bottom of the headlight beam is about 400 mm above the roadway at a distanceahead of the vehicle equal to the low value of the range of stoppingsight distance. Although the vehicle headliglrtsystemdoeslimit roadway visibility length as mentionedabove,there is some mitigating effect in that other vehicles,whose tailtight height typically variesfrom 450 to 600 mm, and other sizablehazardous values at objecs rcceivedircct lighting from headlights stoppingsightdistance

I r

Flgure lll-39. Deslgn for for controls crestvertlcal curves, stop. plngslghtdlstance upper range.

featurcs, design of at nightis tess thanduringthedayregardless roadandstreet and andthatvehicle arc oprators thusmoreattentive alert.

AASHTMeometric

Elements

Desi

thanL, WhenS is less

I
o
!

t4 t2

L _

AS2 | -946

(5)

0
L

When S is greaterthan L,

.-c o r0 (, c o
L

o
t

946 L = 23A

(6)

6 o '6
! L

lengths crest of TableIII-5, therequired passing sightdistances, Forminimum sightdistances. longerthat thosefor stopping aresubstantially verticalcurves
,,, The extentof difference is evident by the values of K, or length of vertical curve

o
tl

in shown TableIII-36.These sightdistances in change A, for passing prpercent for sightdistances. necessary stopping thelengths are lengths 7 to l7 times

| 00

200

300

400

500

600

7oo

L = M i n i m . r mL e n g t h o f C r e s t

Verticol

Curve (m)

Figurelll-40. Designcontrolsfor crestverllcalcurvesfor stoppingslght distance lowerrange.

Thereis a levelpointof minutelengthon a crestverticalcurveof TypeI (FigureIII-38),but no difficultywith drainage highways with curbsis on grade 0.30percent is enough thata minimum experiencedthecurve sharp if so of Thiscorresponds a 5l-m per to is reached a pointaboutl5 m from thecrest. at percent change grade;this line is plottedin FigureIII-39 as the drainage in above to theleft of thislinewouldsatisfy or this maximum. combinations All The criterionfor drainage. combinations belowand to the right of this linc involve vertical curves. Special attention needed these is in to flatter cases ensurc proper pavement near ofcrest vertical drainage theapex curves. isnotintended It thata K valueof 5l be considered designmaximum, merclythe value a but whichdrainage beyond mustbe morecarefully designed. Design sightdistance. values controls- passing Design ofcrestvertical cuwesfor distance differ from thosefor distancc because thedifferentheightcriterion. general of The formulasI and2 apply,but with thc the l30Omm height object of rcsults thefollowingspecific in formulas terrns above: as same

Design Speed (km/h) 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 lt0 120

Minimum Passing SightDistance for Design (m) 2t7 285 345 40'7 482 541 605 670 728 792

Rateof VerticalCurvature,K, for Rounded Design (length(m) Per Voof L) 50 90 130 180 250 310 390 480 570 670

i l

i.i ]I

Tablelll-36. Deslgncontrols for crest vertlcal curues based on Passingslght dlstance.

for to crestvenicalcurves provide to it Generally, is impracticable design crestcutsarern passing distance ofhighcost because sight
particularlyfor ttitficulty of fitting therequiredlong verticalcurvesto theterrain,

Elements

Design

on Passing sightdistance crestverticalcurvesmay be feasible roads. high-speed on roadswith an unusualcombinationof low designspeedand gentlegrades or

with algebraic differences grades. in higherdesign speeds verysmall Ordinarily, where passing is only at places combinations alinesightdistance provided of
ment and profile do not requirethe useof crest vertical curves.

r6
SagVerticalCurves

i
for lengths sagvertical of At least criteria establishing curves fourdifferent are (2) sightdistance, rider Theseare (l) headlight recognized someextent. to for appearancc. comfort,(3) drainage control,and(4) a rule-of-thumb general useddirectly some by authoritiEs folthcand has flFidlight sightdistance been the usedherein. most partis thebasisfor determining lengthof sightdistance a Whena vehicletraverses sagverticalcurveat night,the portionof highway and on ofthe headlights thedirection lighted ahead dependent theposition is of givento a headlight height 600mm and of use thelightbeam. General is being axis of thc a lo upwarddivergence the light beamfrom the longitudinal of provides visible some additional vehicle. spread thelightbeam of Theupward The showtheS, L, and ignored. followingformulas length thisis generally but between vehicle pointwhere l' the and the A relation, usingS asthedistance the ofthe roadway: angle light ray intersects surface of
When S is lessthan L.
!

t4

o
I?

o c

L (tl

rri
rn

^ii

rF t !6

o o c o t8

o 'o

-o o

L4

tl

L-

= - AS2 l' 200[0.6+S(tan )] 120+ .55 3

AS2

(7)
0 r00 200 300 400 500 600 700

i L = M n i r r u mL n g t h o f C r e s f v e r t i c o l C u r v e ( m )
When S is greaterthan L,

l" 200[0.6+S(tan )l
! J

^.

, 120+3.55 ,
\ - /

(8)

AA

where:

L = lengthof sag vertical curve, m; m; S = light beam distance, and in A = alsebraicdift-ercnce

Flgurelll41.

controlsfor sag vertlcalcurves- upper Deslgn range.

AASHTMeometric

Desi

of Elements Design

o E
!l

d o c
t

3 0
o o

@5

(-,

oo
L

oO

C'

t 3

o o = o-{
L C) O

o E o

Foroverall safetyon highways,a sagverticalcurve shouldbe long enoughso that the light beam distanceis nearly the sameas the stoppingsight distance. for Accordingly,it is pertinentto usestoppingdistances differentdesignspeds S value in the aboveformulas.The resultinglengthsof verticalcurvesfor asthe are for the uppervalueof the rangeof stoppingsightdistances eachdesignsped donefor FigureIII4I with solid lines using roundedK valuesas wuls shown in crest vertical curves and the dotted line for K = 26.6being an unroundedvalue for 70 km/h for comparison.Figure lll42 providesthe lengthsof sag vertical curvesfor variousalgebraicdifferences in gradesfor the lower rangeofstopping sight distance. The comfort effect of change in vertical direction is greateron sag than on crest vertical curvesbecausegravitational and centrifugal forces are combining rather than opposing forces. Comfort due to change in vertical direction is not it rcadily because is affected apPrcciablyby vehicle body suspension, measured tire flexibility, mass carried, and other factors. The limited attempts at such haveled to the broad conclusion that riding is comfortableon sag me,rsurements vertical curves when the centrifugal accelerationdoesnot exceed0.3 m/s2.The for generalexpression such a criterion is: AV2

r]o

.{-

CD

L=

39s

.F

-c,
c''l

xc ao xE

o I o c 0 o
q

E 2 c ;t l
J

:!9torosGr

T
o
5 ll.

(\|

(t, epor6 u! ecueJalllP cloJgeolv=v

.9

whereL and A arethe sameas in previousformulas,and V is the designspeed, kmft. The length of vertical cuwe required to satisfy this comfort faetgr at the various design speedsis only about 50 percentof that requiredto satisfy the for requirement the normal rangeof designconditions' headlightsightdistance Drainageaffectsdesignof vertical curvesof Type Ill (Figure III-38) where criterionfor sagverticalcurvesis the are curbedsections used.An approximate for sameas that expressed the crest conditions,that is, providing a minimum l5mofthelevelpoint.Thiscriterionplotsthesame gradeof0.30percentwithin = or very closeto the sameasthe line shown in FigureIII-41 for 100kmlh' K 5l ' the length of sag The diainagerequirementdiffers from other criteria in that the for verticalcurvedeterrnined it is a maximum, whereas. lengthfor any other criterionis greater criterionis a minimum. The maximum lengthof the drainage thanthe minimum lengthfor othercriteriaup to 100kmih and is nearlyequalfor other criteria up to 120 km/h for minimum-lengthverticalcuryes'
lcnoth nf cro verticnl crrrves wherein the minimum value of L is 30A or'

of wasmade a rule-of-thumb some appearance, useformerly Forgeneral

for control small is in Figuie III-41,K = 30.Thisapproximationa generalized

AASHTHeometic

Design of Highways and Steets

of Elements Design

values of A. Compared with headlight sight distance.ir correspondsto a design speed between 70 and 80 km/h. On high-type highways longer curves are deemed appropriate to improve appearance.

may Sagvertical curvesshorterthan the lengths computed from Table lll-37 where an existingelement,suchas a in UeiusiigeOfor economicreasons cases controlsthe verticalprofile. In certaincases not structure readyfor replacement, rampsmayalso-bedesignedwithshortersagverticalcuryes.Fixedsource accept lighiing is desinble in thesecases.For streetdesign, some engineers percentor less without a lengthof oesignor a sag or crestwhere A is about I calculatedvertical curye. However, field modifications during construction if shortthe usually result in constructing equivatentto a vertical curve,even

Fromthepreceding is evident design it that controls sagvertical for curves differ from those for crests,and separate design valuesare needed. The headlight sightdistance basis appears bethemostlogical general and to for use, thevalues sightdistances withinthelimitsrccogdetermined stopping for are nizedin current practice. is concluded usethiscriterion establish It to to design values a range lengths sag vertical for of of curves. in thecase crest As of vertical curyes, is convenient express design it to the controlin terms theK ratefor of all values A. Thisentails of some deviation fromthecomputed values small for values A, butthedifferences notsignificanr of are Table III-37shows range the :sfssrnputedvalues andtheroundedvaluesof K selected asdesigncontrols.Tte lengths sagverticalcurves thebasisof the designspeed of on values K are of shown thesolidlines Figure by in III4I . It is tobeemphasized these that lengths areminimum values on speed; longercurves desired based design are whercvei feasible, special but attention drainage to mustbeexercised where K value a in excess of5l is used.

General Controls for Vertical Alinement are several In addition to the abovespecific controls for vertical alinement,there that should be consideredin design' generalcontrols l. with the type as A smoothgradelinewith gradualchanges, consistent ofhighways,roads,orstreetsandthecharacterofterrain,shouldbe strivedforinpreferencetoalinewithnumerousbreaksandshort |engthsofgrades.Detaileddesignvaluesarethemaximumgradeand thecriticallengthofgrade,butthemannerinwhichtheyareappliedand and the fitted to the terrainon a continuousline determines suitability product' of appearance the finished ..roller-coaster" the "hidden-dip" type of profile should be or The avoided'suchprofilesgenerallyoccuronreIativelystraighthorizontal alinementwheretheroadwayprofilecloselyfollowsarollingnatural grorindline.Examplesoftheseundesirableprofilesareevidenton manyolderroadsandStreets.Theyareunpleasantaestheticallyand moredifficulttodrive.Hiddendipscontributetopassingmaneuver problemsfordrivers,thepassingdriverbeingdeceivedbytheviewof with the roador streetbeyondthe dip free ofopposing vehicles'Even shallowdips'thistypeofprofileisdisconcertingbecausethedriver cannotbesurewhetherornotthereisanoncomingvehiclehidden beyondthe rise. This type of profile is avoided by use of horizontal curvesor bY more gradualgrades' Undulatrnggradelines,involving substantiallengths of momentum grades.shouldbeappraisedfortheireffectontrafficoperation.Such profilespermitheavytructstooprateathigheroveial|speedsthanis possiblewhen an upgradeis not precededby a downgrade'but may encourageexcessivespeedsoftruckswithattendantconflictswith
+.
A

Assumed Design Speed for Speed Condition (km/h) (km/h)

Coefficient of Friction f

Stopping Sight Distancefor Design (m)

Rateof VerticalCurvature,K (m) (length per % of A) Computed Roundedfor Deslgn 8-8 lt-12 l1 . 58 20-25 25-32 30-40 37-51 43-62 5G,73

2.

-----f0 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 ll0 120

30130 10-40 47-50 55-60 63-70 70-80 77-90 85-I 00 9 t - rt 0 98-I 20

nrR 0.28

0.40 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.3 t 0.30 0.30 0.29

29.6-29.6 3.88-3.88 44.4-44.4 7.n-7.t1 57.4-62.8 r0.20r 1.54 74.3-84.6 t4.45-t7.t2 9 4 . t - lt 0 . 8 19.62-24.08 I 1 2 . 8 - r 3 9 . 4 24.62-3t.86 1 3 r . 2 - 1 6 8 . 7 29.62-39.95 157.0-205.0 36.71-50.06 t79.5-246.4 42.95-61.68 202.9-285.6 49.47-72.72

Tablelll-37. Deslgncontrols for sag vertlcalcuryes.

Minimumlengths verticalcurvesfor flat gradients of alsoare recogto be generally suitable sags. for Lengths sagvertical of curves, shown 8s vertical linesin FigureIII-4I, areequal 0.6times design to the speed.

3.

A broken-backgradeline(two vertical curves in the same direction be separatedby short section of tangentgrade) generallYshould

AASHTO-Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

Elements

avoided,particularlyin sagswherethefull view of bothverticalcurves is not pleasing. This effectis very noticeable divided roadwayswith on open median sections. On long gradesit may be preferable to place the steepest gradesat the bottom and lighten the gradesnear the top of the ascentor to break the sustainedgradeby short intervals of lighter grade insteadof a uniforrn gradethat might be only slightly below the allowablemaxisustained mum. This is particularly applicableto low-design-speed roads and streets. 6. Where at-gradeintersections occur on roadwaysectionswith moderate to steepgrades,it is desirableto reducethe gradient through thc intersection. Such a profile change is beneficial for all vehicles making turns and serves to reduce the potential hazards.

General Design Controls It is difficult to discussthe combinationof horizontal alinementand profile are to without reference the broadersubjectof location.The subjects mutually interrelatedand what may be said about one generally is applicableto the other. It is assumedhere that the generallocation has been fixed and that the problem remainingis the specificdesignand harmonizingof the verticaland horizontal lines, such that the finished highway, road, or street will be an economical, pleasant, safefacility on which to travel.The physicalcontrolsor influences and that act singly or in combinationto determinethe type of alinementare the characterof roadway justified by the traffic, topography, and subsurfacecondiand likely futuredevelopments, locationof tions,existingculturaldevelopment, terniinals. Design speedis thought of when determining the generallocation, the greater but as design proceedsto more detailed alinement and profile it assumes and the speedchosenfor design acts to keep all elementsof design importance, suchas limiting valuesfor many elements determines Designspeed in balance. suchas width, many other elements and influences curvatureand sightdistance partsof this in and clearance, maximumgradient;all arediscussed thepreceding chapter. Proper combination of horizontal alinement and profile is obtained by of study and consideration the following generalcontrols: engineering Tangentalinement Curvatureand gradesshouldbe in proper balance. or long gradesand excessive of or flat curvatureat the expense steep cqyqtqtq with fli4 Clq4eq4r9 bq{ pogr {eslgqA logica! design that offers the most in safety,capacity,easeand uniformity of operation, within the practicallimits of terrainand area and pleasingapparance is traversed a compromisebetweenthe two extremes. or on superimposed horizontalcurvature, vice versa, 2. Verticalcurvature generallyresultsin a more pleasingfacility, but it shouldbe analyzed in changes profile not in combination for effect on traffic. Successive with horizontalcurvaturemay resultin a seriesof humpsvisible to the condition as previouslydisdriver for some distance,an undesirable cussed. The useof horizontaland vertical alinementsin combination, as however, may also result in certain undesirablearrangements, laterin this section. discussed J. Sharphorizontalcurvatureshouldnot be introducedat or nearthe top in crest vertical curve. This condition is undesirable of a pronounced that the driver cannot perceivethe horizontal changein alinement. go stra tnto especiallyat night whcn the is space.The difficulty of this arrangement avoidedif the horizontal curveis made i.e.. curyature. thehorizontal the curvature leads vertical
l .

7. Sagverticalcurves should avoided cutsunless be in adequate drainage canbeprovided.

I
I i

COMBINATION OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALINEMENT

General Considerations Horizontal and vertical alinementsare perrnanent designelementsfor which thorough study is wananted. It is extremely difficult and costly to corrcct alinementdeficienciesafter the highway is constructed. freewaystherearc On Tum us confrols sueh aT multilevel Strudllresand Costlyrighl-of-way.On most arterial streetsheavy developmenttakes place along the property lines, which makes it impracticalto change the alinementin the future. Thus, compromises the alinementdesignsmust be weighedcarefully,because in any initial savingsmay be more thanoffset by the economiclossto the public in thc form of accidents and delays. Horizontal and vertical alinementsshould not be designedindependently. They complementeachother,and poorly designedcombinations can spoil the good points and aggravate deficienciesof each. Horizontal alinementsnd the profile are among the more importantof the permanent designelementsof thc highway. Excellence their designand in the designof their combination in increase usefulness safety,encourage and uniform speed, and improve appear. ance.almostalwayswithoutadditional cost.

--

AASHTHeometic

Design of Hi,

of Elements Design

longer than the vertical curve. Suitable design can also be made bv using designvalueswell above the minimums for the designspeed. Somewhat allied to theabove,sharphorizontalcurvarure shoutdnot be introducedat or nearthe low point of a pronounced verticalcurve. sag Because the road ahead is foreshortened, any but flat horizontal curvature assumesan undesirable distorted appearance.Further. veparticularly of trucks, often are high at the bonom of hicular speeds, grades,and enatic operationmay result,especiallyat night. On two-lane roads and streetsthe need for safe passingsectionsrt frequentintervalsandfor an appreciable percentage ofthe lengthofthe roadway often supersedes general desirability for combination of the horizontal and vertical alinement. In thesecasesit is necessary work to
l::::::j: : .1

towardlongtangent passing sections secure to sufficient sighl in design. 6. Horizontalcurvature profile shouldbe madeasflat asfeasibl_e and f intersections wheresightdistance alongbothroads streets imporor is tantandvehicles mayhaveto slowor stop. 7. On divided highways streets, and variation widthof median the in and profiles horizontal use separate of and alinements should considercd be to derivedesignand operational advantage one-way of roadways. Where traffic justifies provisionof four lanes,a superiordesign without additional cost generallyresultsfrom the conceptand logical design basis one-way of roadways.
8. In residential areasthe alinementshould be designed minimizc to nuisancefactors to lhe neighborhood. Generally,a dgplesqed tqqlily makesa highway lessvisible andlessnoisy to adjacent residents. Minor horizontal adjustments can sometimebe made to increase buffcr the zone betweenthe highway and clustersof homes. The alinementshouldbe designed enhance to attractive scenicviewsof thenaturalandmanmade environment,suchasrivers,rock formations, parks, outstandingbuildings, and golf courses.The highway should head into rather than away from those views that are outstanding,it should fall toward thosefeaturesof interestat a low elevation.and it shouldrise toward thosefeatures bestseenfrom below or in silhoucttc againstthe sky.

9.

AlinementCoordinationin Design
natron

b cannot for orderof study all highways a Atthough specific be readily made. can mostfacilities be outlined. to procedure applicable a stated, general scale, arrangement and of use should workingdrawings asize, Thedesigner in both plan and of stretches highway so that he can studylong, continuous should Workingdrawings dimensions. the profileandvisualize wholein three jointly with theplan.A continuous with theprofileplotted beof a smallscale, in To for paperusuallyis suitable this purpose. assist this roll of plan-profile (PCs) computers for available personal therealsoare programs visualization in alinements vertical horizontal and to whichallowdesigners view proposed dimensions. three After study of the horizontalalinementand profile in prcliminaryform. jointly to obtainthedesired coordinaor in adjustments each, both,canbemade with line ealculations shouldnot be concerned the At this stage designer tion. largelyon thebasis be The otherthanknownmajorcontrols. studyshould made covered of The analysis. criteriaandelements design graphical computer or of a design be should keptin mind.Fortheselected preceding chapter in thisandthe and gradient,sight distance, valuesfor controllingcurvature, speedthe graphically orwith andchecked be should available length runoff superelevation duringtheprocess mayhaveto beadjusted speed Design aPCor CADD system. This of in to likely variations speeds operation. to sections conform alongsome are characteristics in changes alinement noticeable needmay occurwhere the In controls. addition, general or right-of-way terrain by necessitatedunusual vertical alinement, for separately horizontal as controls, enumerated design of All be should considered. aspects tenain, and alinement, theircombination, gry!the horizontaland tra!fic opgqalion, app!a4499can be congideled 4qd bifore thecostlyandiim--consumTng anO vertical iinesadjusted ioorAinited are plans large scale started. to of and calculations thepreparation construction of andprofilefromtheviewpoint atinement of Thecoordination horizontal working visuallyon theprcliminary can usually be accomplished appearance for developed been whichhave of or Oiawings with theassistance PCprograms productwhen resultin a satisfactory methods these Generally, suchpurposes. may of This designer. means analysis besupplemented done anexperienced Ly of wherc effect the projected a PCat locations by or bymoiels,skitches images with highways For of certain combinations line and gradearc questionable. to on transitions gutterlineprofilesneeds of gutters effects superclelevation the grades involved are whenflat significant This beexamined. canbeparticularly Slight shifts in profilesin rclationto and can resultin local depressions. the eliminate problem' can curves sometimes horizontal local caseof forthetypical mustbemodified proceduresobviously Theabove
foad Or StfeetdeSign aSC6mPafed Wttn A nlgner IyP nlgnway. I lls arrrr.rrrcrnur

shouldbeginwith preliminary design, uring which stage adjustmentscrn d

rcconstruction. for whether a newoneor for anexisting anylocalroador street,

AASHTMeometric

De

Elements Design

-s governed by the existing or likely future developments along it.'The crossroad streetintersectionand land-servicedriveway are ratherdominant or

Although theymustbefully considered, should override Controls. they nor the featuresdescribed above.Even for streetdesign,it is broaderdesirable desirable work out long,flowingalinement profilesections to and rather than of sections. a connected series block-bv-block of Some examples poorandgoodpractice illusuatedin FigureIII43. are

Trng.nt

Al Inannt

Llne ln Eunps Proflle Grade C. Dlstlnt Ylar Shonlng

llotr: A dlttlnt sldc vla of I long Errdc on trngcnt rlll rcvcrl cvcrY bum on lt.

A'l A. Proflle xlth Tangent Inemnt

lbtc: Avolddr3lgnlngllttlc locrl dfos ln rn otiarrls: qrrde. Thcseurullly rsult troi-rerl to long. un'lfonn overhrul. brlincc cut rnd flll .xlctly rnd rGducc Al I narcnt

/-

Prp?attad

, ,, ,, , ,, ,, , , iA r, r-

rr r, , r.r, trrr rr, r, rr rr., ,r'F,

', ,, t,, rrrrr, ,

Tvo Hor'lzontalCurves D. Short tlngent on t Crest Betneen

lr ibt!: thl3 co|.Oltutlon dcflclcnt fo! ho nr3on3' iii-i.nglnl uit,ecn thc cuncl l3 too lhort' rnd thc r.Ycrseoccu6 on r cra3t.

Pr.ofl'lc

8.

Profllc rlth Cune Allncnent

Flgurelll-43. Allnementand proflle relationshipsIn roadway deslgn.A and A (Ref.37,38,& 39).

ln Flgurelll-43. Allnementand protlle relationships roadway D (Ref.37, 38, & 39)' deslgn.C and

AASHTMeometric Designof Hi

sandS

Al I nercnt

E.

Shar? Angle Appearance

G . C o l n c l d l n gC u r v e sl n H o r l z o n t a l a n d V e r t l c a l D l n e n s l o n s
horltontll rnd vcrtlca] curvescolnclde' {otr: 'Jhcn r very srtlsfrctory lopcrrlncc ru3ults. Al f nc"nnt Al lnemnt

ilote: Thls con$lnrtjon Drt3rntg ! goor lpperrrnc?thc horlrontal curvc looks llke l shrry angle

Profl I e Llne of slght

H.

0gposlng Curves ln Horlzont.l

and Vertlcal

Dimnsions

Itote: lhen horlrontal rnd vert'lcrl curvesopposel ! very grtlsfrctory !ppe!!'!neeresvlt!.

P!rsoecttve

l{lnlnun curvcs for thc detlgn soecd Al I ndr.nt \ th3lrlbl! curyc for aosctrance/

--

F.

DlsJolnted'Effect

for Horlzontrl rlth Snrll Ccntral Apprcprlate F'lat Curvcs Regrrdless Prcflle. of Angles

llote: A dls,Jolnt.dcftect occurs;ian thc bcglnnlng of r horlrontrl curvc ls hlddcn lrofi thc drlycr by rn lntervcnlng crcst yhlle thc contlnultlon of the curv! ls vlslble tn thr dllttncr bcyond thc tntervcnlngcre3t.

rfutt mt nqulrad by llolc: vcr? lonq flat curYr3r aYGn thc dailgn tpccd, llro h.Ye t pler3lng lgpclrlnc! r|lln

Flgurelll-43. Allnement In and protllerelatlonshlps roadway deslgn.E and F(Ref.37,38,& 39).

Flgurelll-43. Allnementand profllerelatlonshlps rosdway In deslgn.G, H and t(Ref.37,38,& 39).

AASHTHeometric

Desi

of Elements Design

r
I

--

T---*rlrontrl Allturnt

_T_

-ctl
fil c!

Pr.ofllc

J. Colncldlng Yartlccs ln Horltontll rnd Ycrticrl Dlnnslons

iot!: Thc cl.'rlc casr of coordlnrtlon babrrcn horlrontrl rnd vGrtlcrl rllncnnt !n rillctr thc vertlclr of horlrontrl rnd vcrtlc.l curact colncldr. crcrtlnq r rlch e?frct of thrcr-dtt:rnitonrl S-cuncg, cqpord ol convcr Ind concrvc icl t xrs .

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F:

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CD o o E o tt o o

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tlorltont l Allrrnt

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K . C o l n c l d l n gV c r t l c c s r l t h S l n g l c - P h r s e k l p S
llotr: A lrgltlttst! cr3! of coor{lnrtlon: ona Dhtrr lr tkloDcd ln tic hor'lrontrl plrnc, but vrrtlc!3 rtlll colnclde. The long trnarnt ln olrn 'lr softerrd by vartlcrl curarturt.

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Coordlnitlon of Horlrcntrl rnd Yertlcrl

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I

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rhr nrtl,srl tdtl rr|l tot.r l' crr. oosdi8atlc Sttl rllsct Ir .tltt.d brl,l rdtl I Db.r. a.rlr.c! to L81r6Cd rliaaot vrstlcu ro tlr oolacldr rlth of l8ll.Cl-. f,ol^at| gfrad., lb. rrr8).ral3l|t1@ b tll'r cr.. 8aatt ocu8a 6 6l,la lld arga barr. aaml caoaa a.cCl6al b t.br firag craa, aug.8.l.vrEl,G, o6rat @, c8.rcr rnd aata, ttl'l. barr Fadaa Eoa|ll ctora aalloa.

3 CD
ll.

Flgurelll{3.

Allnementand proflle relatlonshlps rosdway In deslgn.J, K and t (Ref.37, 38, & 39).

D AAS HTO--Geometric esi

Elementsof Design

OTHER ELEMENTS AFFECTING GEOMETRIC

DESIGN

(
I I I
g

Inadditiontothedesignelementsdiscussedpreviously,thereareseveral Eachof these design. geometric by that elements affector are affected the to necssary show its relationto only to the extent is elements explained for Details completed thereby' anano* it, in tum' is affected design geometric herein' are design notcovered Drainage
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the forcarryingwateracross right-of-way provide facilities drainage Highway andforremovalor,to",n*ut"rfromtheroaditself.Thesefacilitiesinclude HydrauliC of types drains' guut"' andv-arious culvertr,.n-n"i,, bridges, to take into "u'U', designed and locationsof 'uch-'t'uctures shouldbe capacities of as and property to secure low a degree risk to damage uprti"u* consideration of theroad, with theimportance uy of trafficintenuption Rilding ai isconsistent and Federaland Stateregulations the designtraffic servic"-'ffi"*"nts' partof integral are considerarions an funds.while J*r""g. design available criteriaarenot included design i'rainage. O.tign,#tific highwaygeometric to be (40)should refened i*)y The herein. AASHTOHr}_- O'oinogeGuidelines Drainage and subjects theAASHTOModel oidrainage discusslon for a general of foiguidelineson majorareas highway u" Manual(41) should 'ete"eA'to design' hydraulic that manuals drainage highway have agencies excellent highway ManyState the Altem.atively' proceduresdesign for maybe used r.f.r.#lfo' hydraulic other In addition' Maiual (41)maybe-r-efere.n31d' AASHTOModelo'oin'o,g' from agencies to available highway andare (42) publications are**it used 'nffWn Service' Information Technical or theNational and crossings floodplainencroachments for requirements stream Hydraulic profile' The probableeffectsof a frequentlyaffect highwuyutin"t"nt and propertyandtherisk of flood to highwayencroachmen, n""O hazards bther is "i whena floodplainlocation under Jould beevaluated to clamage thehighway will periods retum of various for wrt"r ruiu"t elevations floods consideration. is profilewherean encroachment t decisions ;;;i"g the highway influence bY Highwaypiofites at streamcrossings. "l:i-T^-^letermined necessary. "it] and sreamcros'sings other To Practicable' considerations' theextenr hydraulic

*,1T":1:'",:l1i*ii: should plains on .n.ro..n*.n,, nooa highway and Srcam and no*oirrriuutiondirection. stabiliry ilffi: il;;ilil 't nnmnler cnnsiderations in
is Strrcrures{45) an at S"'o^ itabitiry Highway anO location aesign' highway the to analyze effects that reference maybe used exce'ent comprehenslve and

AASHTHeometric

Design of Highways and

Elementsof Design

i-.-----ehapter IV. inletsshould sodesigned located to limit thesprcad be Drainage and as 6fr
wateron traffic lanesto tolerablewidths. Because gratesmay become

ghway encroachment streams on and probablefuture activitiesof strcams affectencroaching highways. thatadversely Surface channels are used to intercept and remove surface runoff from They should have adequate roadways,whereverpracticable. capacity for thc runoff, and shouldbe properlylocatedand shaped. design Channelsareusually lined with vegetation, and rock or paved channel linings are used whcre vegetationwill not control erosion.Runoff from roadway surfacesnormalty drains down grassedslopesto roadsideor median channels.Curbs or diker. inlets,andchutesor flumesareusedwhererunoff from theroadwaywoulderodc fill slopes.Where storm drainsare necessary, curbs are usually provitled.Carc shouldbe exercisedto ensurethatthesecurbsdo not encroachon the clearzonc of the highway; refer to the horizontalclearance obstructions to discusion in

waterwithout interruptingtraffic flow or causing flow andsurface over-the-curb such runoff' To or a problem for vehicle occupants pedestrians' accommodate gutters are usually underground systems and numerous inlets, curbs' and length must be constructed required.often new outfall drains of considerable usuallylack capacityfor highway surface existingstorrnwatersystems because agency by volumis. A joint usestorrnwatersystem'shared thehighway drainage it to bothparties'because is normally can with others, haveeconomicadvantages two independent more economical to build a common system rather than systems. of waterthat falls on by Reductionof peak flows can be achieved rhe storage parking pipes' swalesand channels' storm drainage the site in detentionbasins, facility conveyance thedownstream to lots,androoftops'Stormwateris released should be consideredfor use in or stream ara rcduced flow rate. The concept highwaydrainagedesignwhereexistingdownstreamconveyancfacilitiesare drainage facilities. inio"quut" to rrLote peak flow rates from highway storm peak flow ratesand aggravate where the highway would contribute to increased reducethe construction downstreamflooding problems,and as a techniqueto Stormwaterdetention costsof outfalls from highway storm drainagefacilities. and Statewater quality io may also be neededin o=rder conform with Federal ,egulutions.Somestateshaveenvironmentalregulationsthatrequirespecific measures. pollution/erosion Thecostofdrainageisneitherincidentalnorminoronmostroads.Careful drainageand protectionof the highway for attentionto requirements adequate prove to be effective in of from floods in all phases locaiion and design will and costsin bothconstruction maintenance' reducing

by trash curb or accumulation, openings combination inletswith bothgrarc and

for curb openingsare advantageous urbanconditions.Grate inlets and depre+ sionsorcurb-opening inlets shouldbe locatedoutsidethe through-trafficlan6r. attempting avoid riding over them.lnlct to minimizethe shiftingof vehicles to gratesshould also be designedto accommodate bicycle and pedestrian trsffic Discontinuous whereappropriate. sections curbing,asat the goreof rampt, of and variablecurb offsetsshouldnot be usedasexpedients handlepavcmcnt to drainagewhere these featureswould detract from highway safety, Inlets and located preventsilt and debriscarriedin suspension to shouldbe designed on from being deposited the traveledway wherethe longitudinalgradientis 6e Extra inlets shoul<i installednear low points of sig vcitical Aecreased. curvesto takeany overflowfrom blockedinlets.Inletsshouldbe located thtt so flow and heavy sheetflow will not cross traffic lanes.Whcrc concentrated are roadwaysurfaces warped,asat crossstreets ramps,surfacewatershould or just befbre the changein cross slope.Also, inlets shouldbc be intercepted locatedjust upgradeof pedestriancrossings.Storm drains should have ad. equate capacity to avoid ponding of water on the roadway and bridgO, especially in sag vertical curves. The general eft'ect of drainageon tho geometricsof roadways.shoulder ditches, or gutters and side slopcs lr discussed further in ChapterIV. Drainageis usuallymoreditficult andcostly for urbanthanfor rural highweyr becauseof more rapid rates and larger volumes of runoff, costlier potcntld ofmot! damageto adjacentpropertyby fiooding, higher overall costsbecause greaterrestrictionsbecause urbandevcloF systems, inletsand underground of

Erosion Control and Landscape Development constructionand Erosion prevention is one of the major factors in design' maintenanceofhighways.Itshouldbeconsideredearlyinthelocationand into the design stages.Some degreeof erosion control can be incorporated the of in the crosssectionelements. course, most particularly g"oi.tri.i.rign, designand in the wnting iirect applicationof erosioncontrol occursin drainage and slopeplanting' for of specifications landscaping flat sideslopes' are Erosionandmaintenance minimized largelyby the useof channels drainage cut serrated slopes; rounded and blendedwith naturalterrain: depth, slopes' alinement' and protective designedwith due regard to width.

of controlin mind:prevention wirh and i"itts tocatJd spaced erosion "r?**, culven outlets: proPcr laslrrtrsJ rur tsrvet's eroslon at it
strategiclocations:and protectiveground coversand planting'

pedestrians. volumes tratfic. including of Thereis greater needto intcrccpl storrn water before it reaches concentrated the highway and lo rcmove

trap sediment at bcrms, and other protecti;e devices: sedimentation devices to

of Elements Design

Landscapedevelopment should be in keeping with the characterof the biglr ay and its environment.Programsinclude the following generalareasof improvement: (l) preservationof existing vegetation,(2) transplantingof (4) eiisiing vegetationwherefeasible,(3) plantingofnew vegetation, selective and material. ofnatural plant species clearingand thinning, and(5) regeneration ofnatural growth The objectivesin plantingor the retentionandpreservation they are to provide (l) vegetation are on roadsides closely related.In essence, that will aid in lowering and that will be an aid to aesthetics safety,(2) vegetation costs, and (3) vegetationthat createsinterest, constructionand maintenance of and satisfaction the traveling public. usefulness, beautyfor the pleasure and additional importancein Landscapingof urbanhighways and streetsassumes milgating the many nuisancesassociatedwith urban traffic. Landscaping can

areas. water supply, sewagetreatmentfacilities,and maintenance picnic areas, of give maximum weight to theappropriateness thesiterather ihe objectiveis to to than adherence constantdistanceor driving time betweensites. Facilities must be designed to accommodatethe needs of personswith disabilitiesand the elderlY. Further information conceming safety rest area design is presentedin for AASHTO's A Guide on Safety RestAreas the National Systemof Interstate and DefenseHighwaYs (47).

Lighting Lighting may improve the safetyof a highway or streetand the easeand comfort ofiperalion ttrereon.Statisticsindicate that the nighttime accidentrate is higher than that during daylight hours, which, to a large degree,may be attributed to where impaired visibility. There is evidence that in urban and suburbanareas, interferences, and roadsideintersectional of thereareconcentrations pedestrians Lighting of rural highwaysmay lighting tendsto reduceaccidents. fixed-source urban and but be desirable the needfor it is much lessthanon streets highwaysin isjustified is consensus thatlighting of ruralhighwaysseldom The general areas. railroad intersections, excepton certaincritical portions,such as interchanges, where narrow or long bridges,tunnels,sharpcurves,andareas gradecrossings, be ioadside interferenceis a factor. Most modem rural highways should of a designedwith an open crosssectionand horizontaland vertical alinement use fairty trign type, Agcordingly,they offer an opportunityfor nearmaximum ana iesuttantdiminishingjuStificationfor fixed highway treaorigtrti or vinicG lightingthroughout. or roadsideentrances, other On free*ays where there are no pedestrians, grade,andwhererights-of-wayarerelativelywide' thejustificaat intersections tion for lighting differs from that of noncontrolled streetsand highways' (48) was preparedto AASHTO'; An I nformational Guidefor RoadwayLighring of freeways,streets,and highwaysother than aid in the selectionof sections facilities, on which fixed-sourcelighting may be wananted. controlledaccess for designguidevatues theirillumination.This guidealsocontains andto prcsent a sectionon the lighting of tunnelsand underpasses' whether or not rural intersectionsat Sradeshould be lighted dependson the that normally do not tayout and the traffic volumes involved. Intersections unlighted'On theotherhand.intersecare requirechannelization frequentlyleft particularlymulti-roadlayoutsand those channelization, dons with substantial

and highways streets the to reciuce contribution uibanblightandmake urban this betterneighbors. control and landscape development erosion concerning Furtherinformation and Landscape Environ' in is presented AASHTO'sA GuideforTransporation mentalDesign(46).

Safety Rest Areas, Information Centers, and Scenic Overlooks and informationcenters, scenicoverlooksarefunctionaland Safetyrestareas, and are provided for the completehighway development elementsof desirable of the highway user.A safetyrestareais a roadside th saftyand convenience area, with parking facilities separatedfrom the roadway, provided for the motoristto stopand restfor shortperiods.The areamay providedrinking water, informationfacilities,andotherfacilities telephones, toilets.tablesand benches, for travelers.A safety rest area is not intendedto be used for social or civic gatheringsor for such active forms of recreationas boating, swimming, or organizedgames.An informationcenteris a mannedor unmannedfacility at a safety rest area for the purpose of providing informational services to the areaprovidedfor motoriststo park their motorist.A scenicoverlook is a roadside vehicles,beyond the shoulder.primarily for viewing the sceneryor for taking photographs safety.Scenicoverlooks neednot provide comfort and convein niencefacilities. and scenicoverlooks informationcenters, Site selectionfor safetyrestareas, and adaptabilityto shouldconsiderthe scenicquality of the area,accessibility,

'

water sourceof (61)' Site plans (60) and a meansto treat and/orproperlydispose sewage of process that site by should developed theuseof a comprehensive planning be buildings. parking forcars trucks, and areas the of include location ramps, should

little curvatures. of of Because thesharp intersections. channelized largJ-scale of andtheheadlights of range headlights. ,u.h int.rr..tionsis withinthelateral

MsHTMeometric

Design of Highways and

of Elements Design

vehicles are a hindrance rather than an aid becauseof the variety of

Thereis needto obtaina reduction the directions turningmovements. and in approaching someintersections. indication thisnecd The Speed vehicles of of from the intersection is beyond shouldbe definiteandvisibleat a distance that Illuminationof the intersection with fixed-source the rangeof headlights. lightingaccomplishes this.
At interchangesit also is desirable, and sometimes necessary,to providc fixed-source lighting. Drivers should be able to seenot only the road ahead,but also the entire turning roadway areato properly discern the pathsto be followed. They should also seeall other vehiclesthat may influencetheir own behavior. Without lighting there may be noticeable decreasein the usefulnessof the interchangeat night, when there would be more cars slowing down and moving

damageto adjacentbuildings. Becauseof lower speedsand parked vehicles, from striking fixed there is much lesschanceof injuries to vehicle occupants along the to poleson a streetascompared a highway.Polesshouldnot be erected to outsideof curveson rampswheretheyaremoresusceptible being struck.Poles located behind longitudinal barriers (installedfor other purposes)should be offset sufficiently to allow for deflection of the longitudinal barriers under impact. eitherin may be located lighting standards on a dividedhighwayor street, are the median or on the right. Where lighting standards locatedon the right, the light sourceis closerto the more heavily usedtraffic lanes.However, with median installation,the cost is generally lower and illumination is greateron lanes.On medianinstallations,dual-mastarmsshouldbe used, the high-speed which 12-to l5-m mounting heightsarefavored.Theseshouldbe protected for with a suitablelongitudinalbanier. On narrow medians,it is usuallypreferable so to place the lighting standards they are integral with the median barrier. considerfor lighting is beingconsidered futureinstallation, Wherehighway effbcted through design and installation of necessary able savings can be conduitsunder roadwaysand curbs as part of initial construction. with the type and Highway lighting on freeways is intimately associated the For full effectiveness two should be designed location of highway signs. jointly.

thanduringdaylighthours.Consideration uncertainty shouldbe givento lighting(or reflectorizing devices) parts makingvisibleat nightby roadway the that ofgradeseparation structures particularly should avoided motorists be by
such as curbs, piers, and abutments.The greater the volume of traffic, particularly tuming traffic, the more important the fixed-source lighting at interchangcs becomes.Illumination should also be consideredon those sectionsof major highways where there are tuming movements to and from roadside (ribbon) development. Floodlightingor highway lighting may be desirableat railroadgradecrossof suchtreatment ings whentherearenighttimemovements trains.In somecases operatedwith flashing signalsor gates,or both. may apply also to crossings lengthin Tunnelsnearlyalwaysare lighted and so are bridgesof substantial whetherthe cost of lighting long and suburbanareas.It is questionable urban

Utilities within the existing whetherupgraded improvements, All highway and staeet of generallyentail adjustment right-of-wayor entirelyon new right-ot'-way, little effecton the geometric have Althoughutilitiesgenerally utility facilities. shouldbe given to measures. designof the highway or street,full consideration reflecting sound engineeringprinciples and economic factors, necessaryto preserve and protectthe integrity and visual quality of the highway or street.its The costsof utility adjustments efficiency,and thesafetyof tralTic. maintenance typeandcomplexof because the largenumberof companies, vary considerably ity of the facility. and the degreeof involvementwith the improvement. on Depending the locationof a project,involved utilitiescould include ( I ) sanitarysewers:(2) water supply lines; (3) oil. gas, and petroleumproduct lines:(5) powerandcommunications (.1) and pipelines: overhead underground drainageand inigation lines: (6) heatingmains:and (7) specialtunnelsfor buildingconnections. utility installations.
.. - l,-I

is bridges ruralareas justifiedor desirable. in and the the lighting To minimize effectof glare to provide mosteconomical are at of uniformity installation luminaires mounted heights atleast m.Lighting 9 withhigher heights, in mostcases, mounting and mounting heights is improved preferable. High mastlighting, luminaires on special of l0 to l5 m areusually to highway areas as and masts 30 m, is used lightlarge of such interchanges rest a lightdistribution thewhole area and This furnishesuniform over areas. lighting guidance. However, alsohas disadvantagethatthe it a in mayprovide alinemcnt visualimpact light is increased thesurrounding to fromspurious community, (poles) whenever should placed standards be outside clear the zones Lighting practical. for The appropriate clearzonedimensions the variousfunctional will clearance obstructions to discusclassifications befoundin thehorizontal poles located withintheclearzoneregardless of are sionin Chapter Wherc IV. way, they shouldbe designed havea suitable to distances from the traveled ya particularly with poles should beused streets densely not in developed areas, on Whenstruck, poles with pedestrians cause and sidewalks. these couldinterfere

AASHTHeometric

Design of Highways and Steets

Elements Design of

Utitity lines should be locatedto minimize need for later adjustmenl to and accommodate futurehighwayor streetimprovements, to permitservicing to suchlineswith minimuminterference traffic. on shouldbe located uniformalinement nearls Longitudinalinstallation as practicable theright-of-way soasto provide safeenvironment traffic line a to for improvements othsf for operation preseflespace futurehighwayor street and or practicable, utilities alongfreeways utility installations. theextent To should bc the from outside controlled access constructed theycanbe serviced so lines. utility line crossings thehighway of feasible practicable, and To theextent normalto thehighwayalinement. Thoscutility shouldcrosson a line generally shouldbeencascd thatarmorelikely to requirefutureservicing withoutdisrupting traffic flow, .., the installedin tunnelsto permitservicing vertical location of utility lines within the highwry The horizontal and policiesapplicablc conformto theclearroadside right-of-waylimits should lF for and typeof highwayor street, specificconditions theparticulsr the system, publicshould a primeconsideration' be section involved. Safety thetraveling of and rights-of-way. on of in thelocation design utilityfacilities highway street and suchas of attachment utility facilitiesto highwaystructures, Sometimes Whereit is feasible and arrangement maybeauthorized. is bridges, a practical attachment bridge to structures to utilitylineselsewhere, andreasonable locate should avoided. be provision should to existing utilitylines, or Onnewinstallationsadjustments particularly of expansion the utility facilities, be madefor knownor planned to of those locaied untergiound attaahed bridgeS. and right-of-way or or highway street on, All utitityinstallations over, under for materials designed longservice-lifc should of durable be attached structures and or servicing maintenance, meet and relatively fromroutine free expectancy, or industry codes specifications. of the exceed requirements theapplicable of occupythe right-of-way ruralor Utilitiesthatare to crossor otherwise of to should conform therequirements AASHTO'sA Policyon urban freeways of the Accommodation Utilities WithinFreewayRight'of'Way(49).Thoscon should conformto AASHTO'rA and access highways streets non-controlled (501. IJtilitiesWithinHighwayRight-of-Way Guide Accommodating for Urban consideration tan areas. most mel ot for design thepotential joint ussgc to should givenin theinhialhighway be thc with the primaryfunctionof the right-of-way that would be consistent
highwayor street.

Appurtenances underground to installationS, suchas vents,drains,markers, and shutoffs,shouldbe locatedso as not to interferewith the safety manholes, or maintenance the highway or street,nor to be concealedby vegetation. of Preferablythey shouldbe locatednearthe right-of-way line. Wheretherearecurbedsections, utilitiesshouldbe located theborderareas in betweenthe curb and sidewalk,at least0.5 m behind the faceof the curb, and wherefeasible, behindthe sidewalk.For non-curbed urbansections. referto the clear zone discussions ChapterIV. in Existingdevelopment limited right-of-waywidthsmay preclude and locarion of someor all utility facilitiesoutsidetheroadwayof thestreet highway.Under or some conditions, it may be necessaryto reserve the area outside the roadway exclusively for the use of overheadlines with all others located under the roadway, and in someinstancesit may require location of all the facilities under the roadway.Location underthe roadway is an exceptionto the statedpolicy and as suchrequiresspecialconsideration and treatment. Accommodation these of facilitiesundertheroadwayshouldbe accomplished a mannerthatwill ensure in a minimum adverseeffect on traffic as a result of future utility service and maintenance activities. Publications,such as APWA-ASCE's Accommodationof Utility Plants Within the Rights-of-Way of Urban Streets and Highways (51, 52), furnish informationon accommodating utilities within urbanright-of-way.

Rural On newconstruction utility shouldbe situated no underany partof theroadway, exceptwhere it must crossthe highway. Normally, no polesshould be locatedin the medianof divided highways. Utility poles.vent standpipes, other above-ground and utility appurtenances that would constitutehazards errantvehiclesshouldnot be permittedwithin to the highway clear zone. The only exceptionspermitted would be where the appurtenance breakaway could be installedbehinda traffic barriererected is or to protecterrantvehiclesfrom someother hazard.The clearzonedimensionto be maintained a specificfunctionalclassification for will be found in ChapterIV and the AASHTO RoadsideDesign Guide (66\.

Signing and Marking gning marking directly and are related thedesign thehighway lo of orsreet
and are featuresof traffic control and operation that the designermust considerin the geometriclayout of sucha facility. The signingand marking

3t4

AASHTHeometric

Design of Hi,

Desi

3t5

should be designedconcurrentlywith the geometrics.The possibility of future operational problems can be reduced significantly if signing and marking are treatedas an integralpart of design.The extentof which signs and markings are useddependson the traffic volume, the type of facility, and the degreeof traffic control requiredfor safeand efficient operation.Arterial highwaysusuallyarenumbered routesof fairly high typeand haverelatively high traffic volumes.On such highways,signs and markingsare employed extensively. Local roads are low-type highways and usually have tow volumes and speeds.on thesefacilities the use of complex traffic control devicesis limited.

pavementcontrastof adjoininglanesfor certainconditionsmay be considered as anotherform of marking to guide and regulatedrivers' in Physicalobstructions or nearthe roadway should be removedin order provide the appropriateclear zone. Where removal is impractical' such to objects should be adequately marked by painting or by use of other high-visibility material.Where the object is in the direct line of traffic, the obstructionand marking thereonpreferably should be illuminated at night by floodlighting; where this is not feasible the object markings should be effectively refl ectorized lre delineators anothertype of marking deviceusedto guide Post-mounted traffic, particularly at night. Reflector units are installed at certain heights and spacingsto delineatethe roadway where alinement changesmay be confusing and not clearly defined. Refer to the MUTCD (E) for crireria, methods, and standardsof marking.

Althoughsafetyandefficiencyof ope rationdepend a considerablc ro degrc on the geometric designof the facility, the physicallayoutmust also bc supplemented effective signingas a meansof informing, waming; by controlling drivers. Signing plans coordinated with horizontaland
alinement, sight distanceobstructions,operational speedsand maneuvers,dd other applicableitems should be worked out before completionof design. . l Highway signsare of threegeneraltypes:regulatorysigns,usedto indicato the required method of traffic movement; warning signs used to indicate conditionsthat may be hazardous highway users;and guide signs, usedto to direct traffic alonga routeor towarda destination. Uniformity in the useof signs andothertraffic control devicesis themain objectiveof the standards contained in the MUTCD (8). Location, reflectorization, lightingof signsareimportant and considerations in signing. For detailsregardingdesign,location,and application signs. of reference shouldbe madeto the MUTCD (8). Because supportsfor highway signshave the potentialof being a hazardto motorists, signsshouldbe placed structures, on outside clearzone, behind the or traffic barriers requiredto shieldotherhazards. Ifthesemeasures not feasiblc, are the sign supports must be breakaway for overheadsign supports, or, shieldedby appropriate traffic barriers. The AASHTO Standard Specificationsfor Struc(53) turalSupportsforHighway Sig,ns,Luminaires,andTrafficSignals provides the requirements breakawaysign supports. for Markings and markers.like signs,have the function of controlling traffic to encourage safe and expeditiousoperation.Markings or markerseither supplcment the regulationsor warnings of traffic signs or serve independentlylo indicate cenainregulations hazardous or conditions. For highways and strccls thereare threegeneraltypesof markingsin use- pavementmarkings.object markings, and delineators. Pavementmarkingsor markersconsist of centerlinestripes,lane lines. no-pas$ng stflprng. may pavement markings,suchasapproach obstructions, to stop andcrosswalklincs. word andsymbolmarkings. andvarious Althoughessentially design elemcnt, a

Noise Barriers effect noisecan haveon peopleliving on, working In recognitionofthe adverse on, or otherwiseusing land adjacentto highways,noise barriersarebeing used on extent.Such noisebarriershave beenconstructed both new to an increasing and existinghighways. must be exercisedto ensurethat the constructionof Careful consideration noisebarrierswill not compromisethe safetyof the highway.Every effort these sholldbe made !a locale n9rqebirrriqrs 1oprovide the hor!1onql clearancesto in way established ChapterIV' It is outsidethe edge-of-traveled obstructions when be however,that sucha setbackmay sometimes impractical. recognized. with is this clearance not obtainable,the largestfeasiblewidth commensurate is shouldbe provided.Safe stoppingsight distance cost effectiveconsideration be should Therefore, horizontal clearances another important consideration. of Construction a barriershduldbeavoided sightdistances. foiadequate checked This locationif it would reducethe safestoppingsight distance' at the selected situationcould be particularlycritical where the location of the noisebarrieris along the insideof a curve.Some designsuse a concretesafetyshapeeither as an iniegral part of the noise barrier or as a separateroadsidebarrier betweenthe a edge of roadway and the noise banier. On non-tangentalinements separate barrier may obstruct sight distanceeven though the noise concreteroadside to it barrierdoesnot. In suchinstances may be necessary installmetalnther than Caremust sight distance' in order to retain adequate barriers concreteroadside

t'
ll

in be exercised the locationof noisebamcrsneargorc areas'

locationsshouldbeginor terminate.as the casemay be, at least60 m from the theoretical nose.

AASHTMeometic

Desi

Elementsof Design

her discussionon noise barriers,seethe sectionon noise control in

Chaprer IV.

Maintenance Traffic Through Construction of Areas mustbecarcfullyplanned Maintaining safeflow of trafficduringconstruction a andexecuted. to frequently will bc Althoughit is oftenbetter providedetours, it necessary maintain flow of trafficthrough construction Sometimes the the area. to lanesor shift lancs it will alsobe necessary encroach the through+raffic to on Whenthisis necessary, entirelyin orderthattheconstruction be undertaken. can plans,designs traflic it is essential in the development constnrction of that for
contr-l shouldproduceasminimal an effect on traffie operationsas is possiblcby minimizing the frequency or time of impediment to normal traffic flow. Thc partofthe overall projectdesign developmentoftraffic control plansis anessential and may affect the designof the facility itself. The traffic control plan depends on the nature and scope of the improvement,volumes of traffic, highway or street pattem, and capacitiesof availablehighways or streets.A well+hought-out and carefully developed plan for the movement of traffic through a work zone will contribute significantly to the safe and expeditious flow of traffic as well as the planshavesomebuilt-in It that safetyof theconstruction forces. is desirable these unforeseen changes work schedule, in delays, traffic or flexibility to accommodate panerns. The goal of any traffic control plan shouldbe to safelyroutevehicle,bicycle. worker access,and pedesLriaq Eaflic, insluding perssos with disabilities, with geometrics areas andtraffic control deviccs throughor aroundconstruction while to as nearlyas possiblecomparable thosefor normal operatingsituations, providing room for the contractor to work effectively. Adequate advancc for waming and sufficient followup information are needed. Standards the use and applicationof signs and other traffic control deviceswhen highway con. struction occurs are set forth in Part VI of the MUTCD (8). It cannot be emphasized stronglythattheprinciplesmustbe appliedanda plandeveloped too applicationin thc Thereis no standard for the particulartype of work performed. MUTCD (8) covering every kind of constructionactivity. Adequateadvancenotice must be given to drivers to preparethem for thc changed operating conditions in constructionareas.The distance that such signing should be locatedin advance constructionoperationsvary with thc of speedon the affectedfacility. Sizeof signsmay vary dependingon the ncedfor opcrations ilitv and emohasis the tvDeof hi or . Construction

configurationsare illustratedin the MUTCD (8) and should be used in developingtraffic control plans. The stoppingof traffic by a flagger or any other meansshouldbe avoided wherever possible.Designs that provide for constant movement around an and are less obstructionin the roadway,even if it is slow, are more acceptable initating to drivers than requiringthem to stop. When constructionoperationsarescheduledto take place adjacentto passing traffic, a clear zone should be called for in the traffic control plans,wherever possible,betweenthe work and the passingtraffic. Under certainconditions,a positive barrier is justified. capacity,travel distance,and Traffic operationcontrols foradetourare speed, The speed foradetourmay be lessthanthaton thefacility beingimproved safety. but should be high enough so as not to affect the capaciry. When an existing highway or street is used as a detour, higher volumes result and it may be necessaryto increasethe capacity of such a route in advance.The capacity is rerouting tuming movements, generallyincreased eliminating troublesome by a loading/unloading ban transit vehicles and trucks, adopting and enforcing during peak hours,eliminating or adjustingcertain transit stops,coordinating physicallywideningthetraveledway.An effective signaltiming, andsometimes capacity is by instituting a one-way detour meansof obtaining the necessary A system, coupledwith parkingrestrictions. detourplan is testedby comparing plan to thecalculated capacity to the traffic volumesexpected usethereananged of the detour system. shouldbe well lightedanddelineated. The roadwaynearfalseworkopenings Channelizatisnof traffie shquld be acggmplishe{by $e use of slgning on pavement and barricades. yieldingsupports, markings, often include geoConstructionareas,detours,and temporaryconnections that may require more cautionand metric featuresand roadwayenvironments of alertness than can normally be expected drivers.Care in the layout of these of and in the establishment areas, the useof delineationand warningdevices, in to is areas contractor for operations necessary minimize the impacton thesafety of both motoristsand workers.Items that should be consideredin developing traffic control plansinclude the following: l. Detour alinementand surfacethat will allow traffic to passsmoothly around the work zones.The surface of the traveled way, whether locatedwithin the constructionareaor on a detour, should be maintainedin a condition that will permit the safemovementof traffic at a

i t.
I
!

frcquentlycreatethe need for adjustments traffic patternsincluding in in shifting lanes. minimum of The taper length lanetransitions constructlon for by areascan be computed a formulafound in the MUTCD (8). Various

rcasonable tapeni needed are 2. Adequate

wherc dropsor at locations

must be shifted laterally.Appropriatevalues for taper lengthscan be found in Pan VI of the MUTCD (8).

Elements Desi

319

devices pavement and trafficcontrol markings complete Adequate for must including dayandnighteffectiveness beprovided, specification markingmaterials canberemoved that whentraffic lane of temporary pattems change. and justiillumination waminglightsshould used be wherc 4. Roadway lights used are todelineate acontinuoustravel fied.Steady burning path throughor arounda work zone.The very short"on" time of flashing motorists focuson thelight andmakea depth to lightsdoesnotenable is perception The estimate. useof flashers limitedto marking singlc a usingsteady the of burnlights, for hazard, marking start a section and usewith trafficcontrolsigns. drums,barriers, barricades, or 5 . The locationof cones,delineators, a! in meanS ofahanneliZinttraffic, shouldbe detailed thetrafficcontrol planswhen specialconditions exist or if not shownin the standard plans. requirements regarding 6. If not providedfor in the specifications, thc removalof signsand markingsfrom thejob site, whenthey ar no shouldbe notedon thetraffic controlplans. longerneeded,
1

visibility, pedestrian horizontal and vertical curvature with respectto signal to ensure the best possible signal and geometric schematics requirements, betweensignals)' of.rution (individual signalphasingand traffic coordination future signal needsshould also be In addition to initial installation,possible use are The designof traffic signal devicesand warrantsfor their evaluated. (8)' covered in Part lV of the MUTCD operationof signalizedintersecis Lane arrangement the key to successful shouldbe kept as for distances both vehiclesand pedestrians tions.The crossing beginningof thegreenphase the to shortaspossible reduce startuptime lostat the two from these The time saved time lostat theendof thephase. theclearance and periodsresultsinmoregreentimeforthroughtraffic.Therefore,thefirstStepin completeanalysisof of ihe development intersectiongeometricsshould be a and left-tum lanes current ani future traffic demand.the needto provide rightmovement of through to minimize the interferenceof turning traffic with the potential for obtaining any traffic should be evaluated conculrently with the with a numberof n"..rr"ry additionalright-of-way. Along a highway or street the intersections, locationswheretums will, or will not,be accommosignalized signal also be examined to ensure a good fit with two-way dated should out of large of Because the largevolume of traffic turning into and coordination. in and exits shouldbe designed a manner parkingareaentrances parkingareas, the operationof the affectedtraffic signals' it at *ilt simplify Therearesomecontrolsapplicabletosignalinstallationsthatmayinfluence in These are discussed the the design of intersectiontunA their approaches' MUTCD (8).

The contract specifications or traffic control plans should rcquinr, circumstances, removalof contractor the equipexceptin extenuating and shoulders night,on at medians, mentcompletelyoff theroadways, weekends,and whenever equipment is not in operation. In those instanceswhere such removal is not feasible, appropriatesigning, toprotectthemotorist baniers,andsimilardevices tighting,banicades,

fi from coliisionwith theequipmenr shouldbe speci ed,The on should never permitted roadways, be materials, however, hazardous near or medians, shoulders theflow of traffic. the of for or 8. A requirement controlling prohibiting parking employec's thc compromise areas theproject would that private vehicles those in on or in traffic should included theplans be and safety workers through of specifications.

REFERENCES
t l.

Signals trafficby and are that Trafficcontrolsignals devices controlvehicular pcdestrian for to variousmovements certainpretimcdor assigning right-of-way the in of Theyareoneof thekeyelemenn thefunctiot traffic-actuated intervals time. the thisrcason ruralintersections. For urban streets of some and with inrcgrated of foreachintersection a facility shouldbe signaloperation
design so as to achieveoptimum operationalefficiency. Careful considcration should be given in plan developmentto intersectionand accesslocationr.
.l

Times"' G. Johansson, and K. Rumar."Drivers'BrakeReaction ' 197l):23-27 No. l, (February Vol. HumanFactors, 13, of Report theMossachusetts of Institute Technology' Massachusetts Mass': Cambridge' andERAproject' Survey.CWA Accitlent Highu'ay 1935' of Institute Technology' Massachusetrs from HighSpeeds"' of O. Normann, K. "BrakingDistances Vehicles (1953): 421-136' Board) (Highway Research 22. HRB,Vol. Prot:. oJ Resistance-Measurements ' Skid T. Shelbume. E. andR. L' Sheppe No' 5'B' HighwayResearch Report Research Virginia Pavement'r. April 1948. Board, and "Roughness Skid Resistance . i. e. and J. W. Shupe.
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195 (August I ): I -37' Board) wayResearch

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Different Speeds."ASTM Special Technical Puhlication No. 326. (AmericanSocietyof Testingand Materials)(December1962,1:4249. AASHTO. Guidelinesfor Skid Resistant Pavement Design.Washingt o n ,D . C . : A A S H T O , 1 9 7 6 . 8. U. S. Department Transportation. of FederalHighway Administration. Manual on UniformTrffic Control Devices.Washington, C.: U. S. D. GovemmentPrinting Office, 1988. 9. King, G. F. and H. Lunenfeld."Developmentof InformationRequircments and TransmissionTechniquesfor Highway Users." NCHR|

Report 123(1971). McGee, H- W., W. Moore, B. G. Knapp, and J. (BioTechnology, Inc.).DecisionSightDistance HighwayDesipn for andTrffi c Conu'olRequireme U. S.Department Transportation, nts. of Federal Highway Administration, Govemment Printing Office,1978, 7o pp. I l . Robinson, H., D. J. Erickson, L. Thurston, R. L. Clarlt. G. G. and "VisualSearch Automobile by Drivers." Human Factors Vol. 14,No. 4, (August1972): 315-323. t 2 . Prisk, .W."Passing C Practices RuralHighways." on Proc.HRB,Yol, 21.(Highway (1941): Research Board) 366-378. lJ. Transportation Research Board.HighwayCapaciry Manual, Special Report 209.Washington, C.:Transportation D. Research Board, 1985, 1 4 . Boyd,N. W., A. C. Littleton, B. Pilkington, andR. E. Boenau. G. II Determinafion MotorVehicleEyeHeightfoi HighwavDesr3n. of U.S. Department Transportation, of Federal Highway Administration. Wash. ington, C.: U. S. Government D. Printing Office,1978. 1 5 . Motor VehicleManufacturcrs Association. Drit'er EyeHeightCom. parisonfor 1976 and 1978. MotorVehicle Manufacturers Association, Engineering Research Committee, HumanFactors Engineering Sub. committee. Unpublished reportfor AASHTO, 1978. (Ontario 1 6 . Bryar,P. R. andW. Mojasiak. Minisrryof Transportation and Communications). Highway Vertical Alignment.Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Ministryof Transportation Communications, and 1978. February l'l . Segar, E. and R. S. Brink. "Trendsof VehicleDimensions E. and Performance Characteristics 1960 from through1970." HighwayRe(Highway searchRecord420. (1972): Research Board) l-15. waySurfaces TheirRelation Highway and to BulletinNo./,20, Safety." Ames, Iowa:IowaEngineering Experimenr 1934. Sration.

Stonex, A. and C. M. Noble."CurveDesign K. andTests rhe on Pennsylvania Tumpike." Proc.HRB, Vol. 20. (Highway Research ( Board) I 940):429-45 l. 20. Moyer.R. A. andD. S. Ber'ry. "MarkingHighway wirh Safe Curves Speed Indications." Proc.HRB,Vot. 20. (Highway Research Board)'(1940):399128. zI. Barnett, "SafeSideFrictionFactors Superelevation J. and Design." Proc. HRB,Vol. 16.(Highway (1936): Research Board) 69-80. 22. Hajela, G.P.Compiler, Resume Tests Passenger on Winter of on Cars DrivingSurfaces,1939-1966. Chicago: National Safety Council, Committee WinterDrivingHazards, on 1968. 23. Shorrt.W. H. ':d PracticalMethod for Improvement Existing of RailroadCuryes."Proc. Institution of Civil Engineering,Vol. 76. London: Institution Civil Engineering, of 1909:97-208. 1A Bamett, I.Transition Curves Highways. Federal WorksAgency, for PublicRoads Administration. Washington, C.: U. S. Government D. Printing Office,1940. 25. Bureau PublicRoads (Federal of Highway Administration). Study of Speed Curvature Relations Pentagon of Road Netu,ork Ramps.lJnpublisheddata,Federal Works Agency,PublicRoadsAdministration. 1954. 26. Cysewski, R. "UrbanIntersectional Turning G. Right Movements." TrafficEngineering, 20,No. l, (October Vol. 1949):22-37. 27. George, E. "CharacteristicsLeft-Tuming L. of Passenger Vehicles." Proc'. HRB,Vol. 3l. (Flighrvay ( Reseaich Board) 1952): 374-385. 28. Walton. M. and E.Lee. "Speed Vehicles Grades."Researclr C. C. of on Report 20-lF. Austin:Center Highway for Research, University of Texas Austin, at August1975. 29. Wemer,A. Effect of Recreational Vehicles Highu,ayCapacitl,. on Calgary. Alberta:Department Civil Engineering, of Universityof Calgary. April 1974. 30, Taragin, "Effectof Length Grade Speed MotorVehicles." A. of on of Proc. HRB,Vol.25.(Highway (1945): Research Board) 3.12-35-1. 3 r . Willey.W. E. "Surveyof Uphill Speeds Truckson lvlounrain of Grades." Proc.HRB, Vol. 29. (Highway Research Board)(1949): 304-3 t0. Huff.T. S. and F. H. Scrivner. "Simplified Climbing-Lane Design Theoryand Road-Test Results." Bulletin /04. (HighwayResearch
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Schwender. C., O. K. Normann H. "New Ivlethod andJ. O. Granum. of CapacityDetermination Rural Roadsin Mountainous for Terrain." Bulletin/67. (Hirhway Research Board)(1957):l0-37.

Elements

Desi

J+.

35.

I __l',
37. 38. 39.
40.
AI Tl.

+2.

Revieu, VehicleWeightl of Hayhoe,G. F. and J. G. Grundmann. to LaneDesign RatioasRelated Passing Criteria.Final Horsepov,er prepared thePennsylvania Transportation Institute the by Report for Cooperative Board,National HighwayReResearch Transportation Park:Pennsylvania University, State University Program. search October1978. for of Criteria Operating J. Trucks Glennon, C. "An Evaluation Design Research Record 12.Texas 3 TransportaHrg on Safely Grades." hway (HighwayResearch TexasA&M University. Board) tion Institute, (1970):93-112. "Low CostMethods Improving for D. Harwood, W. andC. J. Hoban. Roads." ReportNo.FHWA-lP-87-2. on Traffig Operytions Two-Lane 1987. Highway Administration, Mclean, VA.: Federal W. Cron,F. W. "The Art of FiningtheHighwayto theLandscape." B. Snow,ed. TheHighwayand the Inndscape.New Brunswick,N. J.: Press, 1959. Rutgers University Man Made America: Chaosor Tunnard,C. and B. Pushkarev. 1963. Press, YaleUniversity New Haven: Control? I. E. Application of Human Factors in Highway Design, Leisch, June paperpresented AASHTO Region2 meeting, at Unpublished t975. Vols. l-l l. Washington, Drainage Guidelines. AASHTO.Highway 1993. D. C.:AASHTO, D. Manual.Washington, C.: AASHTO, AASHTO.ModelDrainage r 1 9 9. Se' Design Hydraulic Publications, Administration Highway Federal (HEC). S' Depart' U' Engineering Circulars and ries(HDS) Hydraulic from National Washington, C. Available D. mentof Transponation. (NTIS),5285 RoyalRoad, Spring' Port Service Information Technical (703) 487-4650: Telephone field,VA 22161. 1978.FHWA-EPD' HDS I . Hydroulicsof Bridge Waterways, 8 8 6 -l 0 l . N T I SP B 8 6 - 11 7 0 8 FIow,l96l. FHWA' HDS 3. DesignCharts Open'Channel for t79249 102.NTIS PB86EPD-86FHWA' Drainage Channels,1965. of HDS 4. Design Roadside l 103. EPD-86- NTISPB86-80288. FHWA'lP' 19S5. of Culverts, HDS5. HydraulicDesign Highway 19696 l. 65-r 5 NTIS PB86N T I SP B 8 6 - r 7 9 8 0 1 . FHWA-lP-89-0106' Revetments.l989. of HEC I I . Design Riprap NTtSPB89-2r8.124.

1984,FHWA-TSHEC 12.Drainageof HighwayPavements, I NTIS PB84-2 5003. 84-202. with Linings,1988, ofRoadside Channels Flexible HEC15.Design 122584. NTIS PB89FHWA-IP-87-7. on HEC 17. Designof Encroachments Flood PlainsUsingRisk 'l 2 F, A n a l y s i s , l 9 8 l H W AE P D - 8 6 - t 1 N,T I SP B 8 6 - 1 8 2 1 1 0 . 017, at I Scour Bridges,199 , FHWA-IP-9OHEC I 8. Evaluating NTrSPB9l-198739. 82954. NTIS FHWA-IP-84-15, PB85-l 1984, HEC19.Hydrology, HEC 20.Stream Stabilityat HighwayStructures,l99l,FHWANTIS PB9l- 198788. IP-90-014, 1993,FHWA-SASystems, HEC 21. Bridge Deck Drainage

t'

92-010. computersoftwareand related 43. FederalHighway Administration

from MCTRANS,512Weil Hall, Univerpublications available are No. (904)392FL326ll-2083. Phone sity of Florida,Gainesville, KS, 66045. Hall Lawrence, 201I Learned 0378 or PC-TRANS, No. 864-3199: Phone (913) WSPRO Research Model,1986. Analysis HY 7. BridgeWaterways WSPROUsers NTIS PB87-216107, FHWA-RD-86-108, Report. (Version I 88).1990, NTIS FHWA-IP-89-27, PB2I 8420' P60 Manual (Version 4.1), 1993.Research Analysis HY 8. FHWA Culvert FHWA(Version 1987. 8 Applications 1987 Guide, HY 1.0), Report 101. ED-87(HECs12, 14& l5), 1989. HY J B. HydraulicToolbo.r (Version 4.0), 1992. Design System HYDRAIN.Drainage Manual,1992. HYDRAIN sers U nt in ++. E.V. Richardson, etal. H i ghv'ays theRiverEnvi ronme : HydrauIi c' by Prepared the Civil DesignConsiderations. ond Environmental Research Center,Colorado Engineering Department, Engineering Federal of for State University the U. S. Department Transportationi PrintWashington, C.:U. S,Government D. Highway Administration. 1990. ing Office.February FHWAat Structures." Stability Highway 45. Lagasse. F.et.al.,"Stream P. 1991. Engineering CircularNo.20. February. Highwoy IP-90-014. ond Landscape Environmental 46. AASHTO.A Guide Transportation for Washington. C.: AASHTO,1991. D. Design. ,11 of Areas theNationalSystem Rest AASHTO.A Guideon Safery for Washington, C.: AASHTO' D. Highways. and Defense Interstate
AA

lt

1; lr

I' t

ll ti
t!

r968,
.18. AASHTO. An Informational Guidefor RoadwayLighring. Washington. D. C.: AASHTO. 1984.

tric Desi AAS HTO--G eome

s and Streets

of Elements Design

of AASHTO. A Policy on the Accommodation Utilities Within Free-

Jr' G. 6 r . Hughes, W., D. E. AverettandN. R. Francingues, (EnvironSystems for Treatment "Wastewater mentalEffectsLaboratory). U. No. FHWA-RD-77-1A7, S' DepartReport Areas." Rest Safety WashFederal HighwayAdministration. mentof Transportation. 1977. Printing Office,September D. ington, C.: U. S. Government (University Michigan of andL. Segal. MacAdam, C.,P.S.Fancher, C. "SideFriction Superelevation for Institute). Research Transportation U. No. Report FHWA-RD-86-024. S. Departon HorizontalCurves." SpringHighwayAdministration. Federal ment of Transportation, August1985. Informatior Service, Technical field,VA.: National Truck Speed Losson Gillespie,ThomasD. "Methodsfor Predicting Research Institute, prepared Transportation by FinalReport Grades." HighwayAdministration, the Universityof Michiganfor the Federal Oaober1986. of Ramps."Synthesis Highway Witheford, David K. "Truck Escape Program, Highway Research Practice 178. National Cooperative Washington, C., May 1992. D. Board. Research Transportation Ramps",Rec"Truck Escape Engineers. Institute Transportation of of D. Practice.Washington, C.: Institute Transportation ommended 1989. Engineers. Washington, C', : AASHTO' D. Design Guide. AASHTO.Roadside l 989.

50. 51.

52.

53.
54.

55. 56.

58.

59.

60.

D. Washington, C.:AASHTO,1989. wayRight-of-Way. Utilities Within High'n'ay AASHTO. A Guidefor Accommodating Washington, C.: AASHTO,1994. D. Right-of-Way. of Bert, K. E. et al. "Accommodation Utility PlantsWithin the Manual Improved and of of Rights-of-Way UrbanStreets Highways, American PublicWorks ASCEManualNo. 14. Chicago: Practice." Society Civil Engineers, of and Association, New York: American July 1974. of Bert, K. E., et al. "Accommodation Utility PlantsWithin the State-of-the-Arl." and Highways, of Rights-of-Way Urban Streets Public WorksAssoAmerican No.44. Chicago: Report APWASpecial July 1974. ciation, AASHTO. Standard Specifications for Structural Supportsfor , Signs,Luminaires,and Traffic Signals.Washington, Highway D. C.: AASHTO,1986. Alexander,G. J. and H. Lunenfeld.PositiveGuidancein Trafiic. Federal HighwayAdof Control.U. S. Department Transportation, PrintingOffice, C.: U. S. Govemment D. Washington, ministration. 1975. Multin, E. F. "The Part VisibilityCould Play in Road Design." l5-43. 1966): Vol.2, No.9, (September Researcft, Road Australian Washing' Bridges. Specifications Highway AASHTO. Standard for ton.D. C.: AASHTO,1983. "Passing Measulc' Weayer, D. and J. C. Glennon. G. ierformance Report/34-6. Collcgc Design." to mentsRelated Sight Distance TexasA&M Univer' Institute, Transportation Texas Texas: Station, sity, July1971. Institutc), Transportation Weaver, D. and D. L. Woods.(Texas G. No, Report Markings, Wanants," and "Passing No-Passing Signs, and High' Federal of S. FHWA-RD-77-|,U. Department Transportation, Printing Washington, C.: U. S. Govemment D. way Administration. 1978." Office, September NeartheEnds to W. Raymond, L., Jr. "Offsets SightObstructions ASCE'Vol. 42. No. l, Civit Engineering, Curves." of Horizontal 19'12:7l-72. January AreaWatcr Rest for Inc.). Folks, E. (Ultrasystems. "Manual Safety N. t FHWA'RD'77'l3,U.S.Departmentof ort Supply Systems."Rep No. D' Washington, C': Administration. Highwav Federal Transoortation. I PrintingOffice, September U. S. Covemment

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ChapterIV CROSS SECTIONELEMENTS

GENERAL To assure consistency presentation, useof roadwayandtraveledway in this in the Guide are as definedby AASHTO and as follows: Roadway: The portion of a higtlway, includingshoulders, vehicularuse. for A divided highway hastwo or more roadways.(SeeFiguresIV-3 and IV-6.) Traveled Way: The portion of the roadway for the movementof vehicles, ( exclusiveof shoulders. See FiguresIV-3 and IV-6.)

PAVEMENT Surface Type The selection pavement of typeis determined thevolumeandcomposition by of traffic, soil characteristics, weather, performanceof pavementsin the area, availability materials, of energyconservarion, initial cost and the overall the annualmaintenance servicelife cost.The structuraldesignof pavements and is not included thispolicy,but may be foundin the AASHTO Guitle Design in for of PavementStructure.r(26). Pavements may be consideredas three generaltypes-high, intermediate. andlow. High-volume pavements, trafficjustifieshigh-type whichhavesmoorh riding qualitiesand good skid-resistant propertiesin all weather.The surface shouldretainthequalitiesandcrosssectionandadequately supporttheexpected volume and weightsof vehicleswithout fatigue failure.so that non-routine maintenance and the resultantannoyanceto traffic operationsare kept to a minimum.Thosepavements classifiedasintermediate-type surfaces rangefrom surtacetreatments pavements to built to standards only slightly lessstrict than thosefor high-typepavements. Low-type surfacesrangefrbm surface-treated eanhroadsandstabilized to materials loosesurfaces suchasearth,shell,crushed stone, bankrun gravel,slag,and mine refuse. ability of a surtacelo rerain its -shape dimensions. abiliry to draih, rhe and the abilityto retain adequate resistance theeffecton driverbehavior. skid and Hightvp pavements reraintheir shapeand do nor ravelat the edgesif placedon a

AASHTHeometric

De

stablesubgrade. Their smoothness propercrossslopedesignenabte and drivers to steereasily and keep their vehiclesin proper paths. Ai the other extreme,low-type surfaceshave a tendencytoward raveling, which reducesthe effective width, and require greatersteeringeffort to maintain a correctpath.Looseand otherlow-type surfaces usedwheretraffic volume are is light. High-typesurfaces providefor highersafeoperatingspeeds thando low-typg surfaces. Although the choiceof designspeedis influencedto a degreeby thc type of surface, choiceis dependent othermore importantfactors.In most the on cases, is alsoprobablethat the surfacewill ultimatelybe improvedor replaced it with a higher type. A surface type should be provided commensuratewith the designspeedselected the highway. for

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Cross Slope Two-lane and wider undividedtraveledways on tangents on flat curveshave or a crown or high point in the middle and slope downward toward both edges. Straightcrossslopesmay be utilized.The downwardcrossslopemay be a plane or roundedsectionor a combinationof the two. With planecrossslopesthereis a crossslopebreakat the crown line and a uniform slopeon eachside.Rounded crosssections usuallyareparabolic, with a slightly roundedsurfaceat thecrown line and increasing 0rossslopetowardthe edgeof the traveledway. Because the rate ofcross slope is variable,the parabolicsectionis describedby thp crown height,i,e.,{rq yeqtjc4l {rgp fr-om centercqownlinq !o theedggof thetraveled the way. The advantage the roundedsectionlies in the fact that the crossslope of steepens toward the edgeof the traveledway, therebyfacilitatingdrainage. The disadvantages that roundedsections more difficult to construct. cross are are the slope of the outer lanesmay be excessive, and warping of pavementareasat intersections may be awkward or difficult to construct. On divided highwayseachone-waytraveledway may be crownedseparately, ason two-lanehighways,or it may havea unidirectionalslopeacrosstheentire width of the traveledway, which is almostalwaysdownward to the outeredge. Where freeze-thawconditionsare a problem, each traveled way of a dividcd highway should be crowned separately. A crosssectionwith eachroadwaycrowned separately, shown in Figurcr as IV- I A throughIV- I C. hasan advanrage rapidly drainingthe pavement during in rainstorms. addition,the differencebetweenhigh and low points in the cross In

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section keptto a minimum.Disadvantages thatmoreinletsandunderis are ground drainage ir lirrcsarerequired. treatment at-grade and intersections of
moredifficult because theseveral of high and low pointson thecrosssection.Usc of suchsections preferably shouldbe limitedro regions high raintallor whcrc of

AAS HTO--G eometr ic D esi

Cross SectionElements

important element in cross sectiondesign.Superelevation curves is deter. lll on mined by the speed-curvature relationships given in chapter III, but crossstope or crown on tangents on long-radiuscurvesis complicatedby two contradicor tory controls. A reasonablysteeplateral slope is desirableto minimize water pondingon uncurbedpavements with flat profile gradesasa resultof pavemenl imperfections unequalsettlement; steepcrossslopeis desirable curbed or a on pavements confine the flow of water to a narrow width of pavement to adjacent of lq,lthe curb. Steep cross slopes are undesirableon langentsbecirUse the tendencyof vehicles to drift toward the low edge of the traveled way. This drifting becomesa major concem in areaswhere snow and ice are common. Crossslopesup to 2 percentare barely perceptibleas far as eff'ecton vchicle steering concemed,but crossslopessteeper is than2 percent noticeablc.'lhe are latterrate requiresa conscious effort in steeringand increases susceptibility the to lateralskiddingwhen vehiclesbrakeon icy or wet pavements evenon dry and pavements when stopsare made under emergencyconditions. The prevalence high winds may significantlyaltertheef'fect crossslopc of of on steering. rolling or mountainous In terrainwith alternate cut-and-fillsectiont or in areas alternatelyforestedandcleared,any substantial crosswind produccs an intermittentimpact on a vehicle moving along the highway and affccts it* steering.In areaswhere suchconditionsare likely. it is desirableto avoid high ratesof crossslope.

nner,higherspeed lanes. Wherecurbed medians exist,drainage concentfrted is nextto or on thehigherspeed lanes. This concentration results theannoying in andhazardous splashing thewindshields opposing on of trafficwhenthemedian is narrow. The rate of crossslopeon curvesas well as on tangent alinement an ,.:: is

snow and ice are major factors.sectionshaving no curbsand a wide depressed medianare particularly well-suitedfor theseconditions. Roadways that slope in only one direction, as shown in Figures lv-lD throughIV- I G, aremore comfortableto driversbecause vehictes tendto shift in the samedirection as the long slope when changinglanes.Roadwayshaving a unidirectional slopemay drain away from or towardthe median.Drainage aw-ay from the median may effect a savings in drainage srructures and simplify ffeatmentof intersecting streets.Drainage toward the median has an advantage Over sections slopedto theouteredgesin thatouterlanes, which areusedby most traffic, are freer of surfacewater and there is economy in the drainagesystemin thatall surface runoff is collectedinto asingleconduitunderthemedian.A mrjor disadvantage this section is that all the pavementdrainagemust passover thc of

to slope.The two lanesadjacent thecrown line shouldbe pitchedat the increased pair of lanesor portion thereof normal minimum slope,and on eachsuccessive As to I prcent. shownin Figure by outward,the ratemay be increased about0.5 pavementwhile the right shows IV-IG, the left side showsa continuoussloped an increasedslope on the outer lane. highways on than2 percent high-type,high-speed Useofcrossslopessteeper drivers must In with a cenFalcrown line is not desirable. passingmaneuvers, cross and recrossthe crown line and negotiatea total rollover or cross-slope vehicle curve pathof travel of thepassing The reverse of change over 4 percent. a causes reversalin the directionof centrifugalforce, which is furtherexaggerated by the effect of the reversing cross slopes. Trucks with high body loads crossing the crown line are causedto sway from side to side when traveling at high speed,at which time conrrol is difficult, Figures IV-IA, IV-IB,IVJC arc examplesof roadway conditions where this situation would be encountered. In areasof intenserainfall, a somewhatsteepercross slope may be necessary to facilitate roadway drainage, even though undesirable from the operational may be point of view. In such areasthe cross slope on high-type pavements crown line crossoverof5 percent. with a conesponding to increased 2.5 percent, Where threeor more lanesare provided in eachdirection,the maximum cross crossslopeshouldbe Use of this increased slopeshouldbe limited to 4 percent. to the condition described;for the reasonscited in the preceding limited percentshouldbe takenas the maximum crossslopeon high-type discussion,2 pavements all other conditions.In locationsof maximum crossslope and for should be given to the use of grooving or open intenserainfall, consideration mixes. graded On roadwaysdesignedwiih roundedcrown seqtion,the rollover is not are roundedcrown sections sense, In generally objectionable. an operational traveledways.In a designandconstruction gooddesigns two-lanetangent for difficulty in warpingfrom a tangentsectionto a superelevated iense,theycause section.On traveledways of more than two lanes,the parabolicor circular crown should be used with caution. Any such rounded sectiondeterminedto have a desired slope across the center lane (or lanes) could result in an fouran For the slopeacross outerlanes. example, undivided steep undesirably so crown sectiondesigned that the lanehighway has a parabolicor circular With equal-width outeredgeof the inner laneis 35 mm below the centerline. lane.Lane widths of 3.6 m result lanesthereis a fall of 105mm acrossthe outer in an averagecrossstopeof 3 percenton the outer lane. Another approachfor rate. of crownsliesin thedetermination themaximumcrossfall usingparabolic the slopenerr This maximum rate is then usedas the control, thus decreasing centerol the roaoway. crown section on ln somecases mulrilane,non-dividedhighways,a rounded is usedfor the centraltwo lanes,with a plane sectionon the outer laneshaving

On high-type two-lane roadways. crowned thecenter. accepted of at rate the cross slope trom 1.5to 2 percent. rs Whenthree in ormorelanes inclined are
samedirection multilanehighways, on eachsuccessive of lanes ponion pair or thereof outward from the first two lanes from the crown linc may havc an

a crosssloperateof about I .5 to 2 percent. Heretheouterlanecrossslopeis made the sameor slightly steeper than that at the end of the curved section.

Skid Resistance Skidding accidents a major concernin highway safety.It is not sufficientto are attribute skidding accidentsmerely to "driver error" or "driving too fast for existingconditions."The roadwayshouldprovide a level of skid resistance that will accommodate brakingandsteeringmaneuvers the which can reasonably be expectedfor the particularsite. Research(15) has demonstrated that highway geometricsaffect skidding. Skid resistance shouldbe a considered elementof all new construction major and reconstntction. verticalandhorizontalalinements be designed reduce The can to skidding. Improvementsto the vertical and horizontal alinementsshould be considered a part of any reconstruction. as Pavement typesand texturesalso affect the skid resistance the roadway. of The four main causesof poor skid resistanceon wet pavernentsare rutting, polishing,bleeding, anddirty pavements. wateraccumulation Rutting causes in the wheel tracks.Polishingreducesand bleedingcovers the micro texture.In both cases,the harshsurfacefeaturesneededfor penetratingthe thin water film arediminished.Dirty pavements contaminared oil drippingsor layersof dust by or organic matter will lose their skid resistance. Measurestaken to correct or improve skid resistance should result in the following characteristics: high initial skid resistance; durability to retainskid resistance with time and traffic; and minimumdecrease skid resistance in with increasing speed. On roadways portlandcement,tining hasprovedto be effectivein reducing of the potential for hydroplaning.The use of surfacecoursesor overlays con.structed with polish=re.sistant coarseaggregate the most widespread is method for improving thd surfacetextureof bituminouspavements. Ove.rlays openof gradedasphalt friction courses quite effectivebecause are oftheir frictional and hydraulic properties. For further discussion, refer to the AASHTO Guidelines (13). Pavemenrs for Skid Resistunt

The crosssloperates discussed abovepertainlargelyto high-type surfaces. Withoutcurbs, qualifyfor minimumcross types these slopes tangents on because of theexcellent methods smoothness thefinished controloverconstruction and of surface. intermediate low rypes pavement, greater For and of a cross slope should beutilized. TableIV-l shows range values a of applicable each to of surfacc. rype RangeIn CrossSlopeRate (vo)

SurfaceType High Intermediate Low

1.5.2 1.5-3 2-6 ,i_

TablelV-1. Normalpavement cross slope.

On intermediate-type surfaces running speedmay approximatethat On the high-typepavements because the generallylower volumesand fewer trucks of and buses.A greatercross slope rate for intermediate-type surfacesis used of because the likelihood of lessercontrol in constructionprocedures and thc proneness settlement to and warping of the crosssection.On thesesurfaces, I longitudinalgrade will assistdrainagein the event of a "rutting" typc of settlement: otherwise crossslopegreater a thannormalshouldbe used. Because the natureof the surfacingmaterialsusedand surfaceincgulari' of ties, low-type surfacessuch as earth, gravel, or crushedstone require a still steeper crossslopeon tangents preventtheabsorption waterinto thesurfaCe. to of Crossslopesgreaterthan 2 percentmay be usedon thesetypes ofsurfaces.

Where with roadways designed outer are curbs, lowervalues theranget the in of cross slopes TableIV- l arequestionably because thelikelihood in low of of part a sheet water of overa substantial of thetraveled adjacent thccurb. way to Foranyrateof rainfallthewidthof traveled varies withthcptc way inundated points, longitu' ofcrossslope, ofgutter,frequency and roughness ofdischarge greater dinalgrade. cross carl A slope thanI percent desirable, in somc and is morethan 1.5percent needed limit inundation abouthalf of thc ou|or is to to for trafficlane. cross slope L5 percent suggested a practical minimum A of is as pavctncol|' curbedhigh-type pavement 2 percent intermediate-typc and for is cross slope. lieuof outercurbs, preferred ln a section treatment thcurc : cross
possiblc. of a straight shoulder slopeand the avoidance curbswhenever of

LANE WIDTHS No featureof a highway has a greaterinfluenceon the safety and comfon of driving thanthe width and conditionof the surface. There is obviousneedfor a smooth,skid-resistant. all-weathersurfaceon highways.Lane widths of 2.7 to 3.6 m are generallyused, with a 3.6 m lane predominanton most high-rypc highways.The extracost of 3.6 m abovethat for 3.0 m is offset to someextent maintenance to lessened due wheel concentrations the pavement at edges. The wider 3.6 m laneprovidesdesired clearances betweenlargecommercial vehicleson two-lane,two-way rural highways when high traffic volumes.

Cross Section Elements

335

panicularly high percentages commercialvehiclesare expeoed. The 3.6 m of shouldthen be siven full consideration. The capacityof a highway is affectedby the lanewidth. Narrow lanesforce drivers ro operatetheir vehiclescloser to eachother laterally than they woutd normally desire.Restricted clearances have much the sameeffect. In a capacity sensethe effective width of traveledway is reducedwhen adjacentobstnrctions suchas retainingwalls, bridge trusses headwalls, or and parkedcarsrestrictthe lateralclearance. The extentof thisreductionis shownin TableIV-2. In addition to the capacity effect, the resultanterratic operationhasin undesirableeffect on driver comfort and accidentrates.

Usable shoulder 3.6 m Lanes 3.3 m Lanes 3.0 m Lanes 2.7 m Lancs width or clearance to obstruction(m) Two Lane Roadwav 1.8 m t,2m 0.6m 0 100 92 8l 70

Capacityof Narrow Laneg with RestrictedLateral Clearance (Voof Capacityof 3.6 m Lanes)r

93
U) 75 65

84 77 68 58

70 65 57 49

lanesare used,it makeslittle differenceon which side Whereunequal-width (right)provides Locatingthewider laneon theoutside thewider laneis located. occupythat laneand allowsdriversto more spacefor largevehiclesthat usually from theright edge.Wherea curb is used keeptheir vehiclesat a greaterdistance to adjacent only oneedge,thewider laneis placedadjacent thatcurb.The basic to designdeterminationis the total roadway width and the placementof stripes actuallygovernsthe lane width. on Although lanewidthsof 3.6 m aredesirable both rural andurbanfacilities, the that therearecircumstances necessitate useof laneslessthan3.6 m wide. In urban areaswhere right-of-way and existing developmenibecomestringent Lanes3.0 m wide are acceptable controls,the useof 3.3 m lanesis acceptable. on m facilities.Lanes2.'7 wide are appropriate low-volume roads on low-speed in rural and residentialareas.Forfurther information; seeNe HRP Report 362' "Roadway Widths for Low Traffic Volume Roads" (l). In some instances,on multiple lane facilitiesin urbanareas,narrowerinside lanesmay be utilized to permit wider outsidelanesfor the usageof bicyclists.In this situation,3'0 m to 3.3 m lanesare common on inside laneswith 3.6 m to 3.9 m lanesutilized on outsidelanes. oftenhelpto facilitatetraffic and ar Auxiliary lanes intersections interchanges movements. Suchaddedlanesshouldbe as wide as the throughtraffic lanesbut not lessthan3.0 m. are a Whencontinuous two-wayleft-turnlanes provided, lanewidth of 3.0m the to 4.8 m provides optimumdesign.

Four Lane DirectionTravel-Obstruction Undivided-One One Sldeb 1.8 m t.2m 0.6m 0 100 98 95 88 95 94 92 85 89 88 86 80

SHOU'DERS General Characteristics A shoulderis the portion of the roadwaycontiguouswith the traveledway for accommodation stoppedvehicles,for emergencyuseand for lateralsupport of the In of subbase, base, and surfacecourses. somecases, shouldercan be made to be usablefor bicyclists.It variesin width from only 0.6 m or so on minor rural roads,where there is no surfacing or the surfacing is applied over the entire roadbed.to about 3.6 m on maior roads, where the entire shouldermay be stabilized paved. or The term "shoulder"is variouslyusedwith a modifying adjectiveto describe cenainfunctional physicalcharacteristics. or The following meaningsapply to the terms usedherein: I. from the edgeof the Thc "giaded" width of Shouldefis that maSUred of the shoulderslopeand the foreslope traveledway to the intersection planes shownin FigureIV'2A. as

77 76 75 70

' Unintemrpted level-of-service HighTypePavement. B, flow b Obstructions walls,bridgerrusses headwalls, includeretaining abutmcnu, or Polc* parked which rcstrictlateralclearance. carsor otherfeatures ' Source: Ref.4.

faOie lV-2.

ComOlneO effeci of lane wldth and rottrlctcd lelrnl clearanceon capaclty.c

337

2.

width thatcanbe usedwhen is width of shoulder theactual The "usable" is or an a drivermakes emergency parkingstop.where thesideslope l:4 width is the sameas the "graded" width sincethe flarter,the,.usable" or its breakwill not lessen g usualroundin | .2 to L8 m wide at the shoulder Figureslv-2B and IV-2C illustratethe usable width appreciably. useful shoulderwidth.

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shouldrr

either full or partial width to providea betterallmay be surfaced Shoulders weatherload supportthan that afforded by the native soils. Materialsusedto surface shouldersinclude gravel, shell, crushed rock, mineral or chemical additives, bituminous surface treatmentsand various forms of asphalticor concretepavements. e$setltially The shsulder on minor rural roads with low rraffic volume serye-s tateral support for the surfacing and as an additional width for the as structural todrive Itpermitsdriversmeetingorpassingothervehicles narrowtravetedway. without leaving the surfacing, thus making use on the very edgeof the roadway of the shoulderitself. Suchoperationis fitting only when meetingsand passing occur infrequently. Where there is appreciable traffic volume, roads with a give poor service,havea relatively narrow traveledway and nalrow shoulders frequentand costly maintenance. and require higher accidentexperience, on Well-designedand properly maintainedshouldersare necessary rural andon sometypes traffic, on freeways, volume of highwayswith an appreciable are of urbanhighways.Their more importantadvantages as follows: L 2. 3. 4. Space is provided for stopping free of the traffic lane becauseof difficulty, a flat tire; or other emergency' mechanical Spaceis provided for the occasionalmotorist who desiresto stop to consultroad maps,to rest,or for other reasons' or potentialaccidents reducetheir severity. Spaceis providedto escape ofadequatewidth contribofopennesscreatedby shoulders The sense utesmuch to driving easeand freedomfrom strain' therebyimproving safety. Sight distanceis improved in cut sections, of the enhance aesthetics the highway' Sometypesof shoulders Highway capacityis improved; uniform speedis encouraged'

5. 6. 7. S.SpaceisprovidedformaintenanceoperationssuchaSsnowremovaland storage. is 9. Lateral clearance provided for signsand guardrails' t0. storm water can be dischargedfarther from the traveled way, and to seepage adjacent thetraveledway canbeminimized.This may directly

and for is Space provided pedestrian bicycleuse.

FlgurelV-2. Gradedand usable3houldorc'

AAS HTO--G eometric D esi

Spaceis provided for bus stops. 14. Improved lateralplacement vehiclesand spacefor occasional of en' croachment vehiclesis provided. of For further information on other usesof shoulders, refer to NCHRp 2s4 {3). urban highwaysgenerallyhavecurbsarongtheouter lanes. stalledvehicte A duringpeakhoursdisturbstraffic flow in all lanesin thatdirectionwhentheouter lane servesthrough traffic. where on-streetparking is permitted,the parking Ianeprovidessomeof thesameservices parkinglanei listedabovefor shoulders. are discussed further in the section"On-streetParkins."

Width of Shoulders Desirably, vehicle a stopped theshoulder on should clearthepavement by edge at least m, preferably 0.6m.Thispreference redto theadoption 3.i) 0.3 by has of m as the normalshoulder width that shouldbe providedalonghigh-type facilities. difficult rerrain In andon low-volume highways, shoulders ihis or widthmay not be feasible. minimum A shoulder widthof 0.6 m shoutd bc considered the lowest-rype for highway, and a 1.8 to2.4 m width woultlbc preferable. Heavilytraveled high-speed and highways rhose and canyinglarge numbers trucks of should have usable shouldersleast m andpreferably at 3.0 3.6 m wide:however, widths greater 3.0m mayencourage than unauthorizecl as use q,lfqyqllane.Where bicyclists to be accommodated, are a minimumshoufulcr
width of 1.2 m should be utilized. Shoulderwidths for specificclasscs of highways are enumeratedas parts of the totar cross sections discussedin followingchapters. where roadsidebarriers,walls, or other vertical elementsare use<!. is it desirable havea gradedshoulderwide enoughthat rhese to verticalelements can be offset a minimum of 0.6 m from the outer edgeof the usableshouldcr. It may be necessary provide a gradedshoulderwider than usedelsewhcrcto to provide lateral support for guardrail posts and/or clear space for latcral dynamic deflection required by the particular barrier in use.on tow-volurnc roads, roadside barriers may be placed at the outer edge of the shouldcn however, minimum of 1.2m shouldbe providedfiom the rraveted a way to thc barrier. Although it is desirablethat a shoulderbe wide enoughfor a vehicrero bc driven completelyoff the traveledway, narrowershoulders betterthannonc are

sometimes where shoulders unduly used full are costly, on longbridges in as or mountainous terrain. Regardless thewidth,a shouldershould continuous. full benefits of be The of a shoulder not available are unless thereis space where drivercanleave a the way traveled atanypoint. Witha conrinuous shoulder, almost drivenmaking all emergency will leave traveled stops way;but with intermittent the sections of shoulder, some drivers find it necessary stoponthetraveled will to way,creating a hazardous condition. Eventhoughshoulders shouldbe continuous, nzurow shoulders intermittent and shoulders superior no shoulders, continuous are to A paved provides areafor bicyclists operate shoulder an to withoutobstructing faster movingmotorvehicletraffic.For thedifferentconditions majorstreets of andgouqd-lgvqlpq$wqys,pqkllqgbaysw{t ploride usefulof{laneslopping spacewhere a continuous shoulderis not feasible.Intermittentshoulden, mentioned above, discussed are later, Shoulders structures on shouldnormallyhavethesamewidth astheusable shoulders the approach on roadways, both right and left. As previouslydiscussed, narrowing lossof shoulders, the or especially structures, cause on may seriousopratingand safety problems.Long, high-coststructures usually warrant detailed special studies determine to feasible dimensions. Reduced widthshoulders beconsidered rarecases. discussion these may in A of conditionsis provided Chapters andX. in VII

Shoulder Cross Sections Shoulders importantlinks in the lateraldrainagesystems. are Shoulders should be flush with theroadwaysurface andabuttheedgeof thetravellane.On divided highwayswith a depressed median,all shoulders shouldbe slopedto drainaway from the traveledway. With a raisednarrow median,the medianshoulders may slopein thesamedirectionasthe traveledway, but in regionsof heavysnowfall, median shoulders should be sloped to drain away from the traveled way. AII shoulders shouldbe slopedsufficiently to rapidly drain surfacewaterbut not to the extentthat vehicularuse would be restricted.Because type of shoulder the constnlctionhas a bearingon the cross slope, the two should be determined jointly. Bituminousandconcrete-surfaced shoulders shouldbe slopcdfrom 2 to 6 percent, gravel or crushed-rock shoulders from 4 to 6 percent. and turf shoulders about8 percent. Wherecurbsareusedon theoutsideof shoulders, the crossslopeshouldbeappropriately wirh thedrainage designed system prevent to

anemergency candriveontotheshouldcr stop to

occupyonly 0.3 to 1.2m of a traveledway of adequate width. the remaining traveled way width can be used by passing vehicles. Partial shouldersare

Rigid adherence the slope rar-s ourlined presents rinor traffic to a operation problem whenapplied wirhoutregard thecross to section the of pavedsurface. tangent long-radius On or curvedalinement with normal

AASHTMeometric

Cross Section Elements

'3A-Aliernafe); stormwaterand Wlierethis is not desirable becausgof a might bc uscdin snowor ice drainingover the pavedsurface, compromise surface limitedto approximatcly is of whichthegrade break theedge thepaved at of the on IV-38). by 8 percent flattening shoulder theoutside thecurve(Figurc a of One means avoidingtoo severe gradebreakis the useof a continuously traveled of way crosssection theoutside superelevated on rounded shoulder continuing section fromthc (Figure in is IV-3C).Theshoulder thiscase aconvex grade at ofshoulder ofa break theintersection slope superelevation instead sharp waterwill drainuponthe In some surface way andtraveled slope. thismethod, to isbalanced thebenefits thevehicles that by way,butt\is disadvantage traveled It alsobe be or may accidentally purposely drivenupontheshoulder. should present difficultythando planar moreconstruction shoulders noted convex that consists a plannr ol to thq qonvexsboulder sections, alternalo meJhod An On of slope. thehighside multiple breaks thecross in having shoulder section less crossslopessubstantially than those shoulder section, a superelevated there no is stability; to are previously givengenerally notdetrimental shoulder and,thereforc. way waterfrom thetraveled to theshoulder discharge storm of erosion damage. of little likelihood shoulder cdgc at with are shoulders designed a curbor gutter theouter In some areas, roadwly fortheentire Drainage shoulderarea. toconfine runoffto thesurfaced T'hc outlets. to is handled thesecurbs,with the runoff directed selected by longitudinel as the is shoulder necessarily surfaced, outerportionserving the except thattheslopemaybc indicated, gutter. slopes aspreviously are Cross is on increased somewhat the outerportion.This type of shoulder advante' doesnot determotorisB of geous thatthecurbon theoutside theshoulder in in as serves a gutter keeping and fromdrivingoff thetrafficlanes, theshoulder
the storm water off the traveledlanes.In fact, unlesscarefull

crown and turf shoulders,the maximum shoulderslope producesan algebraic differencein the traveledway and shouldergradesof 6 to 7 percent. Although this is not desirable,it is tolerabledue to the benefitsgained in pavernent stability by avoiding storm water detentionat the pavement edge. on thatdrainaway from thepavedsurface theoutside wellShoulderslopes of to shouldbe designed avoid too greata crossslopebrcak. sections superelevated For example,useof a4 percentshouldercrossslopein a sectionwith a traveled resultsin a l2-percentalgebraic differcncein tlrc way superelevation 8 percent of grades thehigh edge-of-traveled way. Gradebreaks at traveledway andshoulder and shouldnot b permitted(Figure IV-3A). For of this order are not desirable desirableopration, all or part of the shoulder should be sloped upward at about traveled way (Figurc lV. the samerate or at a lesserrate than the superelevated

frovctea Wo\

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HTA--C eome AAS tric D esi g n of H i ghwa

and

Cross Section Elements

Shoulder Stability
If shouldersareto function effectively, they must be sufficiently stableto support oeeasionalvehicle loads in all kinds of weather without runing. Evidence of rutting, skidding, or vehiclesmired down, evenfor a brief seasonal periodonly, is sufficient to discourageand to preventthe shoulderfrom being usedas intendcd All rypes of shouldersshould be constructedand maintained flush with rhc rraveledway pavementif they are to fulfill their intendedfunction. Unstabilizcd shouldersgenerally undergo consolidation with time and the elevation of thc shoulderat the faveled way edge tends to becomelower than the traveledway. Regular mainrcnance necessary provide a flush.shoulder.The dropoff carr is to advenely affect driver control when driving onto the ihoulder at any appreciablc

Experience heavy-volumefacilities showsthat, on occasion,traffic will on use smooth-surfaced shouldersas through traffic lanes.On moderate-to-steep gradestrucksmay pull to the right and encroachupon the shoulder. Obviously, the elimination of the surfacedshoulderis not the answerbecause is the high it volume and type of traffic that in part provide the warrant for a high-type shoulder.

Shoulder Contrast It is desirable that the color and textureof shoulders different from thoseof be the through-trafficlanes.This contrast servesto clearly define the throughtraffrc lanesarall times;parrieularly atnightand during inclement weather;while discouraging the use of shoulders as additional through lanes. Bituminous, crushed stone,gravel, andturf shouldenall offerexcellentcontrastwithconcrete pavements. Satisfactory contrastwith bituminouspavements moredifficult to is achieve. Varioustypesof stoneaggregates turf offer gqod contrast. and Several states haveattempted achievecontrastby seal-coating to with lighter shoulders color stonechips. Unfortunately,the color distinction may diminish in a few years. The useof edgelinesasdescribed the MUTCD (2) reduces needfor in the shoulder contrast. Edgelinesshouldbe appliedwhereshoulder by bicycles use is expected. Somestates haveprovideddepressed rumble stripsto the shoulder to providean audiblealert to the motoriststhat they havecrossed over onto the shoulder. This is particularly effectiveat night and during inclement weather. However,caremust be usedif the shoulders to be usedby bicyclists. are

In addition; thereis lossoftheoperational advantage driven staying of clorc whenthereis not visible assuance a flush stablo to theedgeof the pavement of shoulder. Paved stabilized shoulders offer numerous or advantages. They provide(ij (2) areafor vehicles pull ontoduringemergency to situations, elimination of ruttinganddropoffadjacent theedgeof travellane,(3) adequate to cross slope (4) for drainage roadway, reduced maintenance, (5) lateralsupport of and for roadwav course. base andsurface
with turf growth may be appropriate, Shoulders underfavorableclimatic and soil conditions, for local roads and some collectors.Where climate and soil conditionspermit,turf growth may be developed conjunctionwith compacted in granularmaterialthat is suitablystablefor occasional use,even in wet weather. Turf shoulders subjectto a buildup which may inhibit properdrainage the are of crossslopeis provided.When wet, the turf may bc traveledway unlessadequate slippery unlessclosely mowed and on granularsoil. Turf shoulders offer gootl traveledway delineationand do not invite use as a traffic lane. Stabilizedturf shouldersrequirelittle maintenance other than mowing. Because shoulders, travelingpublic is wary ofexperienceon unstabilized the of driving on them. Experienceon high-volume highways, such as suburbm

Intermittent Shouldersor Turnouts It will not alwaysbe economically feasible providedesirably to wide shoulders continuouslyalong the highway throughdeeprock cuts or whereother conditionslimit thecross section width. In suchcases, consideration shouldbe given to useof intermittent sections shoulder turnouts of or alongthe highway.Such turnoutsprovide an area fbr emergencystops and also allow slower moving vehicles pull out of the throughlaneto permitfollowingvehicles pass. to to Proper design turnouts of should consider turnoutlength. including entryand exit tapers. tumoutwidthandthelocation thetumoutwith respect horizontal of to andvertical whichlimit sightdistance. curves Tumoutsshould located thar so be approaching drivers will have a clear view of the entire turnoutin order to expected. turnouts thedownhillsideshouldbe paved bicyclists on so may move asideto let tastertraffic oass.

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expressways, ledto replacement unstabilized of with formof -r has shoulder some a stabilized surfaced shoulder. or In some are areas, mainruralhighways built with surfacing overthewholc width,including Depending may shoulders. upontheconditions, surfacing this be from about8.4 to 13.2m wide for two-lane roads. This typeof trcatrncnt .i protects and shoulders from erosion alsoprotects subgrade the from moistur penetration. the thereby enhancing strength durabilityof the pavemcnt. and Where widthis made contrast. in some feasible. actual shoulder cascs the to but
Ulete [s nO tndlcatDn-ot me e0$:ot:tt&Vled way- Sucn deslgn oOvloUily providesa desiredcontinuous shoulder, evenifits separate width is not apparcnt. Edgestripesare generallyusedto delineatethe edgeof the traveledway.

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AASHTO-4eometic

Design of Hi,

Cross SectionElements

IIORIZONTAL CLEARANCE TO OBSTRUCTIONS Theterm"clearzone"is usedto designate unobstrucred, the relativelyflat area provided wayfor therccovery enantvehicles. beyond edge thetraveled the of of The uaveledway doesnot includeshoulders auxiliarylanes. or The width of theclearzoneis influenced the traffic volume,speed by ard embankment ds slopes. AASHTORaa ideDesign Guide(12\ discusscs The ctear zonewidthsasrelated speed, volumeandembankment to slop. Guidemay The beused areference determination clearzonefor freeways, as for of ruralarteriale andhigh-speed collectors. low-speed rural For ruralcollectors rurallocal and roads, minimumclearzonewidth of 3.0 m shouldbe provided. a For urban arterials, collectors localstreets and where curbsareutilizedspscc zones generally is rcstricted: minirnum A distance 500mm should of ttcprovidedbeyondthe faceof the curb, with wider clearzones providecl Whdrl"possible. Whereshoulders provided are rather thancurbs, clearzo[c corrmGn. a with rural conditions surate shouldbe provided.

CURBS GeneralConsiderations
The type and locationof curbsaffectsdriver behaviorand,in tum, the safetyand utility of a highway.Curbs serveany or all of the following purposes: drainage control, roadwayedgedelineation,right-of-way reduction,aestherics, delinea. tion of pedestrian walkways, reductionof maintenance operations, and a.rsis.

tancein orderlyroadside development. be consideredcurb,someraised To a aspect vertical element required. is or Curbs used are extensively all types urban on of highways. ruralhighwayl, On in In curbc caution should exercised theuseof curbs. theinterest safety, be of whenthesame should omitted ruralhighways be on by objective bcattsined can means. theintermediate design 70 otheracceptable For speed range, between 80 km/h, the conditions the roadwayshouldcontrol.If the locotionlr of rt predominantly urban, curbmaybc acccptablc urban rapidlydeveloping or a predomi. theintermediate speed. theother On hand, typically ruralconditions if prevail. nate, high-speed the design controls should

Typesof Curbs andcrh curbs Thetwogeneral classes curbs barriercurbs mountable of are and unil as types detaildesigns. and hasnumerous Eachmaybedesigned I scpcnrc

with thepavement. or integrally Barrierandmountable curbdesigns mayinclude a gutterto form a combinationcurb and gutter section. Barrier curbs are relatively high and steep-faced, designedto discourage vehiclesfrom leavingthe roadway.As shown in FigureIV-4A, they rangefrom 150to225mm in height.A slopingfaceis desirable, burgenerally facebaner the doesnor exceedabout 25 mm per 75 mm of height.The uppei co*.r rn"y b" roundedon a radiusfrom 10 mm to 25 mm. In general,barriercurbsare not desirable useon freewaysor other highfor speed roadways. out-of-controlvehiclemay overturnor becomeairborneas An a result of impactinga curb. Curbs are not adequate preventa vehicle from to leaving the roadway where positive action is required, a suitable traffic barrier should be provided. Curbs are not suitable for use in front of traffic barrien postimpacr rrajectories.If a curb miist bcause they can result in urrpredicrable be used,it shouldideally be locatedflush with the face of the railing or behind it. At speeds 60 km/h or below, a vehicle is not likely to vault, regardless of of the barrier location with respectto the curb. If the banier is locatedlaterally within 225 mm from the face of the curb, a rub rail or a rail with a deeperrail elementshouldbeconsidered. Anotheraltemativeis to construct barrierwith the the top heightmeasured from the pavedsurfacejustin front ofthe curb, rather thanfrom the top of the curb. Furtherdiscussion curb usage includedin the of is AASHTO RoadsideDesign Guide (12). Barriercurbsandsafetywalks may be desirable alongthe facesof long walls and tunnels,particularlyif full shouldersare not provided.The curb tendsto discourage vehiclesfrom driving close to the wall, and thus the safetywalk reduces dqnger!o personswalking from disabledvehisles, the Mountable curbsaredesigned that vehicles so cancrossthemreadilywhen required. shownin FiguresIV-48 to IV-4G, they are low with flat sloping As faces. The curbsshownin FiguresIV-48. IV-4C, andIV-4D areconsidered to be mountableunderemergencyconditions.Although mountableunderemergencyconditions,thesecurbs will drag the undersides somevehicles.When of the face slope is steeper than l:l and a mountablecurb is desired.the height shouldbe limited to 100mm maximum, preferablyless.When the taceslopeis intermediate between I and l:2, theheightshouldbe limitedto about150mm. l: For easein crossing. mountablecurbs should be well roundedas in Figure IV.lB to IV--|G. Somehighway agencies constructa verticalsectionon the lower face(FiguresIV-4C, IV-4D, and IV-4F) asan allowancefor-future resurfacing. This vertical portion should not exceed 50 mm. and where rhe toral height cxceeds 150mm it might not be considered mountable a curb. Extruded curbs either of ic concrete bcinebuilt oortland cement or are

in many slates. Extruded faees eurbs usually have sJoping because provide they bctter initialstability, easier construct. aremore are to and economical steep than faces. Typical extruded designs shown Figures are in lV-4C,IV-.18. IV-4G. and

AASHTHeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Cross Section Elements

t portland cement concrete curbs are installed by some highway agencies. Granite curbs are usedwhere the local supply makesit competitive. Bedauseof its durability, granite is preferredover portland cementconcrcte wheredeicing chemicalsare usedfor snow and ice removal. Mountablecurbscanbe usedat medianedgesto outline channelizing islands in intersection areasor sometimes the outer edgeof the shoulder.Any of the at mountablesectionsin Figure IV-4 might be used for a median curb. Wherc drainagecurbsare usedin conjunctionwith metal medianbarriers, they should be installeddirectly underor behind the barrier.Drainagecurbs shouldnot be usedwith concretemedianbarriers.Improperly placedcurbs may causeerrant vehiclesto vault a barrieror to strike it so that the vehicle overtums.When it is

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expectedthat bicyclistswill usethe roadway,sufficientwidth from the faceof the curb shouldbe providedfor the bicyclist to be ableto avoid conflict with the motorist and to be able to shy away from the curb. Shoulder curbs are mountablecurbs placed at the outer edge of the shoulder and reduceerosion.They may be part.. improvedelineadon, to control drainage, All systembeing combinedwith a guttersection. of of the longitudinaldrainage the mountable sectionsare applicable for this use.If the surfacedshouldersare to not wide enoughfor a vehicleto park,the shouldercurb mustappear be easily motorists to park clear of the way. Curbs adjacentto the mountableto encourage shoulderutilized in conjunctionwith bicyclist pathsshouldbe locateda minimum of 0.6 m from the wheelpath so :ts to not snag the pedalson the bicycle. Gutter sections may be provided on the traveled way side of a barrier or mountable curbto form the principatdrainage system for the roadway'Inlets are provided in the gutter or the curb, or both. Gutters are generally 0.3 to 1.8 m in width, with a cross slope of 5 to 8 percent to increasethe hydraulic capacity of the guttersection.In general,the 5 to 8 percentslopeshouldbe confinedto the 0.6 to 0.9 m adjacentto rhe curb. shallow dishedgutterswithout a curb have small flow capacityand have limited value for drainage.Generally,it is not to practicalto designguttersections containall of the runoff evenfrom frequent The spread water of someoverflow onto the surfacecan be expected. rains,and of way is kept within tolerablelimits by thepropersizeandspacing inlets. on rhe for Grate inletsand depressions curb-openinginlets shouldnot be placedin the effecton driverswho veerawayfrom them.Bicycle of lanebecause theiradverse safegraresshouldbe used in conjunction with bicycle routes.Warping of the inlets should be limited to the portion within 0.6 to 0.9 gutterfor curb-opening m of the curb to minimize adversedriving effects' as The width of barrier and mountablecurbs are considered cross section width. When a gutter has the same elementsentirely outside the traffic lane in surfacecolor and textureas the traffic lane, and it is not much steeper cross partof thetraffic lane. slopethantheadjoiningtraffic lane,it might beconsidered right-ofis This anangement usedfrequentlyin urbanareaswhereundesirable of way width would result from consideration guttersas elementsoutsidethe traffic lane width. However.with any form of curb thereis somelateralshying effectivethroughdistance drivers,particularlyon their right, which reduces by lane width. A gutter with an evident longitudinaljoint and somewhatsteeper to laneis a greaterdeterrent driving nearthe guner crossslopethanthe adjacent than the situationin which the traffic lane and gutter are integral.A gutter of part ofthe traffic lane contrasting color and textureshouldneverbe considered width. concreteor bituminouscurbsoffer little to fog or extended rains.Conventional particularly night and when wet. at contrast visibility to normalpavements, in

AASHTHeometric

Desi

Cross Section Elements

lizing islandcurbsor continuous curbsalongthrough-lane edgesmay be with reflective surfaces. constructed curbs of specialdesignwith depressions

andribsto reflect headlight beams visible are duringheavy rains whendetineation is needed mostandwhenplaincurbsmay be barelynoticeable. cost Thehigher installation andmaintenance cleaning problems rcsult only in limiteduseof suchcurbs. In another form of high-visibility treatrnent, curbs made are conspicuous by paintingandstripingor by useof reflectorized paintsor applied surfaces as such thermoplastic conventional types. on curb Reflector buttons have been installed particularly n:urowmedians. on a limitedbasis continuous on curbs, on These devices,however,are not in generaluse.For bettervisibility of continuour median curbs,someuseis beingmadeof curbswith faces topspainted or with izedwhiteor yellowpaint;Painted curbsarenot subject traffic wtiU'-' to but they are subjectto splashand dirt. To be kept fully effective,they nccd frequent whichentails significant or cleaning repainting, a maintenance co!t. Curbmarkingsareto be in accordance the MUTCD (2). with

mustbe provided.On and a stopedend treatment the outeredgeof the shoulder, uponhow nearly roadways, useofcurbs shouldbe based the intermediate speed of the other characteristics the facility relateto urbanor rural conditions. Barrier curbs introducedinterminently along streetsshouldbe offset 0.6 m as from the edgeof the traveledway; wherecontinuous, alonga median,barrier curbs should be offset at least0.3 m, and preferably0.6 m.

SIDEWALKS Sidewalks are integral parts of city streets,but few are provided in rural areas. Yet, a need exists in many rural areas becausethe higher speedand general absence of lighting increase the accident potential to those walking on or that sidewalks adjacentto the traveled way. The limiled daraavailable suggests in rural areasdo reduce pedestrianaccidents. Sidewalks in rural and suburbanareasare mostjustified at points of commuand nity development suchas at schools,local businesses, industrialplantsthat pedestrian nearor along the highways.When suburban resultin concentrations if initial facilitiesfor vehiclesare necessary the residential areas developed, are are of sidewalks sometimes is development to functionat all, but theconstruction sidewalksshouldbe an activity is anticipated, deferred.However,if pedestrian mightobviatetheneedforsidewalks Shoulders includedpartoftheconstruction. pedestrian in all weather.Ifsidewalks are use ifthey are ofa type to encourage from the shoulder.If the sidewalk is raised utilized, they should be separated that of an urban abovethe level of the shoulder,the cross sectionapproaches highway. the In suburbanand urban locations, a border area generally separates of roadwayfrom the homesand businesses the community.The main function Other functionsof the borderare of the borderis to providespacefor sidewalks. to provide spacefor streetlights, fire hydrants,streethardware,and aesthetic vegetationand to serveasa buffer strip. The width of border variesconsiderably' borders with 2.4m considered minimum. Swaleditchesmay be locatedin these a to provide an economicalalternativeto curb and gutter sections. Sidewalksin rcsidentialareasmay vary from 1.2 to 2.4 m. The width of a plantedstrip between sidewalkand traveledway curb, if provided,shouldbe the coveringthe full activities.Sidewalks a minimum of 0.6 m to allow maintenance border width are generallyjustified and often required in commercial areas, nearschools otherpedesand throughadjoiningmultiple-residential complexes, trian generators,and wherc border width is rcstricted. to the curb, tne \ryro approximately m wider than thosewidths used when a planted strip 0.6 separates the walk and curb. This space provides for street and highway

Curb Placement Mountable curbs at the edge of traffic lanes may have some effect on lateral placement moving vehicles,depending their shapeandappearance. on of Those with low, sloping facesmay encourage driversto operatewith wheelsrelatively close to them, but othersshould have some offset consideration. Curbs at the edgeof the traffic lanes,althoughconsidered mountablein emergencies, bc can mountedsatisfactorilyonly at reducedspeed,thus discouragingmany driven from using the shoulder when stopping. To encourageproper use of thc shoulders,any mountablecurbs should preferably be placedat or beyondthe outer shoulderedge.For low speedstreetconditions,mountable.curbs may be placedat the edge of a through lane,althoughit is preferablethat the curbs be offset 0.3 to 0.6 m. Data(4) on the lateralplacement vehicleswith respect high banicrcurbc of to show that driversshy away from curbsthat are high enoughto damagethe body and fendersof vehicles.The exactrelationshipis not known precisely,but it ir varieswith the curb height and steepness known that the lateralplacement rnd the positionof other obstructions outsidethe curb. The average to clearancc lhc curb is somewhatgreaterwherethe curb is first introducedthan wherc the cutt is continuousfor somedistance. The shying away at the beginningof thc curb will be lessenedif the curb is introducedwith the end flarcd away from thc pavementedge. Neitherbarriernor mountable or curb shouldbe usedon freeways otherhigh' speed arterials, ifprovided in special but cases, curb shouldnot be closcrthrn the

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Design of Hi

Cross SectionElements

andallowsfor theproximityof movingtrafficortheopening doors of of parked cars. JuStificationfor the constructionof sidewalksdependsupon the vehiclepedestrian conflict, which is governedchiefly by the volumesof pedestrian and vehicular traffic, their relative timing, and the speed of vehicular traffrc. Traffic volume-pedestrianwarrants for sidewalks along highways are not established.In general, wherever the roadsideand land developmentconditions are such that pedestriansregularly move along a main or high-speed highway, they should be furnished a sidewalk or parh area,as suitableto the conditions.

of on long bridges,if accommodation pedestriantraffic is considered walkway may be provided' However, caremust be taken a essential, single to ensurethat approachwalkways provide safe and relatively direct access to the bridge walkway. This may require the erection of fencesto channelize and prevent or control pedestrianconflicts with vehicular the pedestrians traffic. with the introduction associated of For a discussion the problemssometimes a walkway, seethe sectionon "Bridge of a traffic barrierbetweena roadwayand Rails." under"Traffic Barriers,"in this chapter'

practice, As a general sidewalks shouldbe condtructed alongany stretor highwaynot providedwith shoulders, eventhoughpedestrian traffic may bc ight-Wtere sidewalksare built along a rural highway,they should'be' removed from the traveledway. To insuretheir intended use,sidewalks shouldhaveall-weather surface& Withoutthem,pedestrians oftenchoose usethetraffic lanes. to Pedestrian regularlyaremarkedin urbanareas seldom on crosswalks but so ruralhighways. However,wheretherearepedestrian concentrations, appropriatetrafficcontroldevices shouldbe used, together with necessary walkways constructed within theright-of-way. If twourban are communities notfar apart, consideration should givento be connecting two communities sidewalks, though the with pedestrian even traffic maybelight.Driver-pedestrian conflict these on sections a through of route thus maybeavoided.
Pedestrianfacilities such as sidewalksmust be designedto accornmodatc persons with disabilities. See the section"Pedestrian Crossings" later in this chapterfor further discussionon this point. In general,the guidelinesset forth in this sectionfor the accommodation of pedestrians applicable on bridges. However, becauseof the high cost of are bridges and some operational features that may be unique to bridge sitcs, pedestrianway details on a bridge will often differ from those on its approaches. For example,wherea plantedstrip betweena sidewalk and the way approaches bridge,continuationofthe sidewalkoffset effectedby theplantcd a strip will seldombe justified. In rural areasor other siteswhere flush shouldersapproacha bridge and light pedestrian traffic is anticipatedon the shoulders, shoulderwidth shouldbc the continued across the bridge and possibly even increasedto account for the rcstriction to pedestrian escapeimposed by the bridge rail. A flush roodwey shouldershould never be intemrptedby a raisedwalkway or a bridge. Whcrc exrst.and rcmoval rs not endsof the walkway shouldbe shieldedwith a traffic barrieror rampedinto thc shoulderat a rate of approximatelyl:20 with the gradeof the shoulder.

DRAINAGE CHANNELS AND SIDESLOPES

General Considerations Modem highway drainagedesign should incorporate safety, good appearance' (andfrequentlyin construcand economyin maintenance control of pollutants, broad drainage tion). The above may be direct benefits of flat sideslopes, avoid obsolescence' and channels, liberalwarpingandrounding.Thesefeatures and improve appearance, invite favorablepublic reaction' prevents An important part of highway design is consistency, which in discontinuities the highway environmentand considersthe interrelationship elements. of all highwaY is intenelationshipbetween the drainagechannel and the sideslopes The of of importantfor safetybecause their great influenceon the sequence events the whena vehicleleaves roadway' thatcanoccur

Drainage Channels Drainage channelsperform the vital function of collecting and conveying surfacewater tiom the highway right-of-way. Drainagechannels.therefore. provide for should have adequatecapacity for the design runoff, should damageto the highway' and should be unusualstorrnwater with minimum locatedand shapedto avoid creatinga potentialconflict with traffic. Channels !ining thatwill with thelowestcostprotective shouldbe proteitedfrom erosion channelsshouldbe keptcleanandfree expected. withstand flow velocities the delerioration Channel of thatwould lower thecapacity thechannel. of material may occur, often with erosion or can reducechannel capacity and overflow
)osltton m tne area aojacenl I() tlls cllurrrrer' on Where the construction of a highway would have an adverse effect

drainagechannelscan be an effectivemeans drainaee conditionsdownstream,

AASHTMeometric

Des

Cross Section Elements

storagewithin the highway right-of-way and thus mitigate adverse effectsof flooding. Drainage include(l) roadside channels channels cut sections remove in to waterfrom the highway crosssection,(2) toe-of-slopechannelsto convey the water from any cut section and from adjacentslopesto the natural watercourse, (3) intercepting placedbackofthe top ofcut slopesto intercept channels surface water, and (4) chutesto carry collectedwater down steepcut or fill slopes. The primary purpose for constructionof roadsidechannelsis to controt surfacedrainage, and the most economicalmethodusuallyentailsformationof open-channel ditches by cutting into the natural roadsideterrain to producea drainage channel.From a standpoint ofhydraulic efficiency,the most desirable channel contains steep sides. Limitations on slope stability usually rcquirc flatterslopes, construction maintenance and and factorshaveimposed still further restrictions on the degree of slope steepnessthat is practical alongsidea highway. The offsetting factor of right of way costsmust also bc considered when selecting combinations slopesto be used. of The effectof slope combinationsand safetyduring traversalby an errantvehicle is also an important consideration designingthe roadside. in In general,the severityoftraversal ofroadside channelslessthan about 1.2 to 2.4 m wide is essentiallythe same for comparableslope combinations regardless channelshape. of Slopecombinations forming these narrowchannels can be selectedto producecross sectionsthat can be safely traversedby an unrestrained occupant,the rangeof slopesbeing within the steepnesS usually found alonghighways. The usegf foreslqpes than l:4 severelylimits the rangeofbaglslOpes. steeper The flatter the foreslopethe greaterthe choicesof combinationsof fore- and backslope that permit safetraversal. The flatter foreslopealso providesgreater recoverydistancefor an enant vehicle.For additionalinformation,refer to the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide (12). The depthof channelshouldbe sufficientto removethe waterwithout saturation ofthe subgrade. depthofwaterthatcan be tolerated, particularlyon flatchannel The slopes, depends uponthesoil characteristics. opencountryofthe northemrcgions. In channelsideslopes l:5 or l:6 are preferableto reducesnow drifts. of The broad.flat, roundeddrainagechannelalso providesa sense openness of that relaxesdriver tension.With a channelsideslope l:4 or flatter anda 3.0 m of shoulder,the whole roadsidechannelis visible to the driver. This lessens the feeling of restrictionand addsmeasurably the driver's willingnessto usethe to

shoulder anemergency. in Thedesirable minimum for channelsshould be based veloeities avoid-sedimentation. ts Flooddepthsshouldbe limited to preclude saturation thesubgrade. maximum of grade unpaved The desirable for channels should based upona tolerable be velocity vegetation shear soiltypes. for and on

AASHTO's Highway Drainage Guidelines(5) providesguidancein this area. particularlyif the The channelgradedoesnot haveto follow thatof the roadbed, roadbed flat. Althoughdesirable, is unnecessary standardize designof is it to the roadside drainage channels forany lengthofhighway. Not only canthedepthand breadthof the channelbe varied to meetdifferent amountsof runofi slopesof points,but the lateral channel,typesof lining, and distances betweendischarge distance between channelandtheedgeofthe traveledway canalsobe varied. the Usually liberaloffsetscan be obtainedwherecuts are slight and wherecutsend and fills begin.Careshouldbe taken,however,to avoid abruptmajor changes in the roadway sectionthat would result in such a discontinuity of the highway environmentas to violate the driver's expctancy. Care shouldalso be takento avoid major breaksin channelgradethat would causeunnecessary scouror silt deposition. generallyhavea flat crosssectionpreferablyformed Interceptingchannels by a dike made with bonow material to avoid disturbing the natural ground surface.Interceptingchannelsshould have ample capacity for the water they must cirry and should be locatedwith as little deviation from the contour as possibleexceptwhen on top ofa slope subjectto sliding. In slide areas,storm watershouldbe intercepted removed rapidlyaspracticable. and as Sections of that crosshighly permeable might requirelining with impermechannels soil able material. channels generally shallowdepressed areas, swales, Mediandrainage are or flat sideslopes the divided at or nearthe centerof the medianformedby the of roadways. The swaleis slopedlongitudinally drainage, at intervals for and the water is intercepted inlets or transverse by channelsand discharged from the roadwayin storm drainsor culverts.Flat. traversable drainagedikes are sometimesused increase efficiency theinlets. to the of Referto thesection medians on for further discussion. Safety grateson median drains and crossdrains.while enhancing safetyfor errantvehicles,can reducethe hydraulicefficiency of the drainage structuresif not properly designed.The reduced inlet capacity is compounded the accumulation debrison the grates, by of occasionally resulting in roadway flooding. If significant hydraulic capacity or clogging problems suchasshieldingthestructure. couldresultfrom theuseofgrates,othermethods. shouldbe considered. Chutesor pipes are usedto carry water collectedby interceptingchannels down cut slopes by andto discharge watercollected shouldercurbs. the They can be either open channelsor pipes.High velocitiesprecludesharpturns in open chutesand generallyrequiresomemeans dissipatingtheenergyof flow at the of outletof thechute.Closedchutesareprefenedto avoid failuredue to settlement and erosion. Generally in highly erodible soil, it is necessaryto joints to prevent watenight failureof the facility.Cautionmustbe exercised to which causes avoidsplash. erosion.

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AASHTHeometric

Desi

Cross Section Elements

ventionof erosionin channels accomplished liningsthatwithstand is by the velocity of srorm runoff. The type of lining used in roadsidechannels ilpendsupon the velocity of flow, type of soil, and the gradeand geometryof the channel.In areaswhere grasswill grow, it is usually the most economical channel lining except on steepslopeswhere the velocity of flow exceedsthc permissiblevelocities for grassprotection. Various materialsincluding concrete,asphalt,stone,and nylon areusedfor linings wheregrasswill not provide adequateprotection. Smooth linings generatehigher velocities than rough linings such as stoneand grass.Provision must often be made to dissipatethe energyofthe high-velocity flow beforeit is released avoid scouratthe outlct to and damageto the channellining. Iferosive velocities are developedbecause ofsmooth linings or steepgrades,a specialchanneldesignorenergydissipater

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Reference should made AASHTO'sHighwayDrainage be to (511, Guidelines manuals, handbooks publications theSoilConsewation drainage design and of Service, of and Corps Engineers, Bureau Reclamation details to dcsign of for as andprotective including treatments, filter requirements. addition, pubfi. In the cations made available highway to agencies theFHWA,such Desrga from as o/ WithFlexibleLinings(17),provideexcellent Stable Channels (See references. Chapter III.)

Sideslopes

provide a reasonable opportunityfor recoveryof an out-of-controlvehicle. Three regions of the roadside are important when evaluating the safety aspects: top of the slope(hingepoint), the foreslope, the and the toe of the slope (intersection the foreslopewith level ground or with a backslope, of forming a ditch). Figure IV-5 illustratesthesethreeregions. The hinge point contributesto loss of steeringcontrol because vehiclc . the tendsto bcomeairbome in crossingthis point. The forcsloperegion is important in the designof high slopeswherea driver could attempta rccoverymaneuvcr or reducespeedbefore impacting the ditch area.In many situations,thc toe of the slopeis within theclearzoneandthe probabilityof reachingtheditch is high. in which casesafetransitionbetweenfore- and backslopes shouldbc providcd. (6) Research in thesethreeregionsof the roadsidehas found that rounding can at the hinge point. thoughnot necessary from a vehicle rollover standpoinq of significantly rcduceits hazardpotential.Roundedslopesreducethe chances

only wheresite conditions are Slopesl:3 or steeper recommended backslopes. steeper than l:3 must be used, do not permit useof flatter slopes.When slop'es should be given to the use ofa roadsidebarrier. consideration roadways the angleof is for Anothersafetyfactorof significance intersecting indicatethat slope.Fieldobservations and a breakbetween sideslope a transverse shouldbe given in roadwaydesignto carryingthe desirable moreconsideration mediancrossovers, driveway approaches, throughintersections, flat sideslopes edgeandtheditch the Providinga flatterslopebetween shoulder andcut sections. bottom, locating the ditch a little farther from the roadway,or even enclosing often the ofdrainagefacilitieswill enhance safetyofthe roadside, shortsections in ai a small increase cost. Earth cut and fill slopesshould be flattenedand liberally roundedas fitting with the overall type of highway.Effective with the topographyand consistent drainageof the subgrade and erosioncontrol, low-cost maintenance, adequate Slopeand soil data upon propershapingofthe sideslopes. largelyaredependent and theerosion the areusedin combinationto approximate stabilityof the slopes potential. not Overalleconomydepends only on theelementof first costbut also of on thecostof maintenance, which slopestabilityis a factor.In additionto these reasons flat and roundedslopeson any highway,the proximity of any urban for and peopleof the community call for additional highway to the developments factors. slopesand overall appearance attentionto naturalized shouldbe l:3 or flatter to make it easierfor motorized Normally, backslopes sufficientspacmay areas. In equipmentto bc usedin maintenance. developed steeper than I :3 Backslopes slopes. not beavailable permit the useof desirable to walls of partial height should be consideredwhere spacerestrictionsrequire slopes that otherwise would be steeperthan l:2. On the other hand. soil

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an erraRt vehielebe+sming airbomethereby redueing hazard the

ment and affording the driver more control over the vehicle.Forcslopes srccpcr than l;.1 are not desirable becausetheir use severelv limits the choicc of

AASHTMeometric

Desig,nof Highways ond Streers

Cross SectionElements

flatterthan l:2 or even l:3. If the s may necessitate useof slopes partialwalls may be necessary. width is not availablein suchcases, adequate The and the type of retainingstructureshouldbe compatiblewith the areatraversed walls should To gradeseparation structures. minimizethefeelingof constriction, Whereretainingwalls besetbackasfar asfeasiblefrom thethrough-trafficlanes. the are usedin combinationwith earthslopes, walls may be locatedeithera the roadwaylevel adjacentto the shoulderor on the outer portion of the separation roadway. width abovethe depressed with reasonably wide roadsides, sideslopes On fieewaysandotherarterials on to opportunity and embankments in cutsshouldbedesigned providea reasonable for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle. Where the roadside at the point of departureis reasonablyflat, smooth, and clear of fixed objects, many potential

A can aSfies be averted. rateof slopeof I :6 or flatteron embankments bc can of and thercfore, negotiated a vehiclewith a goodchance recovery should, by bc heightswith good roundings, providedwherefeasible.For moderate stecpcr On fills, slopes to aboutl:3 canalsobetraversable. intermediate-height thc up but flat to costof a continuous slopemay be prohibitive, it may be feasiblc flat areaadjacent the to providea recovery areawith a reasonably androunded well beyond edge the extend ofthe shoulder area roadway. recovery should The maypermit. conditions asspecific
with traffic demand,roadsand streetswith wide bordersshould Consistent Howcver, recoveryareaapproach. with a similarclearroadside alsobe designed alongstreets, thc andnarrowersideclearances ofgenerallylower speeds because partially used.This is also true areaconcept,at best,can only be clear roadside within availablelimited right-of-way. for widening and other reconstruction occu' so Desirably,slopecombinationswould be selected that unrestrained would not incur pantscould be expectedto sustainno injury and the vehicle right' However,siteconditionssuchasrestricted during traversal. majordamage of of-way or the cost effectiveness such design may dictate the use of slopc If other thansafetydictatethot than desirable. constraints steeper combinations barricr cannotbe provided,theneedfor roadside recoverydistance the necessary shouldbe considered. are Where heightand slope of roadwayembankments suchthat thc scvcrily of potentialaccidentswill be reducedby the placing of a roadsidebarricr, tltC to sloperoundingandto support shouldbe designed allow adequate crosssection the barrier.

of simplifytheestablishment turf md iU sideslopes Flatandwell-rounded sidcslopCr can Grasses subsequentmaintenance. usually bereadilyestablishedon d Wirhslopcr climates. and climates l:3 in semiarid assteep l:2 in favorable as
Because thegreatervelocity of runoff. sufficientwaterfor the maintcnmccof of grassdoasnot seep into the soil. Deep-rootedplants that do not depcndupoo

whereslopesareexcessively Slopes wateralonemay be necessary steep. surface slopes of the order of l:3 and flatter can be machinemowed. Although steeper handmethods the reducethe mowing areaconsiderably, slow, time-consuming required add materially to the cost of maintenance. With sometypesof soils,it is virtually mandatorythat slopesbe reasonably stabilization.Soils predominantlyclay or gumbo are flat to gain the necessary particularlysusceptible erosion,and slopesof l:3 or flatter shouldbe used. to The intersectionsof slope planes in the highway cross section should complementthe earthforms of the terrain being traversed.Someearthforms are well-roundedand otherssteeplysloped;the designershould strive to createa natural look that is aestheticallypleasing.The rounded forms in nature are the resultof erosion,the wearingaway by water or wind; the useof well-rounded forrns in the highway cross section will go far toward insuring stability. Flat, well-rounded sideslopesare major elements in anaining the desired however, a uniform slope through a cut or fill sectionoften natural apparance; This appearancecan be softenedand results in a formal or stilted appearance. on by mademorenatural flatteningtheslopes theendswherethecut or fill is light it and by graduallysteepening toward the controlling maximum slopeof the cut by or filL This designmay be readilyaccomplished liberalroundingof thehinge the point in the transitionarea.On shortcut or fill sections, resultmay be one of of lengththe on longitudinalrounding;whereas, sections substantial continuous is effect will be one of funneling. The transitioningof sideslopes especially lateraloffsetof the effectiveat theendsof cutswhencombinedwith an increased channel and a widenedshoulder. drainage The combinationof flat slopes and rounding is frequently referredto as With this shape,the cross wihds sweepalong the streamlined Crosssec,tion. surfacewithout forming eddiesthat contributeto the wind erosionand drifting cross section usually results in a minimum of of snow. The streamlined expendituretbr snow removal becausethe winds blow the snow off the with steep slopes in traveledway instead drifting it, as happens crosssections of without rounding.When combinedwith the designpracticeof makingthe level ofthe ofthe roadwayabovethatofthe surroundingland to also insuredrainage subgrade, strcamlined crosssectionresultsin a roadrequiringa minimum of the maintenance operatingcostsand a maximum of safety. and In somecases, inegular slope stakeline resultsfrom the strict adherence an pleasingto vary the to specifiedcut or fill slopes.It may be more aesthetically slopeto yield a neatstakeline. Design slopes for rock vary widely, depending upon the materials. A

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construction commonly slopefor rockcutsis 2:l. With modern used standard

of usedin good-qualityrock. Deep cuts in rock often requirethe construction bcnches the sloocs. in

AASHTHeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Cross Section Elements

stability as well as appearance may be enhanced poor-qualityrock in by the establishment vegetative of cover.In somepartsof the country,serrated cut slopesaid in the establishment vegetative of cover on decomposed rock or shaleslopes.serration (7) may be constructedin any material that can be ripped or that will hold a vertical face long enoughto establishvegetation. Desirably, the toe of the rock-cut slope should be located beyond thc minimum lateral distancefrom the edgeof the traveled way neededby the driver of an errant vehicle to either regain control and begin a retum to the roadway or to slow the vehicleto a safespeed. wide shelves the bottom of rock cutshave at advantages that a safelandingareais providedfor falling bouldersand space in is available for snow storagein colder climates. This width can also bc shaped ; to provide a clear roadside recovery area.

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outcroppings havesometimes beenleft in placeduringeonsfrctionof . newhighways reasons economy aesthetics. for of or These should eliminatcd be within theclearroadside recovery where area removalis feasibte. theycannot If be removed, theyshouldbe shielded theinstallation a roadside by of banic of appropriate design. guidance sideslopes, For additional on refer to the AASHTO Roadsidc DesignGuide(12).

Buldlng Lh.

ILLUSTRATIVE

OUTER CROSS SECTIONS

Figures IV-3 and IV-6 illustrate typicalcombinations the marginalhighway of elements-shoulders, side-drainage channels, sidewalks, curbs,andsidcslopcsfor zuperelevated sections and normalcrownedsections, respectively. Only I few of the desirablearrangements illustrated,but other practicalarrange. are mentsare discussed.

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FigurelV-6. Typlcalcrosssection,normalcrown.
width of the channelshouldbe sufficientfor the requireddrainagecapacity and of sufficient depth to insureroadbedstability, 0.3 to l'2 m below the shoulder reak. b of Roundingat the intersection slopeplanesin areaswherean errantvehicle Roundingof all slope tbr is may tendto encroach desirable safetyconsiderations. In and simplify maintenance. intersectionswould also improve appearance l . Z t o l . Em upon a shoulder.The rounding requiredat the top of cut slopesis dependent numberof tactors,includingthe type of soil, slope ratio and heieht.and the

Normal Crown Sections FigureIV-6Ashowsthemostwidelyusedcrosssectioninmodemtrighwa' practice. combination elements simple formsa streamlined The of is crcsr and section. widths included boththefill and sections. are Thc Usable shoulder on cut controlling for shoulder slopes previously as range from 2 pcrcent r {iscussed paved impervious or surface 8 percent themaximum to to as applicablc a rurf surface. The drainage channel the right in FigureIV-6A is formcdby thc at side. foreslope backslope The to and combination should selected producc bc a cross section canbesafelv Thc that traversed anerrant vehicle. bottom bv

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AASHTO-4eometic De

of Hi

CrossSectionElements

ground The slopes. rounding mayvaryfrom 1.2m to upward 4.5m. of

Toe-of-sloperounding minimizes slope changeand offers an increasein fill Stability. Roundingherealsovarieswith theslopes andfillheights, wirh thesame generaldimensionsas on cut slopes.

FigureIV-6B showsa typeof treatment wherecurbsareusedfor drainage protection. theleft,acurbor dikeis used fill slopc controlor for pedestrian On for protection. shoulder The slope ofthis section should designed conjunction be in withthedrainage ponding to system prevent upon roadway. the Frequent outlets are required drainage. Wheresidewalks one of the elements the for are of highway margin, theyshould separated thetraveled be way.In areas from fully developed with retail stores andofficesit may not be possible because the of right-of-way to considergtions offsetthe sidewalk from the traveled way; in suchcases; toseparatethe sidewalk curbsareused from theedgeofthetravelad way.Thissection shown theright. is on FigureIV-6C shows, theleft, a steep section on with guardrail theedgc fill at of theshoulder. Whererequired, sidewalk preferably a should located be bchind theguardrail. shallowfill sections, For safety theroadside on maybeenhanced by enclosing of facilities shown theright. as sections drainage on

way'creatlng the to on meltfroma windrow theshoulder flow across traveled icingsituation. a potential cross rolledoverin a well-rounded shoulder the IV-3Cshows high-side Figure the between is veni;l curvesothatthewaterfalling upontheshoulder divided any shoulder, or way andthe sidechannel fill slope.on this rounded traveted and to level as needed facilitatetire changes other vehiclewould standnearly the than1.2m long,andat least inner benotless curveihould The repairs. vertical slope. heldonthesuperclevated Theshoulderslope be 0.6m of theshouldershould brcaks' multiple having section IV-3Cis aplanar of section Figure onthealtemate as for streettraffic operations, well as for is superelevation advaniageous of the freeiays, butin built-upareas combination wide ruralhigh*aysandurban control of crossslopeand development' puu.d ir""r, proximity of adjacent and streets, otherurbanfeatuesqombine of eross irofile for drainagerfrequeney is usually, superelevation not to make its use impracticaior undesirable. providedonlocalstreetsinresidential,commercial'orindustrialareas' III' refer on discussion superelevation' to Chapter For additional
TRAFFIC BARRIERS

Superelevated Sections
The low sidesof the threesuperelevated crosssections FigureIV-3 aresimilar of to thoseof Figure IV-6 exceptfor the shoulderslope in thosecaseswherc the superelevation is greater rate thanthenormalshoulderslope.It is desirable from an operational standpointthat the shoulderslopeon the low side be the sameas the traveledway superelevation slope,exceptwhere the normal shoulderslope is greater.

General Considerations involving potentialaccidents are Traffic barriers usedto minimize theseverityof of errant vehicles vehiclesleaving the traveledway where the consequences baniersarea source strikinga baniei arelessthanleavingtheroadway'Because For thiir uSeshouldbe carefully considered' of acciient potenrialthemselves, moredetailedinformationregardingtrafficbarriers,refertotheAASHTo RoadsideDesig,nGuide (12). Researchcontinuestodevelopimprovedandmorecost.effectivebarriers. herein wil-l undoubtedlybe refined and amendedin the The criteria discussed future.Thedesigneris.therefore,obligatedtoremaincurTentonnewconcepts and criteria. and crashcushions' The term..trafficbaniers" refersto longitudinalbarriers elrant vehicles.crash Longitudinalbarriersfunction primarily by redirecting cushionsfunctionprimarilybydeceleratingelTantvehiclestoastoporby redirection. Longitudinalbarriersarelocateda|ongtheroadsideandinmedians.Bridge parapetsorrailsarecoveredinAASHTodesigncriteriaandspecificationsfor highway bridges.

In Figure IV-3A thedirection shoulder of slope thehighsideof thecross on section thesame thatfor normal is as crowned traveled ways, itsrate slope of but way shouldbe limited.The algebraic differenc6 crossslopes the traveled in at edge rollover should exceed not about percent order avoidanundesirable 8 in to of effect.Accordingly, of this section use for shouldbe reserved low ratca superelevation low ratesof shoulder slopcon thc and slope.The shoulder travclcd alternate section FigureIV-3A is a projection thesuperelevated of of way. h In Figure scction I IV-3B thelevelshoulder thehighedge thiscross on of compromise maybenecessarycomplywiththe8 percent rolloverconupl that to of andstillkeep shoulderfrom way.Theuse thisctur the draining thetraveled to is thatiscaused theamountof waterfalling by the directly upon shoulder notvcry great. Where snowfall prevalent, cross is wouldtendto allowrnow this section

of semirigld. rigid.n. mui"iJiff"i.nce uet*eenthe iypesii ihe amount or is whenthebarrier struck' place that banierdeflection takes

AASHTMeometic

Design of Hi,

Cross SectionElements

flexible systems undergoconsiderable dynamic deflectionupon impactand generallyimpose lower impact forces on the vehicle. The resistance of this systemis due in mostpart to tensileforcedeveloped the longitudinalmember. in The cable or beamstear away from the support post upon impact, the post thus offering negligibleresistance the impactzone.However,thepostsoutsiderhe in impactzoneprovideresistance essential control the deflectionof the longituto dinalmemberto an acceptable limit. This systemis designed primarily to contain rather than redirect the vehicle and requires more lateral clearancefrom fixed objectsdue to the deflectionduring impact. In the semirigidsystem, resistance achievedthroughthecombinedflexure is and tensile strength of the rail. The posts near the point of impact are designed to break or tear away, thereby distributing the impact force by beam action to

locatedflushwiththefaceofthebarrierorslightlybehindit.Ingeneral,'onnew p"'fo*un"t' all curbsand dikes that in construction, tt.,",on" uffectingbanier arenotatested,integralpartofthebarriersystemshouldbeavoidedanddrainage affectbarrier meani that will not adversely conrrolledby gentle,*"1", or other performance.Whereuuu,,l",i,tobeinstalledinthevicinityofanexistingcurb shouldselect be jusrified, the designer and the cost of removinfi" .uru "annot abarrierand|ocateitsothattheadverseeffectofthecurbonbarrierperformance is minimized.

LongitudinalBarriers RoadsideBarriers shieldmotorit:: used-to system barrieris a longitudinal lt^oll.ututut A roadside It eithersideof a roadway' mayoccasionally l*";;J;i;;; hazards or synthetic traffic' vehicular p"O.'oi*"Uistander'' andcyclistsfrom be usedto Protect include(l) banier by whicnmay wanantstrietaing a roadside Elements suchas areas and obsiacles, (3) sensitive (2)ioadside obstacles, embankment playgrounds. toe of an and at that rounding the shoulder at the indicate studies Recent Rounded.slopes potential. can srope ,"0u." its accident/casualty embankment the reducing thereby airbome, u"t iclebecoming orun-.iunt the reduce chances more and affordingthe driver of consequences an encroachment ootential ' control '-'ii.;h, overthevehicle' :in r^.^facrors determtntng are andslopeof the embankment the basic warrants referto current should The a through fill section' designer banierneed (12)' needs of unJ.titttiu for dJermination banier do conditions not these When isdesirable' unobr,ru.t.dloi'oadside A clear, are obstacles Roadside banierneedare necessary' exist,criteriato establish for account obstacles These fi*edobjects. as classified non-,ou.rJl" urr", una be should eachyearandtheirremoval or over30 percenr au nigi*ay fatalities remove. or .oniia.r"o. If it is not feasible practicable-to the first alternative a However' may be necessary' thena banier an modifyor relocate obstacle' the clearthat it ot'fers leastaccidenv u" baniershould in*uir.J oiiv ir i, is casualtY Potential. T h e o b j e c t i v e o [ b a n i e r s i s t o e n h a n c e s a f e t y . Sspaced n g t h s o l . r o a d s i d e hortle locations' closely in needed twoor more Where are barriers discouraged' be should continuous' barriers useof
that

postsiHoweve[ postsoutsidethe impact zone provide resishnce

essentialto control the deflection of the longitudinal member to an acceptabta limit and redirect the errant vehicle along the path of traffic flow. The rigid systemdoesnor deflect upon impact. During collisions,energyis dissipated raisingandlowering the vehicleand by deformation the vehicle by of sheet metal.As theangleof impactincreases, barrierdeceleration forcesincrease because the absence barrier deflection.Therefore,installationof a rigid of of systemis normally only appropriate whereshallow impactanglesareexpectcd, suchas along narrow mediansor shoulders. The rigid systemhas provedto bc very effective as a protectiveshield during maintenance work on a roadway where deflection cannot be tolerated.Becausethis systemsuffers little or no damageon impact, hencerequiring little maintenance, shourdbe considered it whereheavy traffic volumeshamperreplacement damaged of rail. Performance level,or banier Capauitity, lateraldeflectioncharacreristics and the spaceavailableto accommodate barrier deflectionare importantfactorsin theselection a longitudinal of system. consideration shouldalsobe givento the adaptabilityof the systemto operationaltransitions,end treatments and to the initial and future maintenance cost. Evaluationof the roadsideenvironmententails six options: ( I ) removethe obstacleor redesignit so it ban be safely traversed: relocatetheobstacleto (2) a point whereit is lesslikely to be struck:(3) reduceimpactseverityby usingan appropriate breakawaydevice; (4) redirecta vehicle by shieldingthe obstacle with a longitudinaltratfic barrierand/orcrashcushion;(5) delineate obstacle the if the abovealtemativesare not appropriate: and (6) no action. Roadway cross section significantly affects traffic barrier perfbrmance. curbs, dikes,slopedshoulders, and steppedmedianscan causeenant vehicles to vault or submarine barrieror to strike a barrierso that the vehicleovenurns, a front of the banier and, for semirigidand flexible barriers,beneath and behind the barrier.where curbsand dikes are usedto control drainage. they should be

AASHTMeometric

Design of Highways and Steets

Cross SectionElements

bridgerail andproperly secured thebridgeroprevent possibitity ro the of

a vehicle striking the barrier and snaggingor colliding with a bridge rail or curb. Propertreatrnentof the exposed end of the barrier is also important.The untreated orsquar approachend of a barrierpresentsa formidable roadsideobstacle.Ends may beburied,coveredwith amoundofearth, flaredback,orprotectedwithacrash cushionan approvedcrashtestedterminal.Buried banierends shouldbedesigned to minimize ramping of impacting vehicles. The AASHTO Roadside Design Guide (12) provides more information on crashworthy end trearnents. Barrier need for rock cuts and large boulders is a matter of judgment by the highway engineerdependingon the potential severity of a crash and lateral clearance. For additional material on "Roadside Barriers," refer to the AASHTO Readside Design Guide (12).

barrier, the required openings and resultant terminals present formidable and high initial Crashcushions,althoughrequiringmaintenance obstacles. expense,may be necessaryto shield an errant motorist and provide some degreeof safety. Consequently,an evaluation of the number of crossovers, accidenthistory, alinement,sight distance,design speed,traffic volume' and median width should be conductedprior to installationof medianbarrierson non-freewayfacilities. of for Barriersalsoshouldbe considered useon outerseparations about l5 m or lesswherethe frontageroadscarry two-way traffic. in An importantsafetyconsideration the designof medianbarriersis shielding of a motorist from the exposedend. Exposed ends may be buried, covered cableterminal with a breakaway with a moundof earth,flaredback,or protected OraCraShcushion. For more information on crashworthy end treatments, end refer to the AASHTO RoadsideDesign Guide (121. Common types of median barrier include (l) double-facedsteel W-beam (btocked-out)installedon strong posts,(2) box beam installedon weak posts, and (3) concretebarrier with a slope face. Some use is also madeof a two- or steelw-beam barrier installedon light steelposts,a double-faced three-cable steelthrie beam(blocked-out)installed posts,a double-faced installedon weak on strongposts,and a cabte-chainlinkfence combination.For additionaldata on medianbarrier types,referenceis made to the AASHTO RoadsideDesign Guide (12). In selectingthe type of medianbarrier,it is importantto matchthe dynamic to lateraldeflectioncharacteristics the site.The maximum deflectionshouldbe to lessthan one-halfthe medianwidth. The medianbarriershouldbe designed and should redirectthe into the opposing lanesof trafTic preventpenetration colliding vehiclein the samedirectionasthe traffic flow. In addition,the design pleasing. shouldbe aesthetically On heavily traveledfacitities with narrow medians,a concretebarrier with This type will deflecta vehiclestriking it advantages. a slopeface has,many at a slight impact angle. It has a pleasing appearanceand requires little maintenance.The latter is an important consideration on highways with operationson the barrier encroachon the narrow medianssince maintenance high-speedtraffic lanes and may require closure of one of the traffic lanes shouldalsobearin mind thateventhoughthe duringrepairtime.The designer concretebarriermay not deflect,theremay be significant intrusion into the air spaceabove and beyond the banier by high center of gravity vehicles when or struck at high speeds large angles.A bus or tractor-trailermay leanenough to strike objectsmountedon top of the barrier or within a distanceof up to 3.0

Median Barriers A medianbarrieris a longitudinalsystemusedto minimize the possibilityof an errant vehicle crossinginto the path of traffic traveling in oppositedirections. When traffic volumesare low, the probability of a vehiclecrossinga median andcollidingwith a vehiclein theopposing direction relatively is low. Likewise, for relatively wide mediansthe probabilityof a vehiclecrossingthe medianand collidingwith a vehiclein theopposing roadwayis alsorelatively low, ln thesc instances, median barrierswould generallybe warrantedonly when there hus beena history of across-the-median accidentsor, for new roadways,wherc an incidence high accident of ratesof this type would be expected. Althoughthc incidence of the serious cross median collision may be reduced by mcdian barriers,accidentfrequencywill generallyincrease because spacavailable the for return-to-the-road maneuvers decreased. is Specialconsideration shouldbe given to barrierneedsfor medians separating traveledways at different elevations. The ability of an errantdriver leavingthe higher elevated roadway to retum to the road or to stop diminishes m thc difference in elevationsincreases. Thus, the potential for crossover,head-on accidentsincreases. For all divided highways,regardless medianwidth and traffic volumc.thc of medianroadsidemust also be examinedfor other factors,suchas obstaclcs and lateraldropoff, as discussed earlier. Carefulconsideration shouldbe given to the installation medianbarricn of lt on multilaneexpressways otherhighwayswith partialcontrol of acccss. or ments with a chancefor motorist recoveryand can also include geomctnc features accommodate to crossinsor left-turn traffic. With the additionof a

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etc. light standards. may becomeinvolvedin secondary impacts, sign trusses, accidents.

AASHTO--Geometic De

Cross SectionElements

mediansections, The selectionof medianbarriersdiffers for stepped that is. wherethe medianis betweenroadwaysof different elevations. Cable,W-beam are The AASHTO on weak posts,andbox-beamsystems limited to flat medians. RoadsideDesign Guide (12) provides additional data in this regard.

barrier, consideration and of Duringtheselection design a median should bc givento thepossible on effectof thebarrieron sightdistance horizontal curv6. The design of medianbarriersand terminalscontinuallyimproves,md on reference shouldbe madeto thelatestdevelopments this subject. protection wort can for median barrier beused temporary Precast concrete of It areasand for guiding traffic duringconstruction. can also be incorporated prmanently partof thecompleted facility. as

introduction bridgerailingwherea curbedcrosssection used a bridge ofa is on approachand a flush cross section is used on the bridge. This condition may result from the length of the bridge and its approaches being suchthat it takes on the characterof a controlled accessfacility where traffic will operateat speedsin excessof 80 km/h even though the approachspeeds lower than are 80 km/h-thus making curbs acceptable away from the bridgeand not on the bridge. In such cases it may be reasonableto drop the curb at the first intersection away from the end of the bridge or, well in advance of the introductionof thetraffic barrier,reducethe curb to a low, mountable curb with a gently slopedtraffic face, which would be reasonablycompatiblewith the traffic barrier even if continued into the high-speedregion of the bridge.

BridgeRailings pedestrians, cyclistsfrom falling ofi Uo vehicles, or A bridgerailing prevents Bridges(1E)snccl. Specifications H ighway structure. AASHTO'sStandard for designload,and maximumallowablematerialstrcssrequirc.' fies geometric, pedestrian railings, bicycle railings, of ments thedesign trafficrailings, for and with of trafficrailingfeatures those pedestrian bicyclc or railings combine that are and railings longitudinal traffic railings. Bridgetrafficrailings combination primarily theirfoundations, in with trafficbarriers barriers, differingfromother extension a bridge othertrafficbanierr and of railings beinga structural bridge set usually being in or on soil. virtuallynever end need at ends a bridge andthE Theneed atrafficbarrier for
must be filled by extendingthe bridge railing with a roadsidebarrier.which ln tum must have a crash-worthyterminal.

CrashCushions
Crash cushions are protective systems that prevent errant vehicles from impacting roadsideobstaclesby deceleratingthe vehicle to a safe stop when hit head-onor redirecting it away from the obstacle(AASHTO's Roadside Design Guide (12)). A common applicationof a crashcushionis ramp goreswherea bridge-rail end existsin the gore.Wheresiteconditionspermit, a crashcushionshouldalso be considered an altemativeto a roadsidebarrier for shieldingrigid objects as suchasbridgepiers,overhead signsupports, abutments, retaining-wall and ends. Crashcushions may alsobe usedto shieldroadside medianbarrierterminals. and Site preparation importantin usingcrashcushiondesign. is Siteconditions not compatiblewith the cushiondesigncan compromisecushioneffectiveness. New highwaydesignshouldconsideralternatives useof thesedevices to wherepossible. Wherea crashcushionis the bestalternative, level adequate spacefree from curbs or other physical featuresshould be provided.

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i:

an railingandroadside barrier, incompel' a At thejuncturebetween bridge of ibility nearlyalwaysexistsin the stiffnesses the two barriertypcs.Thir thc that over and mustbetransitioned a length withdetails will prcvcnt r stiffness vehicle. or an from pocketing snagging impacting barriersystem curbcd on As discussed thesection curbsearlierin thischapter, in Dctrllod facilities. of bridge railings highspeed on should be usedin front not (12) AASHTORoadside DesignGuide regardlnt in is information provided the with associated curbs. vehicular incidents wherc a roadside barrier is providedbctweenthe edgotf,' In instances to mustbeSiven rhcbsric railing, special attention traveled andthebridge way Thc dcsign. Cnd yet arc end endtreatment. Functional safe treatments difficult to pcdcrln vehicles, treatments shouldsafelyaccommodate lateralclearances betweentravel lancs and bdfio The recommended in a This exceed curboffsetdistances. maycreate problcm tho railingsusually

MEDIANS A medianis highlydesirable arterials on carryingfourormorelanes. median A is definedas the portionof a divided highwayseparating traveled way for the traffic in opposing directions. The medianwidth is expressed thedimension as bctweenthe through-lane edgesand includesthe left shoulders, any. The if principal functions of a median are to separateopposing traffic. provide a recoveryarea for out-of-control vehicles. provide a stoppingarea in caseof emergencies. low space for speedehangesandstorageof left-turnin gandU al tumingvehicles, glare,and providewidth for futurelanes. minimizeheadlight Anotherbenet'it a medianin an urbanareais that it may offer an opengreen of

D AASHTO-4 eometric esignof

and Streets

Cross Section Elements

space. For maximum efficiency,a medianshouldbe highly visibleboth night andday and contrastwith the throughtraffic lanes.Mediansmay be depressed, -iaised, or flush with the traveled way surface.Medians should be as wide as feasible but of a dimension in balance with other componentsof the cross section.

width,consideration median should givento thepossible be In determining medianwidthsshouldbe suchthata needfor medianbarrier.Wherepossible, In the medianbarrier is not warranted. general, medianshouldbe as wide as widths froma minimum 1.2m to 24 is practical. general range median of The of factorsoften limit the width of medianthat can bc m or more. Economic increases proportionto and maintenance in provided.Cost of construction width but theadditional costmay not be apprcciablc in increases the median with therost of thehighwayasawhole andmaybejustifiedinvicw
of the benefits derived. Medians should be wide enoughto allow selectcddesign-vehicles to safely make a selectedmaneuver.A considerationin the useof wider shelterfor medianson roadwaysotherthan freewaysis the provisionof adequate vehicles crossing at intersections and at crossovers srving commercial and private drives. Thesemedian crossingsmay need to be controlledas at-gradc' (seeChapterIX). Wide mediansmay be a disadvantage when atintersections time for vehiclesto cross the are grade intersections required.The increased medianmay lead to inefficient signaloperation. If right-of-way is restricted,a wide medianmay not bejustified if providcd A borderwidth is required at the expenseof narrowedborderareas. reasonable along the road serveasa buffer betweenthe private development to adequately and the traveledway, particularlywhere zoning is limited or non-existent, highwaysigns,utility Spacemust be providedon the bordersfor sidewalks, includ' and and channels structures, for properslopes, lines,parking,drainage ing clear recovery zones, and any retained native growth. Narrowing the.rc areasmay tend to develop obstaclesand hindrancessimilar to thosethat the median is designedto avoid.

preferred freeways moreefficicnl for on medianis generally A depressed preferably l:6' b$l be sideslopes should Median and drainage snowremoval. !t should lcstl inletsin themedian All of slopes l:4 maybeadequate. drainage with or with thetop flushwith theground culvertendsprovidcd be designed grates. safetY traversable |o whercit is desirsblc on streets haveapplication arterial medians Raised whcrcthcmcdlrn used Theyarealsofrequently movements. left-tum regulate narrow.Csrtful particularly wherethe width is relatively is-to be planted, mustbe given.Plandngr' andtypeof plantings of consideration the location partieuladyin naRowmedia+s-ma fol Ptantings,such as trees, in the median can also causevisual obstructionr
tuming motoristsif not carefully located.

Flush mediansare usedto someextenton all typesof urbanarteriars. when used on freeways,a median barrier may be required.The median should be slightly crownedor depressed drainage. warmerclimatesthecrownedtype for In is frequentlyusedbecause eliminatesthe needfor collectingdrainage it waterin the median.However,the slightly depressed type is generallypreferredwith a _ crossslopeof about4 percentor with a minor steepening the roadwaycross of slope. The conceptof converting flush medians into two-way left tum laneson urbanstreets hasbecomewidely accepted. This conceptoffers severaladvantages when compared to no median. Among these advantages are reduced traveltime, improvedcapacity,reducedaccidentfrequency,particularlyof the rear-endtype, more flexibility because medianlane can be usedas a travel the lane during cfiosurcof a through lane and public preference, both Fromdn-vers andownersof abuttingproperties. Median widths 3,0 to 4.8 m wide provide the optimum design for two-way left turn lanes. Refer to the MUTCD (2) for appropriatelane markings. Refer to chapter II for additional discussionand details. Where there is no fixed-sourcelighting, headlightglare acrossmediansor outer separations be a nuisance, can particularly where the highway has relatively sharpcurves.Under theseconditions,some form of antiglaretreatment shouldbe considered part of the medianbarrier installation, as providedit does not act as a snow fenceand createdrifting problems. Insofar as through traffic is concemed, a desired ease and freedom of operation, thesense in ofphysicalandpsychological separation from opposing traffic,is obtained whenmedians aboutl2 m or wider.with suchwidthsthe are frrcilitytruly is divided.The noiseand air presrr. oi opposingtraffic is not noticeable, at night the glareof headlights greatlyreduced. and is with widths oi l8 m or morethemedian can be pleasingly landscaped a parklikemanner. in Plantingsusedto achievethis parklike appearance should not compromiserhe roadside recoveryarea.It must be pointed out, however,that there is demonstrated benefit in any separation, raisedor flushed.

FRONTAGE ROADS Frontage roadsservenumerous functions,depending the typeofarterial they on serveand the character the surroundingarea.They may be usedto control of access the arterial,to function as a streetfacility servingadjoiningproperty. to andto maintaincirculationof traffic on eachside of the arterial.Frontage roads drivewaysof rcsidences and commercial establishments along the highway. Crossconnections between through-trafficlanesand frontageroads,usually the

AASHTO--Geometric Design of Highwoys and Steets

Cross SectionElements

ided in conjunction with crossroads, fumish the meansof access between property.Thus,the throughcharacter throughroadsandadjacent ofthe highway is preserved and is unaffectedby subsequent development ofthe roadsides. Frontage roads are used on all types of highways, and they are further discussedin the chaptersfollowing for each type of streetor highway. Their greatestuse is on freeways where their primary function is to distributeand collect traffic between local streetsand the freeway interchanges. some In circumstances, frontage roads are also desirableon arterial streetsboth in downtown and suburbanareas. Frontage roadsnot only providemore favorable accessfor commercial and residentialdevelopmentthan the faster moving arterial street,but also help to preserve safetyand capacityof the latter.In the rural areas,development of expresswaysmay require separatedfrontage roads

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somewhat removed frsm theright-of-wayandserve.as aess Gonncctions between crossroadsand adjacent farms or other development. Despite the advantagescited, the use of continuous frontage roads on relativelyhigh-speed arterialstreets with intersections grademay be undesirat able.At the crossstreets, variousthroughand tuming movements several the at greatlyincrease accident closelyspaced potential. intersections the The multipic intersections also vulnerable wrong-wayentrances. to are Traffic operations ar improvedif the frontageroadsarelocateda considerable distance from themain line at the intersectingcross roads in order to lengthenthe spacingbetween successiveintersectionsalong the crossroads.In urban areas, a minimum spacingofabout 50 m betweenthe arterial and the frontageroadsis desirable. For further discussionon frontageroadsat intersections, refer to ChapterlX, "lntersection with Frontage DesignElements Roads." Frontageroads generally are, but need not be, paratlel to the roadway lbr through trafflc, they may or may not be continuous,and they may be providcd on oneor both sidesof the arterial.Wherethe highway diagonallycrosses grid a streetsystemon a diagonalcourseor where the streetpatternis irregular,the t'rontage roads may be a variabledistancefrom the through-trafficroadways. Arrangements and patternof frontageroadsare shown in FiguresIV-7 and lV. 8. Figure IV-7A is the most commonarrangement, which is two frontagerosdt running parallel and approximately equidistantfrom a freeway.In urbanares' continuousfrontageroadsthataremoreor lessparallelto the freewaypcrmit thc useof the tiontageroadsasa backupsystemin caseof freewaydisruption.Figurc IV-7B showsa freewaywith one tiontageroad.On the side without the frontsgc road,thelocal streets serveto collectanddistributethetraffic. FigureIV-8 showr an inegular patternof frontageroads.

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FlgurelV-7. Typlcalfrontage roadarrangements.

arc Fromanoperational safety roads much and standpoint, frontage one-way

conflics at degree,but the advantages reductionin vehicularand pedestrian in In addition. streetsoften fully compensate this inconvenience. intersecting for

there is some saving in roadway and right-of-way width. Two-way frontage roads busyat-grade at intersections complicate crossing andtuming movements. join a two-way frontage Whereofframps road,thepotentialfor wrong-wayentry is increased. This problem is greatest wherethe rampjoins the frontageroad ar an acuteangle,thusgiving theappearance an onrampto thewrong-waydriver. of Two-way frontageroads may be consideredfor partially developedurban areaswhere the adjoining streetsystemis so irregularor so disconnected that onewould introduce considerableadded travel distanceand

cause undueineonienienee'Two-way frontage roads mayalsobeneeessary for suburban rural areaswherepointsof access the throughfacility are or to infiequent. whereonly one frontage roadis provided, whereroads streets or

AASHTHeometric

Desi

Cross Section Elements

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frontageroads,entranceand exit ramps. FigurelV-9. One-way

pattern. roads,irregular FlgurelV-8. Frontage

connecting with the frontage roads are widely spaced,or where there is no ofthe frontageroadsin urbanareas that distance parallelstreetwithin reasonable are developedor likely to be developed. Connectionsbetween the arterial and the frontage road are an important -clement of design.On arterialswith slow-moving traffic andone-way fronlage may work roads,slip rampsor simpleopeningsin a nanow outer separation well. reasonably Slip ramps from a freeway to two-way frontage roads are generally unsatisthey tend to induce wrong-way entry to the freeway through factory because at of lanesand causeaccidents the intersection the ramp and frontageroad.On freewaysand other arterials with high operatingspeeds.the ramps and their and storagc. to changes terminalsshouldbe liberally designed providefor speed Details of ramp designare coveredin later chapters. of FiguresIV-9 and IV- l0 show various arrangements frontageroadswith entranceand exit ramps.These designsare applicableto freewaysand othcr higher speedarterials. with one-way frontage roads' All Figure IV-9 also shows an arrangement elementsare designedto insure good operation on both the freeway and thc

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FigurelV-10. Two-way fronlageroads,entrance and exit ramps.

of the rampsand their terminals.In most cases. width of outerseparation the would be greaterthan 60 m in the areaof the ramp terrninals.The offramp is wrong-wayentry. connected the frontageroad at a right angle to discourage to Carefulattention needsto be given to the placement si-ens the use of of and tratfic markingsto prohibit wrong-waymovements. Because the potential of tbr wrong-waymovements. offrampshouldnot intersect tiontageroad the the opposite two-way side streetaccess. a The designof a frontageroad is affectedby the type of serviceit is intended to provide. Where a frontage road is continuousand passes through highly developed areas.its primary function is that of generalservice.and it assumes

exit F gurc IV:losho*saR ananEqmeiloFentrarrcEand rampsartwo-tf,ay

that requires wide outerseparation is not always a roads. This scheme frontage width woulddepend desiSn requirements on The in urbanareas. actual available

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AASHTMeometric Designof Hi,

Cross SectionElements

red development,traffic will be light and operation will be local in character. For widths of one- or two-way, two-lanefrontageroadsfor rural and urbancollectors,seeChapterVI.

OUTER SEPARATIONS Thearea tween traveled of aroadway through way be the for trafficandafrontage road or streetis the outer separation. Such separations function as buffers between throughtraffic on thearterialand ihe local traffic on thefrontage the road and provide spacefor a shoulderfor the throughroadwayand ramp connections or from thethroughfacility. to
-" "' e wider the outer separation;the less influence local traffic will have on &rough naffic.Wide separations lend themselves landscape !o trearnentandentrance theappearance both the highway andthe adjoining property.A substantial of width of outer separationis particularly advantageous intersections at with crossstrcets. This outer separationminimizes vehicle and pedestrianconflicts. Where ramp connectionsare provided between the through roadway and the frontageroad,the outerseparation must be substantially widerthan normal.The requiredwidth will depend mostly upondesignrequirements theramptermini, at Where two-way frontage roads are provided, a driver on the through facility must contend with approachingtraffic on the right (opposing frontage road traffic) as well as opposing arterial traffic on the left. Desirably, the outer separation should be sufficiently wide to minimize the effects of approaching traffic, particularlythe confusingand distractingnuisance headlightglare at of night. With one-wayfrontageroadsthe outer separation neednot be as wide as with two-way frontageroads. Figure IV-ll illustratesa one-lane,one-way frontage road with parking servingbusinesses alonga major undividedarterialstreetin a densely developed area of a large city. The raised and curbed outer separationseparates through traffic from local traffic and provides a refuge for pedestrians. The cross section and treatmentof an outer sepamtiondependslargely upon its width, the type of arterial, and the type of frontage road. Preferably,the strip shoulddrain away from the throughroadway either to a curb and gutterat the frontage road or to a swale within the strip. Typical cross section of outer separations various typesof arterialsare illustratedin Figurc IV- 12. for Thedesignin FigureIV- l2A would be applicableto low-speed arterialstreets in denselydevelopedareas. Figurc IV- l28 showsa minimal outer separation that may be applicableto consistssimply of the shoulders the through roadway and the frontageroad of and a physicalbarrier. ii

FigurelV-11. Frontage road in business areawith narrowouter separation.

FigureIV- l2C shorvs depressed a arterial with a cantilevered frontage road. In thisexample, insideedgeof thc frontage the roadis directlyover theoutside edgeof the throughroadway. FigureIV- l2D illustrates commolltypeof outerseparation a alonga section of,depressed free*'ar'. FigureIV- l2E showsa walledsection a depressed at anerialwith a ramp,and FigureIV- l2F showsa typicalfieewayourersepararion with a ramp.

N0ISE CONTROL (ieneral Considerations Noisemay be detlned unwanted as sound. generare lvlotorvehicles trafficnoise fiom the motor,aerodynamics. exhausr. and interaction tireswirh the roadof way. Efforts should be made to minimize the radiationof noise into noise sensitivelreas along rhe hi-qhway-lt is necessary that the designerevaluate probable noiselevelsand the effectivcness reducinghighwaytraffic noise of throughlocltion and designt'eatures.

AASHTMeometric Desi

CrossSectionElements

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The physicalmeasurement humanreactionto soundis difficult because of that this can thereis no instrument will measure directly.A closecorrelation be obtained usingtheA-scale a standard by on soundlevelmeter. The meteryields (dBA). in a directreading effectivedecibels A few generalrelationships may be helpful in understanding some of the principles soundgeneration transmission. of and Because noiseis measured on scale.a decrease l0 dBA will appear an observer b a a logarithmic of to to halving thenoise. of Forexample. noise 70dBA sounds a of as only one-half loud as 80 dBA assuming samefrequency the composition and other thingsbeing produces 3 dBA increase the noise equal.A doublingof the noisesource a in level.For example. a singlevehicleproduces noiselevel of 60 dBA at a if a certaindistancefrom the receiver,two of thesevehiclesat a common point of origin will produce63 dBA, fout vehicleswillProduce66 alBA;elghtvehiCles will produce69 dBA, and so forth. with distance, Noise decreases but not as quickly as one might expect.The sound level will decrease approximately3 to 4.5 dBA for each doubling of distancefrom a highway. Traffic noiseproduces varying humanreactions. The physicalfactorof noise is not, in itself,a good predictorof public annoyance. example,the reaction For is usuallylessif thenoisesource hiclden is from view. The typeof development in an areais anothertactor that affectsthe annoyance level. High traffic noise levelsare usuallymore tolerablein industrial than in residential areas. Other firctors intluence that humanreactions sound pitchandintermittency. to The are highcrthepitchor themorepronounced intermittency thenoise, greater the of the thc'degrce annoyancc. of

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(]eneral DesignProcedures Thc first stepin analyzing eft'ects noisetiom a proposed the of highwayfacility is to define the criteria fbr noise impacts.With thesecriteria defined,the location of noise-sensitive areas can be indentified.These may include rcsiclential lrcas. schools, churches, motels.parks,hospitals. nursinghomes. librrries.t-'tc. Thc existingnoiselevelsaredetermined measurement thc identified tbr by n o i s c - s c ' n s i t il v e du s c s r a c t i v i t i c s . an o The highrvay-generated noise level is then predicted one of the noise by prediction presently mcthods Peninent tactors traft'ic characterisavailable. are tics (specd. volurne.and c ion. barriers.and (eont:iguration.pavement+ype,grades<Jist*nc.e)- roadw+y eharaeterislic.s antl and type of tacility).Thc prcdictionis normallybased the highwaytratfic on rrhich rvill vield the worst hourly trrtflc noiseon a reqular basistbr the desien

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Cross SectionElements

CategoryDescription
Tracts of land in which serenityand quiet are ofextraordinary significanceand serve an importantpublic needand where rhe preservationof thosequalitiesis essential if the area is to continue to serveits inintendedpurpose.Such areascould include particularparks or portions amphitheaters, of parks, open spaces historic districts or which are dedicatedor recognized by

Design Noise Levels dBA' L.q(h)b Lre(h)

JI

60 (Exterior)

year.References(20)through(24)willprovidemoredetailedinfgrmationon noiseprediction. These criteriafor variouslanduses. raute tv-l givesFHWA noiseabatement noiseimpactsoccurundertwo impact.Traffic soundlevelsarcusedto deterrnine noise abatement criteria: 1) when the predictedlevels approachor exceedthe exceedthe existing criteria and, 2) when predictednoise levels substantially levelsmay not exceedthenoiseabatement noiselevel,eventhoughthepredicted the traffic noise impact of a proposed criteria. In order to adequaielyassess project, both criteria must be analyzed'

Designs NoiseReduction
areasis todesign the An effective methodof reducing traific noise from adjacent sight betweenthe highway so rhat someform of sotid material blocks the line of noisesourceandthereceptors.Advantageshouldbetakenoftheterrainin pleasing' remainsaesthetically io.ming a naturalbarrierso that the appearance jetermination of potential noise problems should be attempted.Line, Early and righr-of-wayshouldall be worked out wirh noise gradl, earthworkbalance, "built-in." Adding it in mind. Atrenuationmay be inexpensiveand feasibleif is expensive' after the designis tied down Intermsofnoiseconsiderations,adepressedhighwaysectionisthemost the roadway below ground level has the same general desirable.Depressing plane on baniers,i.e.,a shadowzone is created the receiver effectas erecting (SeeFigureIV-13') whereinnoiselevelsare reduced. wi,.I..ahighwayisconstructedonanembankmentinanoise.sensitivearea' block will the beyond shoulders sometimes widthor theembankment additional thusreducingthe noiseproblem. nearthe highway. the line of sightro receptors (SeeFigureIV- 14.) particularlyalong Specialsoundbaniersmay bejustified at certainlocations. groundleveloretevatedhighwaysthroughnoise-sensitiveareas'Concrete. wood.metal.ormasonry*ul|,u,"veryeffective'oneofthemoreaesthetically form barriersis theearthberm thathasbeengradedto achievea natural pleasing of bermconstruction The feasibility blendingwith rhesunoundingtopography. shou|dbeconsideredaSpartoftheoveraugradingplanforthehighway.There within normal whereaneffectiveearthbermcanbe constructed will be instances right.of-wayorwithaminimaladditionalright-of-waypurchase.Ifright-of-way berm can a is insufficientto accommodate full-height earthberm' a lower earth height. thedesired to in bc constructed combinationwith a wall or screen achieve all buffer because rheir permeabilityto the flow of air. However, almost of plantingsoftersomenoisereduction,andexceptionallywideanddenseplantings

appiopriir- oarraitia ictiuiriis tocti ior

requiring specialqualitiesof serenityand quiet. Picnic areas,recreationareas, playgrounds active sportsareasand parks not included in CategoryA and residences, motels,hotels, public meetingrooms, schools,churches, libraries,and hospitals. Developedlands,propertiesor activities not included in Categories or B above. A Undeveloped landswhich do not contain improvements activitiesdevotedto or frequenthuman habitationor use and for which such improvement.s activitiesare or unplanned and not programmed. Residences, motels,horels, publicmeeting rooms,schools.churches.Iibraries, hospitals. auditoriums. and

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" Source:FederalAid Highwav Program Manua!,Vol. 7, ch.7. sec.3 Transmitral34g, August9. 1982. n Either L,,,{h)or L",th) (but not borh) may be usedon a project. critaria hasnot beenestablished theselands. They may be treatcd " Noiseabatement for as developedlands if rhe probabiliry ior developmenris high. provisions for noisc abatement would be basedon the need.expectedbenefitsand costsofsuch measures. u lnteriornoise abatement criteriain this categoryapply to ( I ) indoor activirieswhereno cxtrcmenoise-sensitive land useor activity is identified.and (2) exterioractivitiesthst are either rcmotc from the highway or shieldedso rhat rhey will nor be significanrly affectedby the noise.bur the inrerioractivirieswill.

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TablelV-3. Noiseabatement criterlafor varlousland uses.d

380

AASHTHeometic

Design of Highways and Streets

may result in substantialreductions in noise levels. Even where the noise effectsofthe plantingswill significant,the aesthetic reductionis not considered producea positive influence.

ROADSIDECONTROL GeneralConsiderations greatly depend of Theefficiencyandsafety a highwaywithoutcontrolof access interference, of whichoriginates most of and upontheamount character roadside orotherdeve to Ie movements andfrom businesses;rcsidences, bui alongthe highway.Abutting propertyownershave rightsof access, if to and desirable the highwayauthoritybe empowered regulate controlthe that driveways otherroadside and elements of location, and design, operation access to trafficmovement. in such mailboxes orderto minimizeinterference through as

the of FigurelV-14. Etfects elevating highway'

roadsidedevelopmentand unconInterferenceresulting from indiscriminate hazard,and resultsin loweredcapacity,increased trolled drivewayconnections of earlyobsolescence the highway'

DrivewaYs
( O P R E S S E OV E R T I C A L S I O W A L L S }

Drivewayterminalsare,ineffect,low-volumeintersections;thus'theirdesign and locationmerit specialconsideration' of classification theparticular Drivewaysareoir.ctrfr.tated to thefunctio_nal of affect the oPeration arterials'the adversely roadway.Whereariu.*iyt tight on local sreets, wherethe primary function drivewaysbecomeimportantlinks to ;f the streetis to provide access local establishments' are logical and desirableforms Drivewaysop"r",.Jfo' right turns only and ...L^-^ lrra ^.ncc cpcrinn inclJdes curbed median or a flush median where the cross section includesa cul

more r considerablY

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Floure lV-13. Effects of deoresslnq the hlqhway.

drive-inOlt::t:"t:: with numerous on ever.thereareinstances majorstreets traffic

ittnrii"tand:arcundestrableonarterialstreets-!Jswwouldworsen ar oi r.ri rurn.s driveways

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operationsby forcing large volumes of traffic to make U-turns or travel _ around the block.

Theregulation design driveways intimatery and of are rinked with therightof -wayandzoning contror theroadside. newfacilities, n...rruf righ,of on the of-waycanbeobtained provide desired to the degree drivewuy of regulation ano control.In manycases existingfacilities, on additional rigtrt-of--way be can acquired agreements or madeto improveexistingcondiiions and'prohibit undesirable access conditions. often the desired degree drivewayiontrol of mustbeeffected through use police the of powers require to permits all new for driveways adjustment those and of existing. objective driu.*"y rcgtilaThe oi tionsis to preserve capacity promote and operationaicapacity p."s"riuingtrr" by desiratlespacing propellqyoutqddri g't!ays. iUinninr is qrd tfs dependenr...= uponthe typeand extenrof regislative aurhoritygranted highwayug*"y.-the Many states local municipalities and havedeveloped standards driu.*"y, for andsetup sepiuate unitsto handle detailsincidentto checking the requests and issuingpermits fornew, orforchanges existing, in drivewayconne-ctions tomain highways.Major features discussed neededge-ometric are and controlserc suggested An Information_al in Guide preparingprivateDrivewav Regulafor tions Major Highways (8). for
Driveway regulations, rargery effectedthroughissuance permits,generaily of control right-of-way encroachment, driveway location,driveway design,sight distance, drainage, of curbs,parking,setback, use righting,andsr!ning.-Some of the principles of inrersection design apply directly to driveways.dne of thc importantfeaturesis the eliminationof large gradedor pavedareas adjacent ro -'the traveled way upon whieh drivers can enter and leave the facilitv at wilt. Another featureis the provisionof adequate driveway width and throatdimcnsionsand layout to accommodate typesof vehiclespatronizingthe the roadsi<Je establishment. Sight distanceis a significantdesigncontrol. No advertising signsshouldbe permittedin the right-of-way.Billboardsor orherelements oursidi the risht-ofway thatobstructsightdistance shouldbe controlledby statutory authorii or by purchase easements. of A desirableultimate plan for a main highway or street without control of access with concentrated but business frontageis the groupingof drivewaysro reduce the number of separateconnectionsto the through traffic lancs by providing an outerparallelroad(frontageroad) to which thedriveways conncct. This type of control and design is particularly pertinentto a main hight"uy ot

further developmentof the roadsides. Thus, seriousroadsideinterferencei s preventedat all stages, and the through characterof the highway or streetis preserved gradualandjudicious provisionoffrontage roads. by

Mailboxes Mailboxesand appurtenant newspaper tubesservedby carriersin vehiclesmay very well constitute safetyhazardeitherdirectly or indirectly,depending a upon the placement the mailbox, the crosssectiondimensions the highway or of of street, sightdistance conditionsin thevicinity of themailbox,traffic volume,and impact resislancesfrhe rnailbox suppor+ The safety of both the carrier and the motoring public is affected whenever the carrier slows for a stop and when the carrier resumes travel along the highway. The risk is greatly increased thecross if sectionof the highway and the lateralplacement mailboxesare suchthat the of vehicle must occupy a portion of the traveledway while the mailbox is being serviced. The mailboxandsupportshouldbe,ifpossible,locatedin an areanot exposed to throughtraffic. The mountingheightof the box placesthe box in a direct line with the windshield on many vehicles.This situation is more critical where multiplebox installations encountered. many areas, typicalmultiple are In the mailbox installation consistsof two or more posts supporting horizontal a member,usuallya timber plank, which carriesthe group of mailboxes. The horizontalsupportelementtends to penetrate the windshieldand enter the passenger compartment when struckby a vehicle.(Suchinstallations ro be are avoidedwhereexposedto traffic.) Mailboxes shouldbe placedfor maximumconvenience thepatron, to consistent with safetyconsiderations highway traffic, the carrier.and the parron. for consideration shouldbe given to (l) minimum warkingdisrance within the roadwayfor the patron,(2) availablestoppingsight distancein advance ofthe mailbox site (especiallyon older roads).and (3) possiblerestrictionto comer sight distance driveway entrances. at The placingof mailboxes along highspeed. high-volume highways ihould be avoidedif otherpracrical locarions are available.New installations should,where feasible.be locatedon rhe far right sideof an intersection with a public roador privatedrivewayentrance. Boxes shouldbe placed only on the right-hand sideof rhehighwayin the direction of travelof the carrierexcepton one-waystreets wherethey may alsobe placedon the left-handside.

street a newlocation whichsufficient on for right-of-way beacquircd thc can for

sectionsof frontageroads are provided to interceptdriveways resulting from

sections frontage of roadsareconstructedlo-onn-t the few n-Essaryitrivewaysinitially required. Then,in succeeding stages. exrensions ad<titiond or

supports should be of a type that will yield or breakaway safely if struck.The mailboxshouldbe firmly attached the supportro prevenrit from breaking to

AASHTO--Ceometric Design of Hig

Cross Section Elements

opening the mailbox door, it is recommendedthat the roadsideface of a mailbox be set200 to 300 mm outsidethe shoulderor turnout.current postalregulations shouldbe consultedfor specificset-backrequirements. In areas heavyor frequentsnowfall,mailboxesmay be placedat aboutthe of customary of theplowed line windrow,butnocloserthan about 3.0m to theedgeof-traveledway if the shoulderis wider than3.0 m. cantilever mailbox suppons may prove advantageous snow plowing operations.whenever possible, for mailboxes shouldbe located behindexistingguardrail. In some urban and suburbanareas,mailboxes are locatedalonc selected streets and highwayswherethe local postoffice hasestablished deliveryrourcs. In these areas whentheroadway a curbandguttersection. has which is theirsual case, mailboxes shouldbe located wirh the frontof the box 150to 300 mm back of the faceof curb. on residential streets without curbsor shoulder and which carry low-tratfic volumesoperating low speeds, roadside at the faceof a mailbox shouldbe offset between200 to 300 mm behind the edgeof the traveledway. Forguidanceon mailboxinstallations, refertorhelatesredition AASHTo's of A Guidefor Erecting Mailhoxes on Highways (9).

turnout increased 3.0moreven m forsome be to 3.6 conditions. However, may it Hot+ereasonable requireevena 24 m shoulderorturnoutontow-volume, to low-speed roads streets. providespace or To outside all-weather the surface for

loose and flying throughthe windshield.The samesafetycrireriaalso apply to multiplebox installations. Oneof the primary considerations the locationof the mailbox in relation is to thetraveled way. Basically vehicle a stopped a mailboxshouldbe clearof the at traveledway. The higherthetraffic volume or thespeed greater clearance the the should be. An exceptionto this may be reasonable low-volume, low-speed on roads and streets. Most vehiclesstopped a mailbox will be clearof the traveledway whenthe at mailbox is placedoutsidea2.4 m wide usableshoulderor turnout.This position is recommended mosr rural highways.For high-volume,high-speed for highways, it is recommended that the width of shoulderin front of the mailboior

Long, nanow terrainridgeswherea cut sectionmay be costly in money consequences or in environmental for 2. Nanow rights-of-waywhereall of the surfaceareamust be retained streetpurposes 3'Largeintersectionareasoraseriesofadjoiningintersectionsonan irregular or diagonal street pattern +. Railroadyards,airport and runways,or similar facilities 5 . Parksor other land uses,existing or planned 6. Right-of-way acquisitioncostsexceedcost of tunnel constructionand l. operation.

the are of and Althoughthecostsof operation maintenance tunnels beyond be considered. costsmustnevertheless of scope this policy;these are of and Additionalconsfiuction designfeatures tunnelsecdons discussed on treatise the a complete be that below.It is notintended thissection considered of is for the purpose The materialthat follows subjectof highwayrunnels. informageneral background with and prouiainghighwayplanners designers matter of somesimplification subject basic iion.to accomplistr-this objective, simplisuch of branch engineering, As is required. with anyhighlyspecialized be should usedwith caution' information fied considor mechanical electrical and pumping, other lighting, Theventilating, policy' of the as are design regarded outside scope this in erations tunnel

Types of Tunnels ( Tunnelscan be classifiedinto two major categories: I ) tunnelsconstructed byminingmethods.and(2)tunnelsconstructedbycut-and-covermethods. without The first category refers to those unnels that are constructed into trvo rock or soil. Usuallythis categoryis subdivided removingtheoverlying verybroadgroupsaccordingtotherequiredconstructionmethod.Thesemethi'e'. ods are namedto reflect the overall characterof the material to be excavated. ground. hard rock and soft requirements to of particularinterest the highway designerarethe structural and their relative costs.As a generalrule' hardof theseconstmctionmethods tunnel conrock tunneling is tess expensive than soft-ground tunneling' A the rock will normallyrepresent andhomogeneous throulh solid.intact, structed costs' andconstruction to structuraldemands lowerendof the scalewith respect suppon A tunnellocatedlglow water in materialneedingimmediateand heavy air shieldand compressed methods'

TUNNELS General Considerations Developmentof streetsor highways may require sectionsbe consrructed in !unnels eitherto carry thestreets highwaysunderor througha naturalobstacle or conditions underwhichtunnelconstruction may be warranted thetbllowing: are

AASHTO,-4eometric Design of H

Cross Section Elements

The shape the structural of crosssectionof the tunnelvarieswith the typeand magnitude loadings. thosecases of In wherethe structure will be subjected ro - roof loads with little or no side pressures, a horseshoe-shaped crosssectionis used.As side pressures rncrease, curyatureis introducedinto the sidewaltsand invert strurs added. when the loadings approach a distribution similar to hydrostatic pressures,a full circular section is usually more efficient and economical.All crosssectionsare dimensioned provide adequate to spacefor ventilation ducts. The secondcategory of tunnel classificationdeals with the two types of tunnels where the major constructionoperationsare accomplishedfrom the surface,namely, cut-and-cover tunnelsand trench tunnels.The latter are used exclusively for subaqueous work. In the trench method, prefabricated tunnel a dredged trench, and joined togetherunderwater; the trench is then backfilted. when conditions of subsurfacesoil, amount of river current, volume and characterof river traffic, availability of construction facilities, and typc of existing waterfront structuresare favorable, the trench method may prove mor economical thanalternative methods. By far the most common type of tunnel constructionfor shallow tunnels, which often occurs in urban areas,is the cut-and-covermethod.As the name implies,the methodconsists excavating open cut, building the tunnel of an rvithin the cut, and backfilling over the completedstrucrure. under idcal conditions, methodis themosteconomical constructing this for tunnels locarc6 at a shallow depth: however,it must be noted that surfacedisruptionand with utilitiesgenerally makethismethodvery expensive difficult. and _ qroblems

grades' make a good light transition.Ventilation costs dependon length' v e n t i l a t i o n ,t y p e o f s y s t e m ,a n d a i r q u a l i t y n a t u r a la n d v e h i c l e - i n d u c e d constraints. for The overallroadwaydesignshouldavoid the necessity guidesignswithin are clearances usually insufficient normal vertical and lateral tunnels,because Exit 'can clearance be providedonly at very greatexpense. for suchandadditional from the tunnelportal downstream rampsshouldbe locateda sufficientdistance and the point of exit. This guide signsbetweenthe tunnel to permit necessary that shouldbe a minimum of 300 m. It is also highly undesirable traffic disrance as might be the caseif be requiredto merge,diverge,or weavewithin a tunnel, Forksandexit or interchanges. two closelyspaced the tunnelis locatedbet*ee-n entrancerampsshoutdbe avoidedwithin tunnels.

csnstructed shipyards dry dock:, floatedto thesite,sunkintOin or

Tunnel Sections From the standpointof serviceto traffic, tunnelsshould not differ materially from grade seiaration structures. The same standards for alinement and apply generallyexceptthat profilJ and for verticalandhorizontalclearances rightof minimum valuesgenerallyareusedbecause high cost and restricted of-way. freewaydesirablyshould puit teft- andright-shoulder widthsof the approach is thetunnel.Actually, the needfor addedlateralspace greater becarriedthrough of because the greaterlikelihood of structures underseparation in tunnelsthan are If in disabled thelongerlengths. shoulders not provided' becoming vehicles during priodsof may resultwhen vehiclesbecomediSabled intolerabledelays heavy traffic. However, the cost of providing shouldersin tunnels may be by prohibitiue,particularlyon long tunnelsthat are constructed the boring or to of the determination the width of shoulders be Thus, ,ni.ta-driu" methods. basedon an in-depth analysisof all factors provided in a tunnel should be in involved.Whereit is not feasibleto provideshoulders a tunnel,alrangements emergency service vehicles that can should be made for around-the-clock promptly removeany stalledvehicles' ' Figure IV-15 illustratesrhe minimum and desirablesectionsfor two-lane tunnels.The minimum roadwaywidth, betweencurbs,as shown in Figure IVtraveledway. but not less thantheapproach l5A, shouldbe at least0.6 m greater shouldbe a minimumof 0.5 m. on than7,2 m. The curbor sidewalk eitherside betweenwalls of a two-lanetunnelshouldbe a minimum of The total clearance 9 m. The total width and curb or sidewalk width can be varied as neededor be lessthanthe minimum valuesstatedabove.The minimum verticalclearance

General Design Considerations The feeling of confinement in tunnels is unpleasantand traffic noises arc magnified. Becausetunnels are the most expensivehighway structuresthey shouldbe madeas shon as practicable. Keepingas much of the tunnellengthas possible tangent on will notonly minimizethelengthbut alsoimprove opcrating efficiency. Tunnels designed with extreme curvature may result in limitcd stoppingsight distance.Sight distance acrossthe faceof the tunnelwall should be carefully examined. G r a d e si n t u n n e l ss h o u l db e d e t e r m i n e d r i m a r i r yo n t h e b a s i so f d r i v e r p c o m f b r t w h i l e s t r i v i n g t o r e a c ha p o i n t o f e c o n o m i cb a l a n c eb e t w e e nt h e construction costs and the operating and maintenanceexpenses.Many o n t u n n e l v e n t i l a t i o na n d l i g h t i n g . L i g h t i n g e x p e n s e s r e h i g h e s tn e a r a p o r t a l sa n d d e p e n dh e a v i l y o n a v a i l a b i l i t yo f n a r u r a l l i g h t a n d t h e n c e dt o

and is 4.9m for freeways 4.3 m for otherhighways'

MsHTMeomerric

Design of Highways and Sffeets

Cross SectionElements

ver, the minimum clear height should not be less than the maximum heightof load that is legal in a particularstate,and it is desirableto provide an allswancefor future repavingof the roadways.

Figure l58 illustrates desirable IVthe section section with two 3.6m lanes.
a 3.0m right shoulder,a 1.5m left shoulder, a 0.7 m curbor sidewalkon each and side. The roadway width may be disrributed to either side in a different manner if neededto better fit the dimensionsof the tunnel approaches. The vertical clearance for the desirable section is 4.9 m for freeways and 4.3 m for other highways. Normally, pedestrians not permittedin freewaytunnels;however,space are should be provided for emergency walking and for accessby maintenance personnel. Raisedsidewalks, m wide,aredesirable 0.7 beyondtheshoulder areas thedual plrpose of a safetywalk andan obstacleto preventthe overhang

of the vehiclesfrom damagingthe wall finish or the tunnellighting fixtures.If tunnel may be a pedestriancounts indicate a warrant for passage, separate such for tunnelsmay alsobe warranted otherspecialuses, considered. Separate as bicycle routes. Figure IV-16 shows several diagrammatictunnel sections and partially and : for coveredhighways. Directional traffic should be separated safefyreasons to relieve the dizzying effect of two-way traffic in the confined space.This can separation be achievedby providing a twin openingas shownin FigureIV16A, by multilevel sectionsas shown in Figure IV-I6B and IV-16C, or by terraced structuresas shown in Figure IV-16D. Figure IV-I6E illustrates The roadwaysthat are tunneledunder hillside buildings to mutual advantage. view, and ventilation.A tenacedroadwaysare open on the outsidefor light, parrially covercd section as shswn in Figure IV=16F, provides light and ventilation to the vehicle user while minimizing freeway intrusion on the community traversed. This type of cross section is covered in the section "Depressed Freeways"in ChapterVIII.

* tncLuoes
ALLP.WANCE OR F F,UTU.R E. R6PAytfi6.

Examples of Tunnels Figure IV-17 showsa freewaytunnelingthrougha hillside.The portalsare and attractively designed.The interchangeis located a sufficient staggered distance from the tunnel to allow spacefor effective signing and the necessary traffic maneuvers. tunnel.Note the directional FigureIV- l8 showsthe interiorof a three-lane The upperrow of two rows of lighting fixtures on eachwall in the foreground. portalto reduce the daytimelighting at theentrance lightsprovides supplemental optical shock of traveling from natural to artificial lighting. The ceramic-tile finish on the walls and ceiling provides reflective surfacesthat increasethe brightness level and uniformity of lighting. A curb-to-curbwidth of 12.3m is providedwith 0.7 m wide safetywalks along each wall.

llnim6 -!-

PEDESTRIAN CROSSINGS StreetOvercrossings BridgeCrossings and and on overcrossings must Provisions pedestrians oftenbeconsidered street for of streets, barrier a curbat theedge On on longer bridge crossings. lower-speed
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Figurelv-l5. Typicaltwo-lane tunnelsecllons.

to Continuity of curb height should be maintainedon the approaches and over roadways on stnrctures.a barrier-typerail of structures.For higher-speed

AASHTO-Geometic

Design of Highways and

SecionElements Cross

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FigurelV-16. Diagrammatic tunnelsections.

adequate height may be usedto separate walkway and the vehicle lanes.A the pedestrian-type I or screen rai shouldbe usedat theouteredgeof the walkway on structures.

Separations for pedestrian Crossings Pedestrian separations should be provided where pedestrian volume. traffic volume, intersection capacity,and other conditions favor their use. Local. Stateand Federallaws and codesshouldbe consultedfor possible additional requirements concerning need, as well as more stringent design requircments. Location and design of pedestrian undercrossings overcrossings or requireindividual study.They may be warrantedwhererhereare heavypcak pedestrian movements, suchasat centralbusiness districts, factories. schools, wneie abnorrnal hazard of irrcorwenienceto pedestriani would otherwise result. Pedestrianseparations.usually overpasses, may be necessary at

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one'waytunnel' of a 3-lane FigurelV'18. Interior

AASHTO--4eometic Design of Highways and Steets

CrossSectionElements to subject snowand In walkingor playingon top of theenclosure' areas children of thepossibility meltingsnow be should givento consiaeraiion icingconditions, and falling onto the dropping from the roof of a covered overpass and ice roadwaybelow. AtpresentitisnotpossibletdestablishabsolutewarTantsaStowhenorwhere from structures' of objects the to be barrieisshourd instailed discourage rhrowing the clearlinesof to preserve The generalneedtbr economyin desiln and desire the uy screensmust be carefully balancedagainst a strucrureunencumberea pedestrianbe *o;irement that the highway traveler and overpass ;;lr" providedmaximumsafetY. Locationswherescreensdefinitelyshouldbeconsideredatthetimethe are is overpass constructed as follows: elsewherewhere it would On an overpassneara school, a playground' or used by children be expected that the overpass would be frequently bY unaccomPanied adults' exclusivelyby pedestrians 2. On all overparr., in large urban areasused by police' and not .utily k.pt under surveillance indicatesa need where experienceon nearbystructures 3. On overpasses for screens' L wheretherehavebeen shouldalsobe installedon existingstructures Screens evident and overpass whereit seems ofobjectsbeingdroppedfrom the incidents of or apprehension a few individuals warningsigns' surveillance, thatincreased the will not effectivelyalleviate problem' involved on protectivescreens pedestrian More completeinformaiion on the use of Screeningof orcrpass is over?asses available in A Guitte for Protec'tive (10). Strrrctarc's "of freeways. rigur", IV_lg and IV-20 illustrate pedestrianovercrossings FigureIV-lgshowsapartiallyenclosedpedestrianwalkwayoverasix-lane overcrossingis parallel to the divided freeway. The ramp leading up to the freeway. bridge ramp leadingup to a pedestrian FigureIV-20 showsa spiralpedestrian over a dividedfreewaY.

five.block intervals.As this situationimposes .*trrr" inconvenience on "n pedestrians desiring to crossthe freeway at the terminatedstreets, pedestrian separations may be provided. where thereare frontageroadsadjacentto the arterial highway the pedestrian crossing may be designedto span only the through ro"o*uy or the entirc roadway.Separations both the throughroadwaysand the froniage of roadsmay not be justified if the frontage roads carry light and relatively s-low-moving rraffic; however,in somecases separation the shourdspanthe frontageroadsas w_ell. Fencesmay be required ro preventpedestrians crossing the arteial in spite of separations.

rreeways expressways or wherecrossstreets are terminated. many on freeways, highway overpasses cross for streets may be limitedto threeto

Pedestrian rampsshould be providedat all pedestrian separation structures. when warranted possible, stairway be providedin addition and a can to a ramp. Rampsshouldbe deleted only whenit would be infeasible mobiliry-limitcd for persons reachthepedestrian to separation structures to unusual due topographical or architectural obstacles whenalternate or safeand reasonably .oni"nl.nt Jneans are provided to crossthe highway. walkways for pedestrian separarions shouldhavea minimumwidthof 2.4m. Greaterwidths may be requiredrvherethereare exceptionailyhigh vorumes of pedestriantratfic. such as in the downtown areasof larger cities and aroun6 sportsstadiums. A seriousproblem associated with pedestrian and highway overpasses with sidewalksis rheact of droppingobjectsinto the pathof the traifi" mouingundcr the structure.The seriousness the consequences can result from objects of that being thrown from bridgesis broughtout by scattered continuouscounrrybut wide reportsof tatalitiesand major injuries causedby this type vandalism. of Thereis no practicaldeviceor merhod devisedthatcanbe universallyapplied yet to preventa determinedindividual tiom dropping an object from an overpass. smallobjects can be droppedthroughmeshscreens. Solid plasticenclosures arc more effectivedeterrents they areexpensive but and may be insufferablyhot in way, which is conduciveto other forms of criminal activity'Any cornplerely encrosed pedesrrian overpass an added has probrem of

Curb-CutRamPs curbsand adjacent or a Whendesigning projectthat requires may -require- . D --^ ^..^-ri^

whosr_t-*_"f1.::1tY]: L*,n" ;iluirc*;o of pi*o* *nn di.sabilities with

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AASHTO--4eometric Design of Hig

CrossSectionElements

seep-faced curbs is one form of obstaclethat can be alleviated while stilt providing adequateand reasonableaccessfor personswith disabilities and - without sacrificing the mobility of others. This can be doneby properdesign of eurb cuts.

Design details curb-cut wheerchair of and ramps wiil varyin reration the to followingfacrors:
Sidewalkwidth Sidewalk location with respectto the back faceof curb Height and width of curb crosssection Design turning radiusand lengthof curve along the curb face Angle of streetintersections Plannedorexisting loeationofsign and signarcontrotdevices Storm water inlets and public surface utilities Possiblesight obstrucions Streetwidth Border width Roadway grade Thesefactorsnecessitate establishment basicramp typesand the of differing designapplicationspredicared acceptable on designstanaardiofeach agency and the geometric characteristics each intersection. of Severalagencieshave designguidesand standards that are reflectecl the fbllowing diJcussions in and

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AASHTHeometic

Design of Highways and Streets

i-

(25) esign recommendations (28). The designershouldconsultcurrent of andstandards state-of-the-art for editions guides criteria. curbrampsin varyingconditions. Iigure IV-21 illustrates FigureIV-2lA where entiregrade the the differential totallyachieved shqws condition is outside a facecurb can be usedalongthe ramp.This the sidewalk.In this case, steep preferable is condition always sinceit does require not anyone walkacross to the ramped area. where In mostareas sidewalks required, ramp are the mustbeincorporated the in IV-2IB andIV-21C.Figure sidewalk shown Figures as in IV-2IB reflects normal a with room design adequate fordevelopmentof slopes outsideofany restriction the to of Figure IV-2IC shows beginning theslope. another example wherca restriction requires rampto beconstructed the totally within thesidewalk area In some designs builLuprampmay desirable. a be FigureIV-2 I D shows such a design.Theseshouldnot project into the traffic lane. Also, drainage may be affected not properlyconsidered. if adversely of opening rampmusCbe and Thelocation thecurb-cut carefullycooidinated with respect thepedestrian to crosswalk lines.Thisplanning mustinsure the that ramp opening(at the fully depressed curb) is situatedwithin the parallel markings. boundaries thecrosswalk of lY-22 andIV-24 showa typicalcurb-cut Figures rampat themiddte the of wherepedestrian curb radius.In areas and/orvehicular traffic volumes are to moderate high, use of this configuration shouldbe discouraged. Such placement the users enter to forces ramp diagonally theintersection, into perhaps themto conflicts themandexposing with trafficfrom two direcmisdirecting is concern theblind.On intersections a to tions.This situation of special with - the that platformbeprovided sh-onradius, requirement a "bottomdischarge" on side curblocated withinthemarked theroadway of theradius crosswalk may of edge-of-crosswalk into theoutertravel cause encroachment the inside line crosswalk users conflict from throughtraffic. lane.This mayexpose to IV-23illustrates curb-cut ramps thebeginning endpoints thc Figure at and of curbradius. FigureIV-24 showsa ramp at the middle of the curb radiuswith an architectural texture. with disabilities not limitedto intersections for Ramps persons are snd and shouldalsobe provided otherappropriatc marked crosswalks, ramps at pointsof pedestrian or designated concentration, as loadingislands, such and midblockpedestrian crossings, locations wherepedestrians could not place cross highway street. otherwise recognize proper the to the Bccausc or pedestrian non-intersection crossings generally are unexpected thc mo. by parking. additional prohibiting guidance recommendations For design and pedestrian with respect to crosswalk markings, referto the MUTCD (2).

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nonF i g u r eI v - 2 5 s h o w sa m i d b l o c kc u r b - c u tr a m p .R a m p ss h o u l dh a v ea skidsurface. intersecting As shown in Figure lv -26,when a major highway or secondary pedistrian traffic and the roadway geometricsrequire convex road involves with islandsor median dividers, the plan should include ramps for persons cannotsafely take refuge in islandsthat are wheelchairs disabilities.Peoplein When they of lessthan 1.2m wide because the vulnerabilityto moving traffic. 1.8 m island width is desirable' a are propelledby attendants, angles,turning iu.h int"rrrrtion will differ with respectto the intersection andother inlets,traffic controldevices, drainage roadwaywidths,sizeof islands, plan should be preparedthat variablespreviously described.An appropriate includingverticalprofilesatthecurbflow all indicates of thedesiredgeometrics, of line. The plan could then be evaluatedfor the convenient and safe locations with disabilities' Drainage inlets the ramps to accommodateusageby persons ramps' of should be locatedon the upstream.side all crosswalksand sidewalk pattems, stoP bar This design operation wiligovem the pedestriancrosswalk establishthe signs,and in the casesof new construction, locations]regututory most desirablelocation of signal support standards' wherecurb and sidewalkare Rampsshouldbe provided at all intersections providei even though the highway grade may exceed the allowable. This provision altows foi wheelchairswhen the occupant is assistedby another person. see For fufther informationon curb-cutrampsfor personswith disabilities, (28). Guidelines theAntericansv'ith DisabilitiesAct Accessihiliry

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BICYCLE FACILITIES It is practicalfor most of the mileageneededfor bicycle travel to be iomprised at of the streetand highway systemgenerallyas it presentlyexists.However, further to corridors,it is appropriate supplement or certainlocations, in certain bikeways' the existinghighway systmby providing specificallydesignated with the AASHTO provisionsior bicycle facilities shouldbe in accordance GuitleforDetelopnrcntofBicyc,leFacilities(rr).Inaddition,appropriate probable for considerationshould be given to possiblemeasures enhancing are bicyclefacilities notprovided' specific evenif bicycletravelon thehighway, on bhupr.t ll providesfurther discussion the subjectof bicycle facilities.

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AASHTO--$eometric Design of H ighways and Streets

Cross SectionElements

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BUSTURNOUTS Bus mode of masstransportation. important Bus travel is an increasingly The and to the turnouts serve remove busfromthetrafficlanes. location design and manner provide ready access thesafest mostefficient in should of turnouts possible.

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Freeways whenexclusive roadways not are bus for Thebasic requirement a busturnout, be and ofbuses effected provided, thatthedeceleration, standing, acceleration is lanes. Other from areas clearofand separated thethrough-traffic on pavement passengerplatfcnns, stairs. ramps, include in of elements thedesign busturnouts to lanes andmarkings. Speed-change shouldbe long enough railings, signs. the lanes approximately the at the and enable busto leave enter through-traffic lanesfrom bus turnouts The sidesway passengers. lengthof acceleration to as startfrom a the shouldbe well above normalminimumvalues, the buses than capability position the loaded hrs a loweracceleration bus standing and

CrossSectionElements

passenger cars.Normal-lengthdeceleration lanesaresuitable. The bus standing - areaand speed-change lanes,which includethe shoulders, shouldbe 6.0 m wide

in color and texturewith the through-trafficlanesto discourage throughtraffic from encroachingon or enteringthe bus stop. The dividing areabetweenthe outer edgeof freeway shoulderand the edge of bus turnout lane should be as wide as feasible, preferably 6.0 m or more. However, in extremecases this width could be reducedto a minimum of 1.2m. A barrieris usualiy neededin the dividing area,and fencingis desirable keep to pedestriansfrom entering the freeway. Pedestrianloading platforms should not be lessthan 1.5m wide and preferably1.8m to 3.0 m wide. Platformsshouldbe if required by the climate. Typical cross sections of tumouts are ----:.-qove-red illustrated in Figure IV-27. This illusration shows ( l) a normal secrion,(2) one

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section throughan underpass, (3) a section an elevated and on structure.

Arterials The interference betweenbuses andothertraffic canbe considerably reduced by providing turnoutsclear of the lanesfor throughtraffic. It is somewhat rarethat sufficient right-of-way is availableon the lower type arterial streetsto permit turnoutsin the borderarea,but advantage shouldbe takenofevery opportunity to do so. To be fully effective,bus tumoutsshouldincorporate I ) a deceleration ( lane --- - ---or*taper to permit easy entranceto the loading area, (2) a standing space sufficiently long to accommodate maximum numberof vehiclesexpected the to occupy the spaceat one time, and (3) a merginglane to enableeasyreentryinto the through+rafficlanes. The deceleration laneshouldbe tapered an angleflat enoughto encourage at the bus operatorto pull completelyclear of the through lane. Usually it is not feasible to provide a length sufficient to permit decelerationfrom highway speeds clearofthe traveledway. A taperofabout5: l, longitudinalto transverse, is a desirableminimum. When the bus stop is on the far side of an intersection, the intersection area may be used as the entry area to the stop. The loadingarcashouldprovideabout I 5 m of lengthfor eachbus.The width should be at least3.0 m and preferably3.6 m. The merging or reentry taper may be somewhat more abrupt than the deceleration taper but, preferably,should not be sharperthan 3:1. Where the nearsideof an intersection. width of crossstreetis usually Se the great enough to pmvide the necessarymerging space. The total length of turnout for a two-bus loading areaof minimum design shouldbe about55 m for a midblock location.45 m for a near-side location.
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Cross SectionElements

Facilities Park-and-Ride
Location park-and-ridefacilities should be locatedadjacentto the streetor highway andbe theparking visible to thecommuterswhom they areintendedto attract.Preferably, or pointswherethere shouldbe locatedat pointsthat precedethe bottlenecks areas is signifrcanttraffic congistion; they should be locatedas close to the residential occupant' *"* ^ possiblein order to minimize travel by vehicleswith only one are not prohibitive' and they should be located far enough out that land costs considered' to Bicyclaand pedestrianaccess park-and-ridefacilities should be that affect parking lot location in addition to optimum 6ther considerarions the highway distancearc impactson surroundingland uses,availablecapacityof coststo acquire systemsbetweenthe roadway andproposedsites,terrain, and the land uses. the land. The sites selectedshould be compatible with sunounding

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Design upon the designvolume' the available The size of the parking lot is dependent number of other parking lots in the area' land area,and the size and passenger pickup and dropoff facilities shouldbe provided at eachparking area'Twentyto60spacesrepresentareasonablerange.Theareashouldinvolve plus a holding or shotl-termparkingarea dropoff closeto the stationentrance, from the park-andpickup. This areashouldbe clearly separated for passenger ride areas. and shouldbe givento thelocationfor busloading unloading. consideration with disabilities' parkingfor persons bicycleparking,andspecial taxi service. and vehiclesshould be minimized.Parking Conflicts betweenpedestrians that pedesaislesshould preferablybe locatednormal to the bus roadway so All bus roadwaysshould trians are not required to cross the parking drives. roadpermit passingof standingbuses.This requirementmeansthat all bus for shouldbe designed havea minimum width of 6.0 m. Facilities waysstrould for full-sizedcars:where parkingspaces shouldbe 21 by 6.0 m seli-parking. are cars' ?'4 by 4'5 m spaces a spicial sectionis provided for subcompact should be in for sufiicient.parking requirements personswith disabilities Guidelines Act Accessibi/ilv w'ithDisabitities with the Americqns accordance

FigurelV-28. Midblockbus turnout.

and 40 m for a far-side location.Thesedimensionsare basedon a loading area width of 3.0 m. They should be increased 4 to 5 m for a width of 3.6 m. by of bus turnouts expedite bus maneuvers. encouragefull Creater lengths part of bus drivers,and lessenintert'erence with through on compliance the traffic. Figure IV-28 shows a bus turnout at a midblock location.The width of the is tumout is 3.0 m. Lengthof turnout,includingtapers, 63 m. The deceleration and acceleration tapersare 4: l. H ig,h OccupttncyVehicleand Public TransferFacilities ( l{).

(28).

shouldbe shouldbe a minimumof 1.5m wide and loadingareas Sidewalks

wrlrLur rr-Lu'sr.vJ'

3.6 m wide. Prtnctpal lorys

preferably, not shou]d haveto walk morethan 120m, although pedesriians

Pedesmay be permittedundersomecircumstances. slighrlylongerdistances

Cross Section Elements

trian pathsfrom parking spaces loading areas to shouldbe asdirect as possible. Iacilities for locking bicycles should be provided where needed.

l-

Grades ofparkingareas berelatively can steep except theroadways for that accommodate buses. Grades roadways accommodate for that buses should be not greater than7 percent, acceleration and grades should be greater not than 4 percent. Curvature, radius ofplanned vehicularpaths withintheparking area, andaccess roads should sufficientl large accommodate vehicles y be to rhe that theyareintended serve. to Access thelotsshould atpoints to be where theywill disrupt existing traffic aslittle aspossible. intersection The ofthe access roads the lotsshould to be preferably least90 m from otherintersections, thereshouldbesufficient at and for to that , .,-:g&ht distance vehicles exit andenterthelot. This means exitsand entrances shouldnot be located crestverticalcurves. on Thereshouldbe at least90 m comersightdistance. Thereshouldbe at leastoneexit andentrance each500 spaces a lot, for in and preferably, exits and entrances providedat separate are locations. If possible, exits and entrances the shouldaccess differentstreets. is also It desirable provideseparate to access publictransitvehicles, for Curb returns shouldbe at least9.0 m in radius,although m radii are 4.5 pointsusedexclusively passenger suitable access for by vehicles.
Principal passenger-loading areas should be provided with shelters to protect waiting public transit patrons.Such sheltersshould as a minimum be sufficiently large to accommodate volumes of offpeak waiting passengers the and preferably be larger. Once the number of passengers that the shelteris to rvice has been determined, the size of the shelter can be arrived at by multiplying a factorof 0.3 to 0.5 sq m per person. Because sheltercan be the expanded a laterdaterelativelyeasily,providedsufficientplatformspace at is installedinitially, the provision of a shelterat the time of originat consrruction to accommodate passengers not critical. The sheltershould be provided all is with lighting, benches, route information, trash receptacles,and often a telephone. The design of the bus loading area can be of a parallel or a sawtooth design;the bestarrangement depends the numberof buses on expected use to the facility. Where more than two busesareexpected be using a facility at to one time. the sawtootharrangement generallypreferable, it is easierfor is as buses to bypass a waiting bus. A recommendeddesign of a sawtooth arrangement shown in Figure IV-29. The length of spacethat should be is providedfor a paralleldesignis 29 m. This lengthwill permit loadingof two The loading area

by buses thepassenger on areas. Parallel-type loading areas should be not located curyes it makes verydifficult for driversto parkso thatboth on as it the front andreardoorsarecloseto the curb. Special designs berequired accommodate may to particuarticulated buses, larly wherea sawtooth is arrangement used.A well-designed parkinglot. includes bufferareaaround lot with appropriate a the landscaping often and fenceto separate areas. buffershould at least3.0 m wide. The land be On all butthesmaller lots,lightingshould provided. levelof 2.2to 5.4 be A lx average maintained intensity will generally sutfice. Drainage systems should be designed that parkedcars will not be so damaged stormwater.Undersomecircumstances, by somepondingof water may bepermined mayevenbe desirable whenthedrainage designed or is as part of a storm water management system.The intensityof storm that the drainage system shouldaccommodate depends somecases thepractice in on of the municipality. Permissible depthsof pondingshouldgenerallynot exceed to l@ mm in areas wherecarsare parked.and thereshouldbe no 75

should at least m widein orderto permitpassing standing The be 7,2 a bus. area ineating passenger del the refuge area should curbed order reduce be in to theheight between ground thefirstbusstep reduce the and and encroachment

FigurelV-29. Sawtoothbus loadingarea.

AASHTO-Ceometric Design of Highways and Streets

Cross Section Elements

E/-\
ttl
> = o o o E

r /--

E------rltl
FigurelV-31. Parkinglane transitionat intersection.
pondingon pedestrian bicycleroutesor wherepersons wait for transit and vehicles. FigureIV-30 shows typicalpark-and-ride a facility. Foradditional information refer to theAASHTO Guidefor Desigi of High Occupancy Vehicle and PublicTransfer Facilities(14)andtheAASHTO GuidefortheDesignof Parkand-Ride Facilities (16).

{,., t-1

tr ag :
a

G CL (! .9 CL

ON.STREET PARKING
q;

a) a

o
ll-

.9

The designanddevelopment a roadwaynetworkareto providefor thesafeand of efficient movement of the vehicles operating on the system. Although the movementof vehiclesis the primary function of a roadwaynetwork,segments of the networkmay,asa resultof land use,be requiredto providefbr theparking vehicles. In the designof freewaysand control of access-type facilities,as well as on most rural arterials, collectorsand locals,only emergency stoppingor parking shouldbe permittedor considered. Sincethe primary serviceof an arterialis the movementof vehicles,it is desirable prohibit parkingon urbanarterialstreets to and rural arterialhighway sections.However, within urbanareasand in rural communitieslocatedon arterial highway routes,existing and developingland usesnecessitate consideration on-streetparking. Usually, adequate offthe of streetparking facilitiesare not available,so the designermust takecognizance so of the fact that on-streetparking must be a design consideration that the proposed streetor highway improvementwill be compatiblewith the land use. When on-street parkingis to be an elementof design,parallelparkingshould angleparkingis an allowableform be considered. Undercertaincircumstances,

parking. typeof on-street parking selected should depend the on of street The
landuse, specificfunctionandwidth of the strcet,the adjacent volume.as

well as existingand anticipated Angle parkingpresents traffic operations. problems special length vehicles thesight of and distance because thevarying of

A4 SHf H

eometr i c Designof EjS hway$arLstrceLs

Cross Section Elements

with vehicles. extralengthof problems associated vansandrecreational The with thetraveled vehicles interfere way. may such that parking It cangenerally stated on-street be decreases through capacity, potential. these trafficflow, andincreases accident reasons, is impedes For it to desirable prohibitparkingon arterialstreets. However, whereparkingis parking and off-street needed adequate facilitiesarenotavailable feasible, or onA streetparkingmay be necessary. factorthat compounds urbanparking the problemis the distributionof off-street parkingfacilitieswithin urbancentral business districtsand the lack of off-streetfacilities in urbanneighborhood parking areas. a consequence, is a demand on-street As commercial there for to providefor the deliveryandpick-upof goods. Frequently, alley andotheroffstreetloading areasare not providedin many communities. Short-duration parkingfor business shopping must,therefore, accommodated. or be Curb parking on urban arterial streetsis acceptable when the available lanes accommodate traffic volumes, discussed the through-traffic can the As in provisions shouldbe made ruralsections emergency section arterials, on on for stopping only. Whenpossible projects urbanarterialstreet on of reconstruction to or on projectswhereadditionalright-of-wayis beingacquired upgrade an parking route arterial to capacity existing status, should eliminated increase be to on and safety.The impacts abuttingland usesmust,however, carefully be parking cause as on-street loss considered, thelossofexisting can significant in well beingof theabutting property. theeconomic foundthatmostvehicles parkwithinl50to 30Omm thecurb will It has been of parallel on theaverage and facewhenparking 2.1 occupy approximately m of space. The desirable minimum width of a parkinglane is 2.4 m: actualstreet however, providebetter to clearance thepotential usetheparkinglane and to peakperiods a through-travel a parking during as lane, laneof 3.0 to 3.6m is This width will also accommodate deliveryvehicles adequately. desirable. Wheretraffic volumes indicate theparkinglaneon anarterialroadway that will use, parking for lanewidthshould 2.4 notberequired through theminimum be lane3.0to 3.6m wideshould utilized whenbicycle routes m. A parking be have alongthe through travellane.This will permita bicyclistto beendesignated an maneuver around opendooron a motorvehicle. thereis an equaldemand land access On urbancollectorstreets, for and generally provisions emergency mobility.Ruralcollector highways require for stopping only.On mosturban collector whichmustaccommodate roadways a widevariety trafficoperations landuses, desirable parking of and the lanewidth is 2.4 m. To provide clearance thepotential usetheparkinglane better and to duri desirable. 3.0 to 3.6 m parkinglanewill alsoaccommodate A urbantransit operations. urban On streets within residential where collector neighborhoods vehicles only passenger must be accommodated the parkinglane,2.1m in

parking lanes have been successfuily used. A common width of r0.g m, consisting two travellanesof 3.3 m and parkinglanes 2.1m on each of of side. are frequently used. on-street parking is generalty permitted on local streets.A 7.g m wide roadwayis the typical sectionusedin many urbanresidential areas. This width assures freely moving taneevenwhenparkingoccurson bothsides. one Specific parking lanes are not usually designatedon such local streetsbut rather the primary pu{poseof suchlocal streets to insurethat thereis one freely moving is lane.User inconvenience the motoristof the pavement to sectionis occasioned by the lack of two moving lanes;however,the frequencyof this situationhas beenfound to be remarkablylow. Randomintermirtent paiking on bothsides has beenfound to result in areaswhere two-way movementcan be accommodated. In the construction of new roadways, construction procedures should bc carefully consideredso as ro provide a longitudinal joint at the bounclaryof thbproposed parking lane.It hasbeenfound that suchjointsaid in insuringthatthe parkedvehicleclearsthe paralteltravel lane.on asphalt-surfaced streets, traffic markings are recommended to indentify the parking lane. The marking of parking spacesencourages more orderly and efficient use of parking spaces where parking tumover occurs and tends to prevent encroachment fire on

ra4 zqqgs, q!9ps, lqs and lqqdi4gzones. approaches corners* ro

In urbanareas and,in particular, within centralbusiness districtsandcommercial areaswheresignificantpedestrian crossings likely to occur, the design are of the parking lane/intersection relationship should be given consideration. when theparkinglaneis carried to the intersection, up motorists may utilizethe parking lane as an additionallane for right.tum movements. such movements may cause operational problems and often resultin turningvehicles mounting thecurbandpossibly strikingsuchintersection elements trafficsignals. as utility poles' or street-light standards. The transitioningout of the parking lane a minimumof 6.0 m in advance the intersection one methodof eliminating of is this problem.An exampleof suchtreatment shownin FigureIV-3 l. A second is methodis to prohibit parking for such a distance to createa short tum lane. as

REFERENCES l. NationalCooperative Highway Researchhogram...Roadway Widths fbr Low-Traffic Volume Roads."NCHRp Report362. NationalCoopprogram, 1994. erative Highway Research

2. U. S.DepartmenrofTr , Federal Administration. Manualon UniformTrafficControlDevices.Washington, C.:U. S. D. Government Office.1988.

AASHTHeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

C rossSec'ton E Iements i

Highway Research Program."Shoulder National Cooperative D. and NCHRP254.Washington, C.: Geometrics UseGuidelines." Research Program, 1982. Cooperative Highway National Manual.Special Board.HighwayCapaciry Research Transportation Research Board, D. Report No.209.Washington, C.: Transportation 1985. D. Washington, C.: AASHTO. Highway Drainage Guidelines. AASHTO,I988. "Selection Safe Research Program. of Highway Cooperative National D. NCHRP/58. Washington, C.: National Cross Sections." Roadside Program,1975. HighwayResearch Cooperative FHWA Soft-RockCut Slopes." D. Richards, and D. Ham. "Serrated AdHighway D. FHWA RDDP-s-l.Washington, C.: Federal Report 1973. ministration, AASHTO. An ldormational Guidefor PreparingPrivateDriveway Washington, C.:AASHTO, 1960. D. Major Highways. Regulationsfor Washington, on Mailboxes Highways. AASHTO.AGuideforErecting D. C.:AASHTO,1994. Stuctures. of Screening Overpass 10. AASHTO. A Guide Protective for D. Washington, C.: AASHTO,1994. of I l . AASHTO.Guidefor Development BicycleFacilities.Washington, 1991. D.C.:AASHTO. D. DesignGuide.Washington, C.: AASHTO, t 2 . AASHTO.Roadside l 989. Washington, Pavement. 1 3 . AASHTO. Guidelines SkidResistant for D. C.: AASHTO,1976. and of 1 4 . AASHTO.Guide Design High Occupancy,Vehicle Public for Washington, C.: AASHTO,1983. D. Facililies. Transportation "Influenceof Program. Highway Research t 5 . NationalCooperative AlignmentOn SkidHighwayGradeand Horizontal Combined HighCooperative 184.Washington, C.:National D. ding." NCHRP Program, 1978. way Research Facilities.Wash1 6 . AASHTO. Guidefor theDesignof Park-and-Ride D. ington, C.: AASHTO,1992. with "Designof Stable Channels HighwayAdministration. 17. Federal D. FlexibleLinings."HEC-15.Washington, C.: FHWA, Office of 1988. Bridge Division, Engineering, WashingBridges. Specifications Highway 18. AASHTO.Standard for ton,D. C.: AASHTO,1992. Washington, FHWAIP-87-2. Roads," On TrafficOperation Two-Lane 1987. Administration, Highway D. C.: Federal

20. Simpson,M. A.. Noise Barrier DesigrrHandbook.FHWA-RD76-58.

Springfield, Virginia:National Technical Information Services, 976. I

2 1 . Barry, T. M. afid J. A. Reagan."FHWA Highway Traffic Noise

PredictionModel." FHWA-RD-77-l08. Springfietd,Virginia: NationalTechnical Information Service,1978. Bowlby, W. "SNAP l.l-Revised Programand User's Manual foi the FHWA Level I Highway Traffic Noise PredictionComputer Program." FHWA Report FHWA-DP-45-4.Springfield,Virginia: NationalTechnicalInformationService,1980. Bowlby,W., J. Higgins,andJ. Reagan. "NoiseBarrierCostReduction Procedure STAMINA 2.0/0PTIMS:Manual." FHWA Report FHWADP-58-1. Springfield,Virginia: National TechnicalInformation Service. 1982.Revised March 1983. Bowlby, W., "Sound Procedures MeasuringHighway Noise:Final for Report."FHWA Report FHWA-DP-45-lR. Springfield,Virginia: National TechnicalInformation Service. 198l. FederalHighway Administration."Developmentfor Priority Accessible Network, Provisionsfor the Elderly and Handicapped Pedestrians." FHWA Report FHWA-IP-80-8. Washington, D. C.: Federal HighwayAdministration, 980. I AASHTO. Guidefor the Designof Pavement Structures. Washington. D. C.:AASHTO, 1986. Olson,R. M., G. D. Weaver, E. Ross, andE. R. Post."Effect of H. Jr., Curb Geometryand Location on Vehicle Behavior."NCHRP Report /50. Washington, C.: National Cooperative D. Highway Research Program.1974. Architecturaland Transportation BarriersComplianceBoard.Amerit'ansv'ith Disahilitics Act (ADA).1990.

22.

23.

24.

)\

26. 21.

28.

4t7

ChapterV LOCAL ROADSAND STREETS

INTRODUCTION The follorving guidesapply to thoseroadsfunctionally classifiedas local rural with the discussion ChapterI. In in in roadsand local urbanstreets accordance to theseguidesapply generally villageor a jurisdictionalhighwayclassification, city streetsand township and county roads. A local road or residential street primarily serves as accessto the farm, residence,business, other abutting property. Although local roadsand streets or may be planned,constructed,and operatedwith such service dominating, some of them properly include the "major streetor highway" featuresof geometric design and traffic control to expdite the safe movement of through traffic. On theseroadsthe throughtraffic is local in natureand extentratherthanregional, or intrastate. interstate. constitutea high proportionof the roadwaymileage Local roadsand streets by The traffic volume generated the abuttingland usesare in the United States. largely shorttrips or a relatively small part of longertrips wherethe local road Because the of with majorstreets orhighways of higherclassifications. connects for relatively low traffic volumesand the extensivemileage,designstandards Iow orderasa matterofpracticality. are localroadsandstreets of a comparatively However,to providethe requisitetraffic mobility and safety,togetherwith the and operation,they must be economyin construction,maintenance, essential planned,located,and designedto be suitablefor predictabletraffic operations and culture abuttingthe right-ofwith the development and must be consistent way. guide to conditionsit may not be possible meetthese In restricted unusual or grade, tG get the bestpossiblealinement. values.Every effort should be made sight distance,and proper drainage that are consistentwith the terrain' the (present the and anticipated), safety,and the funds available. development is Drainageon the pavementitself and from the sidesand subsurface very high maintenancecosts and can lead to important. Drainage inadequacies adverseoperationalconditions affecting the safety of the motorist' In snow to regions.it is necessary designso that therc is storagespacefor plowed snow

drainage meltingconditions. for andproper

However.it may Safetyis an importantfactor in all roadwayimprovements. roadside. Everyeifon should to not be practicalor possible obtainobstacle-free

AASHTO--Ceometric Design of Highways and Streets

Loc'al Roadsand Streets

4t9

be made to provide as much clear roadsideas is practical.This becomesmore guardrail, wamingsignshelpto and Flatter slopes, increase. as important speeds aehieve roadsidesafety.

Speeds(Km/h) for Design Volumes

LOCAL RURAL ROADS

Typeof Terrain
Level Rolling Mountainous

ADT Under 50 50 30 30

ADT 50 to 250
50 50 30

ADT 250to 400

60 50 30

ADT 400 to 1500 80 60 50

ADT ADT 2OOO 1500 to and 2000 Over . 80 60 50 80 60 50

Traflic Volume Design for Roadsshouldbe designed specifictraffic volumeand level of service
in as for appropriate functional classification discussed ChaptersI and II. The to (ADT), eithercurrentor projected somefuturc design (AlJ I ), el daily trattlc averagedaily traffic yearis about20 years the Usually, design for design. de year, should be the basis of constructionbut may rangefrom the current year from the dateof completion to 20 yearsdependingon the natureof the improvement.

TableV-1. Minimumdesignspeeds.

Design Speed as with a designspeedselected Geometricdesignfeaturesshouldbe consistent Low design speedsare appropriatefbr environmentaland terrain conditions. in to applicable roadswith windingalinement rollingor mountainous generally terrain or where environmentalconditions dictate. High design speedsare -generally applicable to road$ in level terrain or where other environmental conditions are favorable. Intermediatedesign speedswould be appropriate where terrain and other environmentalconditions are a combinationof those Table V-l lists valuesfor minimum design for described low and high speed. as speeds appropriatefor traffic needsand types of terrain.Terrain types are further in ChaptersII and III' discussed

Design Speed (km/h)

Assumed Speed for Condition (km/h) 30-30 40-40 41-50 55-60 63-70 70-80 17-90 85-100

Stopping Sight Distance for Design (m) 29.6-29.6 44.4-44.4 57.4-62.8 71.3-84.6 94.-I 10.8 l r 1 2 . 8r-3 9 . 4 t3t.2-t68.7 l57.0-205.0

K Value" K value" for Crest for Sag Vertical Vertical Curves Curves (Rounded) (Rounded) 3-3 5-5 9 -r 0 l 4 -1 8 22-31 32-49 43-7 | 62-r05 4-4 8-8 1t-12 l 5 -1 8 20-25 25-32 30-40 37-51

30
+U
I

*: :

50 60 70 80 90 100

u K value is a coetficient by which the algebraicdifference in grade is multiplied to determinethe length in metersof the vertical curve which wilt provide minimum sieht (SeeChapter for details.) distance. III

Sight Distance shouldbe asshown and sightdistance sightdistance passing Minimum stopping both vertical and V-2 and V-3. Criteria for measuringsight distance, in Tables the as follows: For stoppingsight distance, heightof eye is 1070 horizontal,are the sightdistance, heightof mm and theheightof objectis I 50 mm; for passing

TableV-2. Minlmum stoppingsight distance(wetpavements).

of a discussion sightdistance III :t is t300mm.Chapter provides general

-r J:^^...,^:^^f -:-ho 'li.ta6^.

AASHTHeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Local Roads and Streets

Minimum Passing SightDistance for Design (m) 2t7 285 345 407 482 541 605 670

K Value" for Crest Vertical Curves (Rounded)

Superelevation Forruralroads high-andintermediate-type of surfaces, superetevation should be notmorethanl0 percent except where snowandiceconditions prevail,in which case superelevation the shouldbe not morethan8 percent. aggregate For roads .l superelevation shouldbe not morethan 12percent. Superelevation runoff is the lengthof highwayneeded accomprish to the change cross in slopefrom a section with theadverse crownremoved a fully to superelevated section.Minimum lengthsof runoff are given in chapter III. Adjustments designrunoff lengthsmay be necessary smoothriding, in for surface drainage, goodappearance. and General discussion thistopicappears on in Chapter III.

50 90 130 180 250 310 390 480

uK valueis a coefficientby which the algebraic differencein gradeis multipliedto determine lengthin meters theverticalcurvewhich will provideminimumsight the of ( distanoe.SeeChapter for details.) III

(km/h) Design Speed Type of Terrain Level Rolling Mountainous

30
8 ll l6

40
7 ll l5

50
l0 t4

60
n

70
76 98 t2

80

90
6

100
) 6

TableV-3.Mlnlmumpassingslght distance. Grades

Suggested maximum gradesfor local rural roadsare shown in Table V-4.

l0

r3

l0

l0

TableV-4.Maximum grades.

A-linement Alinement betweencontrol points should be designedto as high a standardas possibleconsistentwith the environmentalimpact, topography,terrain,design traffic volume, and the amountof reasonably obtainableright-of-way. Sudden changes and betweencurvesof widely different radii or betweenlong tangents The designshouldincludepassing sharpcurvesshouldbe avoided. opponunities if at all feasible. Where crest vertical curves and horizontal curves occur together, thereshouldbe greaterthanminimum sight distance ensurethat the to horizontalcurvesare visible to approaching drivers.

Surface Type" High Intermediate Low

Range in Rate of Cross Slope (7o)

1.5 2.0 to 1 . 5 o3 . 0 t 2.0to 6.0

a See ChapterIV for pavementsurfacetypesdescription.

TableV-5.Normalcross slope.

Number of Lanes Cross Slope Two travel lanesusually can accommodate normal traffic vorumeon rural the local roads.If exceptionaltraffic volumes occur in specific areas.additional

slopes should asshown TableV-5. in be

AASHTO-4eometric Design of Highways and Streets

Local Roads and Streets

Width of Traveled Way, Shoulder, and Roadway raded shoulderwidth is measured from the edge-of-traveled way to the point of intersectionof shoulderslopeand foreslope.The minimum roadway width is the sum of the traveledway and gradedshoulderwidth given in Table V-6. Where roadside barriersare proposed,it is desirableto provide a minimum offset of 1.2 m from the traveled way to the barrier wheneverpractical. See Chapter IV, sections"Shoulders" and "Longitudinal Barriers." See Chapter III, section "PavementWidening on Curves" for information on offtracking. When bicycle facilities are included as parr of the design, refer to AASHTO's Guide for Developmentof Bicycle Facilities (6).

Structures The designofbridges,culverts,walls, tunnels,and otherstructures shouldbe in accordwith thecurrent.Srazdary' Spgsifisqtionsfor Highwa;l Bridges (l). Except as otherwiseindicated herein and in chapter IV, the dimensionaldesign of structures shouldalso be in accordwith reference (l). The minimum designloadingfor new bridgesshouldbe MS-18 on local roads. For generaldiscussion structurewidths seeChapterX. of The minimum clear roadway widths for new and reconstructed bridges shouldbe as given in Table'V-7.

DesignTraflic Volumes Design Speed (km/h)

ADT Less Than 400

ADT 4001500

ADT 15002000

ADT ovr 2000

Traflic ADT 400 and under ADT 400-2000 ADT over 2000

Minimum Clear RoadwayWidth of Bridge

TraveledWay + 0.6 m (eachside) TraveledWay + 1.0m (eachside) Approachroadway (width)

DesignLoading StructuralCapacity MS-I8 MS-I8 MS-I8

Width of Traveled Way (m)'

30 40 50 60 70 80

5.4 5.4 5.4

<A

6.0u 6.0u 6.0u

90 r00

6.0 6.0 6.6 6.6

6.0" 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6

6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6,6 7.2 7.2

7.2 7.2 7.2 7..2 1.2 7.2 7.2 7.2

Note: MS- l8 is the metricequivalent HS-20. to

TableV-7. Minimumclear roadwaywidths and design loadings for new and reconstructed bridges. Bridges Remain Place to in

Width of GradedShoulder- Each Side (m)"

AllSoeeds

0.6

1.5"'b

1.8

2.4

I '-t I --l
-1

oMountainous Terrain - ADT 400 - 600 5.4 m widrh and 0.6 m shoulders. hMaybe adjusted achievea minimum roadwaywidth of 9 m for design to speed 60 km/ of h or less. 'Where the width of traveledway is shownro be 7.2 m. the width of the traveledway may remain at 6.6 m on reconstructed highways where alinement and safety results are satisfactory.

Existing substandard structures should be improved,but because their high of replacement cost,reasonably adequate bridgesand culvertsthat meet tolerable criteria may be retained.Some of the non-technicalfactors that should be consideredare the aestheticvalue and the historical significanceattachedto famousstructures. coveredbridges.and stonearches. Wherean existingroad is to be reconstructed, existingbridgethat fits the an proposed alinement and profile may remainin placewhen its structural capaciry in termsof designloadingandclearroadwaywidth areat least equalto thevalues given in Table V-8 lor the applicabletraffic volume. than 30 m. These structures should be analyzed individuatly. taking into consideration clear width provided.traffic volume.remainingIife of the the

TableV-6.Mlnimum wldth of traveled way and gradedshoulder.

424

AASHTO-GIometric Design of Highways and Steets

Local Roqds qnd Streets

structure, pedestrian volume, sncw storage, designspeed, accidentrecord,and otherpertinent factors.

Traffic ADT O-50 ADT 50-250 ADT 250-1500 ADT 1500-2000 ADT over2000
::]: :.: i_

Design Loading StructuralCapacity Minimumd M9

Roadway Clear Width(m)" Minimumb.d

M r3.5
M 13.5 M 13.5 M 13.5

6.tr 6.0
6.6
1)

8.5

"Clear width belweencurbs or rails, whicheveris the lesser.

DMinimum clearwidthsthatar; 0,6 m narrower may be lessthantheapproach raveled waywidth. 'For one-lane bridges 5,4m. use dDoes applyto structures totallength not with greater than30 m.

TableV-8. Minimum structural capaciiles minlmum and roadway widthsfor bridgesto remainin place.
Vertical Clearance

The maximum rate of foreslope dependson the stability of local soils as and determined soil investigation localexperience. by Slopes shouldbe asgentle . asfeasible, andotherfactorsshouldbe considered determine designslope to the Gentleforeslopes increase safetyby providing a maneuver areain emergenciesl are more stablethansteepslops,aid in the establishment plant growth, and of work. Vehiclesthat leave the traveledway can often be simplify maintenance kept undercontrol if slopesare gentleand drainageditchesare well-rounded. Suchrecoveryareas shouldbe providedwhereterrainandright-of-waycontrols permit. Combinations rateandheightof slopeshouldprovideforvehicle recovery. of Where controlling conditions (such ashigh fills, right-of-way restrictions,or the presence of rocks, watercourses, or other hazards) make this impractical, consideration should be given to the provision of guardrail, in which casethe maximum rate of foreslope could be used. Cut sectionsshould be designed with adequateditches. Preferably, the foreslopeshouldnot be steeper than l:2. The ditch bottom and slopesshouldbe well-rounded.The backslopeshould not exceed the maximum required for stability.

Horizontal Clearances Obstructions to Venical clearanreat underpasses should be at least4.3 m over the entire ,-lqsdway width, to which up to 150mm. shouldbe addedto allow for future resurfacin s. A clear zone of 3 m or more from the edgeof the traveledway, appropriately graded havinggentle cross-sectional design, desirable. is and slopes rounded and An exceptionmay be made where guardrailprotectionis being provided.The recoveryareashouldbe clearofall unyieldingobjectssuchastreesor unyielding sign supports.utility poles,light poles,and any other fixed objectsthat might severelydamagean out-of-controlvehicle. over, the To the extent feasible,where anotherhighway or railroad passes pier or abutmentsupportshave lateral structureshouldbe designedso that the as clearance greatas the clear roadsideareaon the approachroadway, Where it is not feasibleto carry the full-width approachroadwayacrossan transitioned barriershouldbe overpass otherbridge,an appropriately or roadside provided. At selected locations, suchasthe outsideof a sharpcurve.a broader recovery area with greaterhorizontal clearancesshould be provided to any roadside obstruction.

Right-of-Way Width The procurementof right-of-way to widths that accommodatethe construction. adequate drainage,and proper maintenance the highway is a very of importantpartof the overalldesign.wide rights-of-way permit the construction of gentleslopes,resultingin more safetyfor the motoristand allowing easier andmoreeconomical maintenance. procurement sufficientrightThe of ot'-wayat rhe rime of the initial improvementpermitsthe widening of the roadwayand the wideningand strengthening the pavement reasonable of at costsas traffic increases. areas. it mav be to limit rhe risht-of-wavw er, the right-of-way width shouldnot b lessthanthat requiredfor all the elementsof the designcrosssections,utility uccommodation, and appropriate borderareas.

426

AASHTHeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Local Roads ond Steets

427

embs
ljse of curbs in conjunctionwith intermediate high designspeeds or shouldbe in limited as discussed ChapterIV. Where curbs are to be used,refer to the discussionon curbs in the section "Local Urban Streets"in this chapter.

Intersection Design Intersections should be carefully situatedto avoid steepprofile gradesand to ensure adequate approach sight distance. An intersection should not be ----:-sil-uated just beyond a short-crestvertical curve or on a sharp horizontal curve. When there is no practical alternateto such a location, the approach sight distance eachleg shouldbe checked carefully. Where necessary, on backslopes should be flattened and horizontal or vertical curyes lengthenedto provide Sight distance additionalsight distance. shouldbe sufficient to permit a vehicle to on the minor leg of the intersection crossthe traveledway without requiring the approachingthrough traffic to slow down. As a generalrule, there should to vehiclecrossing be a minimum of 7 s available the driver of a passenger the through lanes.On this basis,the suggested comer sight distancefor each design speedwould be as given in Table V-9. For further details see the sectionon sight distancein ChapterIX. should be designedwith a corner radius of the pavementor Intersections thatis adequate the largervehiclesanticipated. minimum edge for For _ __!g$cing radius,seeChapterIX. Where tuming volumesare significant, consideration should be given to speedchangelanesand channelization. Intersection legs that operateunderstop control preferablyshbuld be 90' if possible,but in no caselessthan 60o.For funher detailsseeChapterIX.

Sight distanceis an importantconsideration railroadgradecrossings. at the road for the driver to recognize There must be sufficient sight distanceon the crossing. perceive the warning device as well as the trains, and stop if (SeeChapter IX.) necessary. The roadwaywidth at all railroadcrossings shouldbe the sameas the width of the approachroadway. Crossings involving bicycle routesthat arenot perpendicular the roadway to may require additional paved shoulder for bicycles to maneuver over the crossing. See AASHTO's Guidefor Development of Bicycle Facilities (6).

DesignSpeed (km/h)

Corner Intersection (m)' SightDistance 2lob

r00 90 80 70 60 50 40 30

r80
160 140 t20 100 80 60

aComersightdistance measured from a point on theminor roadat least5 m from theedge of the major traveledway and measured from a height of eye at 1070mm on the minor road to a heightof object 1300mm on the major road. bAt 100 km/h stoppingsight disrance govems.

TableV-9.Cornersight distancesat rural intersections. TrafficControl Devices

Railroad Grade Crossings grade-crossing warningdevicesshall be installed all rail roadAppropriate at gradecrossings. local-road Detailsof the devicesto be usedare given in the Manual on UniforntTraffic Control Devices(MUTCD) (2). In someStatesthe final approvalof the devicesto be usedmay be vestedin the Public Utility Commission. and.wherepertinent, traffic signalcontrols Signs.pavement othermarkings. and areessential elements all localroadsandstreets. for Referto theMUTCD (2) for detailsof the devicesto be usedand.for someconditions.wiurantsfor their use.

Bicycle Facilities

with AASHTO's whenspecial facilitiesaredesired theyshouldbe in accordance (6\. Guidefor Deyelopmentof Bicycle Facilities

AASHTMeomaric

Design of Highways and Streets

429

Erosion Control - AJfslopes and drainage areas should be designed with proper regard for the desirednatural ground cover and growth regenerationon areasopened during construction. Various acceptable methodsof erosioncontrol including seeding andmulchingof slopes, sodding, orotherprotectionof swales andothererodible areas should be includedin the local road design.Consideration shouldalso be given to maintenance requirements and overail economics. In roadsidedesign the preservation naturalground coversand desirable of growthof shrubsand treesshouldbe considered, providedthatsuchgrowth does not constituteahazard in the recoveryarea.

on streetsserving industrial or commercial areas,the vehicle dimensions, traffic volumes, andvehicleloadsdiffer greatlyfrom thoseon residential srrees, and different dimensionaland structuraldesign valuesare appropriate. Here, safety and service to traffic usually are the major design controls. where a particular design feature varies depending on the area served,viz., residential,= commercial, or industrial, different guide values are enumerated for each condition. The designer should be apprised of local ordinancesand resolutions that affect certain design features.

Design Traflic Volumes Traffic volume is not usually a major criterion in determining the geometric valuesto be usedin designing rcsidential streets.Traditionally, thesestreetsare designedto a standardtwo-lane cross section, but may be a four-lane cross section in certain urban areas,as govemed by traffic volume, administrative policy, or other community considerations. For streetsserving industrial orcommercial areas,however, traffic volume is a major factor. The ADT projectedto somefuture designyear shouldbe the basis of design.It usually is difficult and costly to modify the geometric designof an existingstreet provisionis madeat the time of initial construction. unless Design traffic in these areas shouldbe thatestimated at leastl0 years, for andpreferably 20 years,from the date of completionof construction.

LOCAL URBAN STREETS

General Design Considerations A streetis a public way for purposes vehiculartravel including public transit of and refersto and includesthe entireareawithin the right-of-way.The streetalso servespedestrianand bicycle traffic and usually accommodates public utility facilities within the right-of-way. The improvementor development streets of Shouldbe basedon a functionalstreetclassification that is part of a comprehen--sive-community developmentplan. The designvaluesshould be those for the ultimatelyplanneddevelopment. Most urban functionalclassifications include threeclasses streets: of arterials. collectors,and local access routes,detaileddiscussion ofwhich appearsin ChapterI. Geometricdesignguidesfor arterialstreets given in ChapterVII, are and thosefor collector streetsare coveredin ChapterVI. It is not practical to enumerate separate designguidesfor localstreets foreachitem discussed herein. where there is a significantdifference,separate guide varuesare given. The design features of local urban streetsare governed by practical limitationsto a greaterextentthan thoseof similar roadsin rurat areas. The rwo dominantdesigncontrolsare ( I ) the type and extentof urbandevelopment with its limitations on rights-of-way,and (2) zoning or regulatory restrictions.Some streetsprimarily are land service streetsin residential areas.In such cases the overriding considerationis to foster a safe and t envtronment, The convenienceof the morori consideration. Otherstreets landservice are onlv in part, and featuresof

Design Speed Designspeedis not a major factor for local streets.For consistency design in elements, designspeeds rangingfrom 30 to 50 km/h may be used, depending on available right-of-way,terrain,adjacentdevelopment,and otherareacontrols. In the typical streetgrid the closely spacedintersections usually limit vehicular speeds, making the effect of designspeedof little significance. Designspeeds exceeding km/h in residentialareasmay require longer sight distances 50 and increased curve radii, which would be contrary to the basicfunction of a local street.

Sight Distance

trafficservice may be predominant.

Minimum stopping sighr distance localsrrcets for should range from30 to 60m depending the design (SeeTableIII-l). Design passing on speed for sight distance seldom applicable localstreers. is on

431

Grades
Grades for local residential streetsshould be as flat as is consistent with the

Superelevation Superelevation advantageous streettraffic operation,but in built-up areas is for the combinationof wide pavementareas,proximity of adjacentdevelopment, control ofcross slope,profile for drainage, frequencyofcross streets, other.and urban featurescombine to make the use of superelevationimpractical or undesirable. Usually,superelevation not providedon local streets residenis in tial and commercial areas;it should be consideredon local streetsin industrial areasto facilitatesafeoperation. where superelevation used,streetcurvesshould be designedfor a maxiis mum superelevation rate of 4 percent. If tenain dictates sharp curvature, a maximum superelevationof 6 percent is justified if the curve is long enough to provideanadequate suprelevation transition.Minimum lengthsof superelevation runoff and a detailed discussionof superelevationis found in Chapter III.

terrain. gradient localstreets The sunounding for should less be thanl5 prcent. Wheregrades 4 percentor steeper necessary, drainage of zre the designmay become critical.On suchgrades special mustbetaken preventerosion care to on facilities. slopes opendrainage and Forstreets commercial industrial in and gradient areas, design should less be it than8 percent; desirably, should lessthan5 percent, flattergradients be and should emphasized. be To providefor properdrainage, desirable the minimumgrade shouldbe that with outercurbsis 0.30percent, a minimumgradeof 0.20 usedfor streets but percent may be used.

Alinement
Number of Lanes

Alinement residential in areas should closely fit with theexisting topography to minimize the need for cuts or fills without sacrificingsafety.There is an advantage residential in areas purposely in ananging alinement discourage the to design through The should such thesafety thefacility be that traffic. alinement of is notreduced. Street in and alinement commercial industrial areas should commensurare be with thetopography should asdirectaspossible. but be
-Street curvesshouldbe designed with as largea radiuscurveas feasible,the minimum radiusbeing30 m. Wherecuryesaresuperelevated, lower valuesmay apply,but the radiusshould not be lessthan approximately25 m for a 30 km/h designspeed.

CrossSlope
Cross slope should be adequateto provide proper drainage. Cross slope normally should be as shown in Table V-5 where there are flush shoulders adjacentto the traveledway. Where thereare outer curbs,crossslopessteepr by about0.5 percentto I percentaredesirableon the laneadjacentto the curb. The center section of the cross slope may be parabolic to permit smooth transitionof crossslope.Furtherdiscussion this elementappears Chapter in of

on residentialstreetsin areaswhere the primary function is to provide land serviceand foster a safe and pleasantenvironment,at least one unobstructed moving lanemustbeensured evenwhereparkingoccurson both sides. The level of userinconvenience occasioned the lack of two moving lanesis remarkably by low in areaswheresingle-familyunits prevail. Local residentialstreetpattems aresuchthattraveldistances lessthan I km between origin anda collector are trip street.In multifamily-unit residentialareas,a minimum of two moving traffic lanesto accommodate opposing traffic may be required. In many residenrial areas 8 m wide roadwayis typical.This curb-face-to-curb-face a width provides fbr a 3.6 m centertravel laneand two2.2mparking lanes.opposing conflicting traftlc willyield andpause the parkinglaneareauntil thereis sufficientwidth on to pass. In commercialareaswhere therewill be severalmidblock reft tums, it may be advantageous provide an additionalcontinuoustwo-way leti-tum lane in to the centerof the roadwav.

il ll
. J

J
I , lI , ',r

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Width of Roadway Streetlanestbr moving traffic preferablyshouldbe at least3.0 m wide. where wide. where available or attainable width of right-of-way imposes severe limitations, m lanes 2.7 can be usedin residential areas. can 3.J m ranes as in industrialareas.Added turning laneswhere usedat intersections should be at

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hwslsanLslLeets

least 2.7 m wide, and desirably3.0 to 3.6 m wide, dependingon the prcenrages of trucks. Where neededand where limitations exist in residentialareas.a oarallel parking lane at leastZ.2m wide shouldbe providedon one or both sides,as the conditionsof lot size and intensityof development may require.In commercial andindustrialareas, parkinglanesshouldbe atleastZ.T wide; usuallytheyare m provided on both sides. Parking-lane-width determinations commercialandindustrialareas in should includeconsideration useof theparkinglanefor moving trafficduring peakfor hour traffic that may occur whereindustrieshavehigh employmtintconcentrations. Where curb and gutter sectionsareused,the gutter pan width may be included as a part of the parking lane width. When bicycle facilities are included as part of the design refer to AASHTO,s Guide for Development of Bicycle Facilities (6).

Steep-faced curbs150mm or higheradjacent movingtraffic ranes to should be offsetat Ieast m. where thereis combinationcurb andgutterconstruction, 0.3 the gutterpan width,normally0.6 m, shouldbe usedas the offsetdistance.

Drainage Drainageis an importantconsideration an urbanareabecause high runoff in of and the flooding potential.Surfaceflow from adjacenttributary areasmay be intercepted thestreet by system. Thereit is collectedwithin theroadwayby curbs and gutters,ditches, etc.,and conveyedto appropriate outlets.where drainsare availableunderor nearthe roadway,the flow is transferred frequentintervals at from the street crosssectionby gratingor curb-opening inletsto basinsandfrom thereby connectors drainagechannelsor underground to drains. Economicconsiderations usuallydictatethatmaximumpractical bemade use of the street sections for surface drainage.To avoid undesirableflowline conditions,the minimum guttergradeshouldbe 0.30 percent. However,in very flat terrainandwheredrainage outletis unavailable, guttergradeaslow as0.20 a percentmay be necessary. where a drainage outlet is available, inletsshould the be spacedto provide a high level ofdrainage protectionin areasofpedestrian concentrations whereadjacent or propertyhasan unusuallyimportantpublic or communitypurpose(e.g.,schoolsand churches). For furtherdetailssee rhe drainage section ChapterIII. in

Median Mediansprovided on local urbanstreets primarily to enhance environment the and to act as buffer stripsshouldbe designed minimize interference to with the traffic needs of the land abutting the roadway. A discussionof the various median types appearsin Chapter IV. Openingsshouldbe situatedonly wherethereis adequate sight distance. The shapeand lengthof the medianopenings dependon the width of medianand the vehicle types to be accommodated. The minimum length of median openings should be that of the width of the projectedroadway of the intersecting cross streetor driveway.The desirable lengthof medianopenings, measured between the inner edge of the lane adacent to the median and the centerlineof the intersectionroadway, should be great enough to provide for a 12 m turning control radius for left-turnineP vehicles.

---

Cul-De-Sacs and Turnarounds A local street openat oneendonly shouldhavea specialtuming area theclosed at end.This turningareadesirablyshouldbe circularand havea radiusappropriate to the typesof vehicleexpected. Minimum outsideradii of l0 m in residential areasand l5 m in commercialand industrialareasare commonly used. A dead-end streetnarrowerthan l2 m usually should be widenedto enable passenger vehicles,and preferablydelivery trucks, to U-tum or at least turn aroundby backingonce.The designcommonly usedis a circularpavement symmetrical aboutthecenterline thestreet of sometimes with a central island. as shownin Figurev- I c. which alsoshowsminimumdimensions rhedesign for vehicles. Althoughthistypeof cul-de-sac operates satisfacrorily look.s and well. betteroperationis obtainedif the designis offset so that rheentrance-half the of

Curbs Streets normally are designed with curbsto allow greateruseof availablewidth and for control of drainage, protectionof pedestrians, delineation. and The curb should be l0O to 225 mm high, dependingon drainageconsiderations, rraffic and

On dividedstreets typeof median the curbsshouldbe compatible with rhe widthof themedian thetypeof turning and movement controlto beeffected.

I D. one steering rcversal avoided thisdesign. is wherea radius ress on of than l5 m is used, island the should bordered mountable be by curbs permit to the maneuvering anoccasional of oversized vehicle.

r_r5
I t-<-[ f\\'. : -aL--a 't d^t4 I

DESIGNVEHICLE P SU

w
lOm 20m 15m 3Om

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It^::tl I-::'l:: ::ri:;I

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An all-paved isshownin Figure l E, with a l0 m outerradius.ln case. plan vthis little additionalpavement required.If the approach is pavemenr at leastl0 m is wide, the result is a cul-de-sacon which passenger vehicles can make the customary u-turn andSU designtruckscantum by backingonce. radius about A of l2 m will enable wB- l2 vehicleto tum aroundby maneuvering a backandfonh. other variationsor shapes cur-de-sacs of that inctuderight-of-way and site controls may be provided to permit vehiclesto tum around by backing once. Severaltypes (FiguresV-lF to v-ll) may also be suitablefor alleys.The geometryof a cul-de-sac must be alteredif adjoiningresidences usethearea also for parking.

Alleys Alleys providefor accessibility and serviceto eachindividual landparcel.They arecharacterized a narrow right-of-way and rangein width from 5 to 6 m in by residential areasand up to l0 m in industrialareas. Alleys should be alined parallel to, or concentricwith, the streetpropeny lines.It is desirable situate to alleysin sucha manner thatbothendsof thealley are connected either to streetsor to other alleys. where two alleys intersect, a triangularcornercutoffofnot than3 m alongeachalleyproperty less lineshould be provided.Dead-end alleys should be provided with a turning areain accor_ dancewith FigureV-2. Curbretumradii at street intersections range may from 1.5m in residentially zonedareas 3 m in industrialand commercialareaswherelarge numbersof to trucksareexpected. Alleysshouldhavegrades established meetascloselyas to possible existing the grades ofthe abuttinglandparcels. The longitudinal grade should not be lessthan 2 percent. Alley crosssections may be v-shaped with transverse slopesof 2.5 percent toward a centerv gutter.Runoff is therebydirectedto a catchbasinin the allev or to connectingstreetgutters.

OESIGN VEHICLE lo m 6 m P l3 m 8m w8-12 su I wB-15 l5 m l O m

CIRCULAR

c IRCU ARL OFFSET

-FL- TYPE T- TYPE

+tY. TYPE

-rERANCH

Sidewalks Sidewalks used for pedestrianaccessto schools,parks. shoppingareas,and transitstopsandplacedalongall streets commercialareas in shouldbe provided along borh sidesof the srreet. need to be provided on at least one side of all local streets.The sidewalks shouldbe located far as practicable as from the traffic lanesand usuallyclose t o t h e r i g h r - o f - w a yi n e s . l

FioureV-1. Tvpesof cul-de-sacs dead-end and streets.

3f

Clear sidewalkwidth should be 1.2 m minimum; widths of 2.4 m or greater may be needed commercial in areas. roadside If appurtenances situated the are on sidewalk adacent to the curb, additional width is requiredto securethe clear width.

Curb-Cut Ramps Curb-cutrampsshouldbe providedat crosswalks accommodate to persons with disabilities.Suchrampsmay be the samewidth as the approach sidewalks,the suggested minimum width of L0 m exclusiveof sideslopes. Furtherdiscussion of this topic appearsin Chapter IV.

TUE!!!q STAilDARo
Driveways A drivewayis anaccess constructed within thepublic way,connecting public the roadway with adjacentproperty and intended to be used in such a way that the access theadjacent into propertywill be completeandwill not cause blocking the of any sidewalkborderareaor streetroadway. Someof theprinciplesof intersection designapplydirectlyto driveways.One importantfeature theeliminationof largegradedor pavedareas is adjacent the to traveledway, which allow drivers to enter or leavethe streetrandomly. Sight distanceis a significant design control, and driveways should be avoided where sight distanceis not sufficient. Vertical elementsthat obstrucr essential sight distances should be controlled by statute. Driveways should be regulated to width of entrance, as placementwith respect propertylines and to intersecting streets, angleof entry, vertical alinement,and numberof entrances to a singlepropertyto providefor traffic safetyand maximum useof curb space for parking.where permitted.Driveways should be situatedas far away from intersections practicable, particularly if the local streetintersects arterial as an street. Driveway returnsshouldnot be lessthan I m in radius.Flareddrivewaysare preferredbecause they are distinct from intersection delineations, properly can handle tuming movements, and can minimize the problemsfor personswith disabilities.

M I N I M U MT U R N I N GA R E A

CUT- CORNERS STANOARD

Road

Widths for

The minimum clearwidth for all new bridgeson streets with curbedapproaches shouldbe the sameas the curb-to-curbwidth of the approaches. streets with For

Finrrre V-2. Allevs.

AASHTMeometric Desi

Highways and Streets

Local Roads and Streets

and no curbs, the clear roadway width preferably should be the same roadwaywidth andin no caselessthanthe width shownin Table astheapproach

all shouldbe caniedacross new structures. on . Sidewalks the approaches on bridges. Ttere shouldbe at leastonesidewalk all street

to HorizontalClearance Obstructions the between curb be of a Onall streets minimumclearance 0.5m should provided In suchasutility poles,lightingpoles,andfire hydrants. faceandobstructions curbing(curbing ofbarrier-type pedestrian traffictheconstruction areas ofdense with nearlyverticalfacing, l5O to 225 mm high) aids in protectingthe highspeed shouldbe provided. and with a rural crosssection design wherespeeds low (60 are alonglocalstreets Treesmay be minimal hazards prudence be should exercised km/hor below)andbarriercurbsexist.Generally, and careful analysisshouldweigh the benefitsagainstthe possibleadverse environment. effectsthat treeremovalcould haveon theroadside exceptwherethereis a on Guardrailis not usedextensively local streets with steep foreslopes such and hazardto motorists pedestrians, asalongsections structures. to andat theapproaches overcrossing

Wherethe availableright-of-way is limited and in areas high right-of-way of costs,as in someindustrialand commercialareas. buffer width of 0.6 m may a be tolerated. Whereverpractical, additionalobstacle-free an bufferwidth of 3.6 m ormore should be provided betweenthe curb and the sidewalkfor safetyand environmentalenhancement. residentialareas.wider building setbackcontrolscan In be usedto attain thesefeatures.

Right-of-Way Width The right-of-way width should be sufficient to accommodate the ultimate plannedroadway including median (if used),shoulder(if used),landscaping strip, sidewalks, utility strips in the border areas,and necessaryouter slopes.

Provision for Utilities In additionto the primary purpose servingvehiculartraffic and in accordance of with Statelaw or municipal ordinance,streetsalso often accommodate public utility facilitieswithin thestreet right-of-way.Useof theright-of-wayby utilities should be plannedto causethe least interferencewith traffic using the street. (3) References and (4) give generalprinciplesfor locationand construction of utilities to minimize conflict between the use of the street right-of-way for vehicular moyement and for its secondarypurpose of providing space for locationof utilities.

Vertical Clearance shouldbe at least4.3 m overtheentireroadway at Verticalclearance underpasses 150 mm shouldbe addedto allow for future resurfacing. width, to which up to

Intersection Design Border Area A border area should be provided along streetsfor the safety of motorists and Selectionof the streetalinement pedestrians well as for aestheticreasons. as_ should be baied on minimizing of slopes. However, the preservationand of enhancement the environment is of major importance in the design and constructionof local streets. The border areabetweenthe roadway and the right-of-way line should be including provision of a buffer space wide enough to serve severalpurposes, snow storage'an ata and vehiculartraffic, sidewalk sPace, betweenpedesrrians Intersections, including median openings,should be designedwith adequate comer sightdistance suggested Table V-9, and the intenectionareashould as in Wherestopcontrol is not used, comersightdistance be keptfrce of obstacles. the for local streets shouldbe a minimum of 60 m and desirablyshouldbe 90 m or more. To maintain the minimum sight distance, restrictionson height of embankment.locationsof buildings, and screeningfences-may necessary. be Any landscapingin the sight distance triangle should be low-growing, and should not be higher than t.0 m above the level of the intersectingstreet vements.

The suchasgrass otherlandscaping. border or features aesthetic maintainable be should 3.0m or wider. widthmaybe a minimumof 1.5m, but desirably

Intersecting sueets should meet approximately angle. alinement a 90o The at design shouldbe adjusted avoidan angleof intersection lessthan60o. to of Closely spaced offsetintersections undesirable. are

AASHTHeometric

and Streets

The intersection areaand approachareaswherevehiclesstorewhile waiting to enter the intersectionshould be designedwith a relatively flat grade; the maximumgradeon theapproach shouldnot exceed percent leg 5 wherepractical. Where ice and snow create hazardousconditions the desirablegrade on the approachleg should be 0.5 percent with no more than 2 prcent wherever practical.

At streetintersections residential in areasandareas wherethereareheavy pedestrian movements, minimum the radius curbretumwhere of curbs used are or the outside wherecurbsarenot usedshould 5 m. A edgeof pavement be minimum radius 8 m is desirable. of In industrial areas radius thecurbretumshould belessthanl0 m, the of not anddesirably, should made a three-centered use be of curveof sufficiently large
radii to accommodate largestvehiclesexpected. the

pertaining intersection Further information to design appears Chapter in IX.

Railroad Grade Crossings Appropriategrade-crossing warning devices shall be installedat all railroadgradecrossings. street Detailsof the devicesto be usedaregiven in the MUTCD (2). In someStates, final approvalof the devicesto be usedmay be vestedin the the PublicUtility Commission. is Sightdistance an importantconsideration railroadgradecrossings. at There must be sufficient sight distanceon the street for the driver to recognizethe percejvethe waming deviceas well asthe trains,andstopif necessary. crossing, (See Chapter IX.) Signalized intersectionsadjacentto signalized RR grade with RR preemption. crossings shouldbe designed The roadwaywidth at all railroadcrossingsshouldbe the sameas the width of the approachroadway. Sidewalksshouldbe providedat railroadgradecrossings connectexisting to or future walkways that approachthesecrossings. involving bicycle routesthat arc not perpendicular the roadway Crossings to may require additional paved shoulder for bicycles to maneuver over the crossing.SeeAASHTO's Guidefor Developmentof Bicycle Facilities(6).

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vehicular pedestrian and traffic.Thus, where adequate illumination provided, is efficient nightuse bemade thelarge can of investment roadway in construction andmotorvehicles. Determinations need lightingshould coordinated of for be with crimeprevention programs othercommunity and needs. warrants thejustification street for of just lightinginvolvemorethan identify" ing a roadway classification beinglocal, rural, urban,coilector, as arterial,or major.Pedesrian vehicular and volume,night-to-day accident ratios,roadway geometry, merging lanes, curves, intersections rcquire and all carefulconsideration establishing in illumination levels. When illumination provided the levels for various roadway, walkway,andareaclassifications not influenced these are by considerations, suggested the minimum levels of ittumination(expressed in average maintained horizontal lux) arecontained TableV-10. in Illumination levels intersections at should thesumof illumination be levels on intersecting streets the intersection. at The uniformityof thelighting is an indication thequarityof illumination of andshould considered be alongwith illumination levels. uniformityof illuminationcanberepresented a uniformityratioof theaverage-to-minimum by lux values theroadway walkwaysurface. on or Recommended uniformityratiosarc as follows:residential roadways, commercial 6:l; roadways, residential 3:l; walkways, l0:l; andcommercial walkways,4:1. Because glareis alsoan indication the qualityof tighting, type of of the fixtures theheight whichthelightsources mounted alsofactors and at are are in design street of lightingsystems. objectives thedesigner The of shouldbe to minimize visual discomfort impairment driverandpedestrian and of visiondue to glare.For the condition lightinginrersections of only, a gradual lighting transition fromdarkto lightto darkshould provided thatdrivers be so mayhave timeto adapt theirvision. Moredetailed discussion thistopicis conrained AASHTO'sAn lnforof in mationalGuide Roadway Lighting(5). for

Classification Local Alleys Sidewalks

Industrial Commercial (lux) 9.7 6.5 9.7

Residential (lux)

Streetand RoadwayLighting
Good vis under t conditionsis one of the fundamental requirements enablingmotoriststo move on roadwaysin a safeandcoordinated manner. Properlydesigned and maintained streetlighting will producecomfortvisibility at night, which will facilitate able and accurate and encourage both

4.3 2.? 2.2

TableV-10.Mlnlmumlllumlnailon levels.

AASHTO--Geometric Desi

Local Roads and Streets

Traffic Control Devices

' consistent and uniform application of traffic control devices is important. Details of the standarddevicesand warrantsformany conditions arefound in the MUTCD (2). Geometricdesignof streets shouldinclude full consideration the typesof of traffic control to be used, especially at intersectionswhere multiphase or actuated traffic signalsare likely to be needed.

ROADS SPECIALPURPOSE

Introduction For thepurpose ofdesign,highwayshavebeenclassifiedin thisbookby funcrion chapters with specific design values for each functional class. Subsequent of and freeways. The first two sections arterials, the discuss designof collectors, this chapter discussthe design of local roads and streets.Another type of of highway, however,is different because its purposeand doesnot fit into any of the noted classifications. This type of highway is referred to as a special provided. separatedesigncriteriaare purposeroadand uniqueness, becauseofits Special purposeroads include recreationalroads, resourcedevelopmentroads, and local service roads. Roads in the special purpose category are generally lightly traveled and of low speedand for thesereasonsdeservespecial consideration relative to their appropriatedesign features.

ErosionControl "Design of streetsshould includeconsiderations preservation natural for of groundcoveranddesirable growthof shrubs treeswithin theright-of-way and aswouldbeconsistent Federal localstatutes. with and Seeding, mulching, and sodding slopes, of swales, othererodible and areas should included the be in plans. design othererosion-prevention measures beacceptable, may depending on localclimaticconditions, natural environment. resources. and

Recreational Roads Landscaping General Considerations Landscaping should be provided for aesthetic and erosioncontrol purposesin keepingwith thecharacterofthestreet andits environment. Landscaping should walkways. _ !e il|anged to permit sufficiently wide, clear, and safe pedestrian Combinationsof turf, shrubs,and treesare desirablein borderareasalong the roadway.However,careshouldbe exercisedto ensurethat guidelinesfor sight distances clearance obstructions observed, and to are especially intersections. at are sitesand areas uniquein thattheyarealsopart of Roadsservingrecreational Design criteria describedhereinmeet the unusual the recreational experience. sites,areas, requirements roadsforaccessto, through,and within recreational of The criteria are and facilities for the completeenjoymentof the recreationist. environmenecological, the intendedto protectandenhance existingaesthetic, eachparticular that form the basisfor distinguishing tal, and cultural amenities recreational or area. site Visitors to a recreational site need accessto the generalarea,usually by a to statewideor principal arterial highway. Secondlythey needaccess the site. This is the most importantlink from the statewideroad system.For continuity beyondthis point, designcriteria requirethat the visitor be madeawareof the by natureof the area.The design should be accomplished a multidisciplinary to and teamofvaried backgrounds experience, ultimatelyprovidea roadsystem that is an integral part of the recreationalsite. Dependingon the conditions, internaltributarieswill have a variety of lower designfeatures. for are in The criteriadiscussed this chapter applicable public roadswithin all

Bicycle Facilities The local roadway is generally sufficient to accommodatebicycle traffic; however.when specialfacilitiesare desiredthey should be in accordance with AASHTO's Guidefor Development Bicycle Facilities (6\. of

Designcriteriafor rec sitesand areas. typesof recreational roads, area roads. Primary and circulation access roads, discussed primary for into movement andbetween that roads defined roads allowthrough as access are

AASHTHeometric

De

Local Roads and Streets

access areas. Circulationroadsallow movementbetween activity siteswithin an access area.Area roadsallow direct access individual activity areassuch as to park areas, campgrounds, boat launchingramps,picnic groves,and scenicand historic sites. Figure V-3 depictsa potentialroad systemservinga recreational area.Road links are labeledin accordance with the classification svsremnoted.

o E
3 I

Design Speed
!

The effect of designspeedon variousroadwayfeatures iJconsideredin its selection; primarilyon thebasis thecharacter however, speed selected the is of otthe terrainand the functionalclassifrcation the road.The designspeeds of should be approximately km/h for primary access 60 roads,50 kmlh for circulationroads,and 30 km/h for arearoads.Theremay be instances where designspeeds less than thesemay be appropriate because severeterrain of
conditionsor major environmental concerns. Design speeds one-laneroads on would usually be lessthan 50 km/h. If a designspeed greaterthan 60 km/h is of used,the first sectionof this chaptershouldbe consulted. Designspeedis the principal factor that must be correlated with the physical features designto achievea roadwaythat will accommodate traffic safely of the forthe planneduse.Oncea designspeed selected, is allgeometricfeatures should be relatedto it to obtaina balanced design.Changes terrainandotherphysical in controlsmay dictatea changein designspeedin certainsections. decrease A in -- designspeedalong the road shouldnot be introducedabruptly,but be extended over a sufficientdistanceto allow the driver to adiustand makethe transitionto the slower speed.

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Design Vehicle The physical dimensions and operating characteristics vehicles and the of percentage variously sized vehicles using recreationalroads are primary of geometric design controls. Existing and anticipated vehicle types must be examinedto establish representative vehiclesfor eachfunctionalroadwayclass. Each design vehicle consideredshould represent ample percentage the an of vehiclesexpectedto usethe facility during its designlife. Three categories of vehicles are common to recreational areas-motor homes.vehicleswith trailers.andstandard vehicles. Critical ohvsical dimensionsforgeometric designarethe overall length,width, and heightof rhe units. Minimum turning pathsof the design vehiclesare influencedby the vehiclesteering mechanism. trackwidth, andwheelbase arrangement. Figures

: I
I

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o
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i I
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i5 co

AASHTMeometric

and Streets

Local Roadsand Streets

n ChapterII show minimum turn pathsfor motor homes(MH), passenger cars with 9 m travel trailers (PT), passenger cars with 7 m boats (PB), and motor homeswith 7 m boats(MHB). Turning path dimensionsforothervehicle types such as busesand passenger cars are covered in ChapterII.

primary access roadswhereuserstravel considerable distances reachactivity to sites.Passing sight distanceis not a factor on one-laneroads.It is assumed that the slower vehicle will pull into a turnout and allow the fastervehicle to pass when necessary. Suggested minimum passingsight distances two-lane for roadsare given in Table V-12.

Sight Distance Minimum stopping sight distanceand passingsight distanceare a direct function of the designspeed.The subjectof sight distancefor two-lane roads is coveredin ChapterIII; however,valuesarenot includedforcasesofvery low designspeedsand two-directionalone-laneroads.On one-laneroadsenough

Design Speed (km/h)

Minimum Passing (m)' SightDistance 2t7 285 345 407

K Valueb Crest Vertical Curve

-ight distance mustbe available onevehicleto reacha turnoutor for both for to stopbeforecolliding.Criteriafor measuring stopping sighrdisrance this for typeof roadassumes heightof eyeof 1070mm anda heightof opposing a vehicle 1300 mm.Thestopping of sightdistance atwo-directional for one-lane roadis approximately twice thestopping sightdistance a two-lane for road. Suggested stoppingsight distances two-directional for one-lane roadsare givenin TableV-l l.
(km/h) Design Speed
Tu'o-lane roads and sinNIe-lane roads ( one di recti onal ) Stoppingsight distance(m) .---Klaluen for: Crest vertical curve Sas venical curve One-laie roads (tvo diret'tional) Stoppingsight distance(m) K value'for: Crest verlical curve Sas vertical curve

30 40 50 60

50 90 r30 r80

aMinimum passing sightdistance measured driver's height 1070 ro rop from eye of mm of objectI 300mm abovepavement. b K valueis a coefficientby which the algebraic difference gradeis multipriedto in determine lengrh meters thevertical the in of whichwill provide curve, minimum sight distance.

TableV-12. Minimum passingsight distance two-lane for roads.

Grades
20 0.3 0.7 40 I 3 59.2
J

29.6

44.4 5 8 88.8 6 7

57.4-62.8 9 Ir

74.3-84.6 1418 l5-t8

n 4.8125.6 148.6169.2 l0 l7 t7-22 24-29

aK value is a coefficient by which the algebraicdifference in grade is multiplied to determinethe length in metersof the vertical curve, which will provide minimum sight distance.

TableV-l1. Minimum stopplngsight dlstance. Passing SightDistance

passing frequent maneuvers notanticipated. are passing Nevertheless, minimum
sight distanceshould be provided as frequently as possible,particularly on

Grade design for recrearionalroads differs substantiallyfrom that for rural highwaysin that the mass/power ratio of recreational vehicles(RV's) seldom exceeds kS/kW, and this fact indicares 30 that gradeabilityof RV's approaches that for passenger cars. Furthermore,becausevehicle operating speedson recreational roadsare relatively low, large speedreductions gradesare not on anticipated. When grades kept within the suggested are limits, critical lengthof gradeis not a major concernfor most recreational roads.Critical lengthof grademay be a factor on recreational roadsin the classificationof primary access roads,and appropriate consideration shouldbe given to thiselementfor thedesignfor these roads. Table V-13 identifiessuggested maximum gradesfor_giventerrain and design speed.Chapter III contains a more detaited discussion.The grades noted in Table V- l3 relate primarily to operationalperformanceof vehicles. A major item to beconsidered selectionof a maximum gradeis thecapability in
ur urs sull IUr Eroslon reslstance. In many lnslancesr graoes consl0era0ly less

thanthose shown Tablev-13 should chosen satisfy concern. in be to this In

addition.typeofsurfaceshouldalso be a factor in gradeselection. steep grades

AASHTHeometric

De

and Streets

Local Roads and Streets

i
d

wlth dirt or gravel surfacesmay cause driving problems in the absenceof whereas bituminous a surfacewill give bettervehicle maintenance, continued r ------r performancein general.

1
1

(km/h) DesignSpeed Type of Terrain

Level Rolling Mountainous

20
8 l2 l8

30

40
7

50
l0 l4

60
7 9 t2

r0
l5

slowly,aswith localandsome circulation roads, maximumsuperelevation a rate of 6 percentis suggested. roadswith designspeeds 30 km/h or less, On of superelevation may not be warranted. The designvaluesfor maximumcurvarure and superelevation discussed in ChapterIII are basedon friction data for pavedsurfaces. Some lower volume recreational facilities may not be paved,and because friction valuesfor grauei surfacesare less than those for paved surfaces,friction values should be consideredin curvatureselection.Figure V-4 shows the relationshipbetween minimum radiusand superelevation gravel-surfaced for roads.This figure was developed usingf valuesfrom 0. 12 at 15 km/h to 0.10at 50 km/h. by

roads. tor TableV-l3. Marimumgrades{o/ol recreational

Vertical Alinement Vertical curves should be safe,comfortable in operation,pleasingin aPparance, for and adequate drainage.Minimum or greaterstoppingsight distanceshould judgment in The designermust exerciseconsiderable be provided in all cases. lengthsin excessof the minimum may be designingvertical curyes,because problemsexist,or or needed driver decisionpoints,wheredrainage aesthetic at simply to provide an additionalmargin of safety. in Vertical curve designfor two-lane roads is discussed ChapterIII, which also contains specific design values. Table V-ll also includes additional information for very low design speedsnot tabulatedelsewhere.For two-directional one-laneroads,crest vertical curyes are significantly longer than those for two-lane roads.As previously discussedunder the section of sight distance,the stopping sight distance for a two-directional one-laneroad is for approximatelytwice the stoppingsightdistance a two-laneroad.Table V- I I includesK valuesfor one-laneroads,from which vertical curve lengthscan be determined.

Number of Lanes The number of lanes should be sufficient ro accommodate design traffic the volume.For low-volumerecreational capacityconditionsdo not normally roads, govern design;two travel lanes are appropriate.In some caseswhere traffic volume are less than 100 vehicles per day, it may be feasible to use a twodirectional one-laneroadway. This type of road is often desirablefrom an economicand environmentalstandpoint. When one-laneroadwayswith twodirectional traffic are used, turnouts for passingshould be provided. Traffic convenience requires that such turnoutsbe intervisible, providedon all blind curyes, and supplemented necessary thatthe maximumdistance as so between turnoutsis no more than300 m. The tumoutsshouldbe a minimum of 3 m wide for a lengthof l5 m andshouldhavea 8 m taperon eachend.For overwide and vehiclesthe valuesshouldbe adjusted accommodate usage. extra-long to the FigureV-5 showsa typicaldesignthatmay be usedfor turnouts tangent on and curvesections two-directional for one-lane roads.

Widths of Traveled Way, Shoulder, and Roadway A roadwayis definedas that portionof the highway includingshoulders for vehicularuse.Properroadwaywidth is selected the basisof numerous on factors includingexistin-e and anticipatedvehicularand bicycle traffic. safety,terrain. and designspeed. Table V-14 gives recommended traveledway widths and shoulderwidths for the varioustypesof roadways. The sum of the traveledwav and shoulder widthsgiven in TableV- l4 constitures roadwaywidth. the The low operatingspeeds and relatively low traffic volume on recreational not watTant n addition. wide shouldersmav be aesthetically objectionable. Thesefactsand concemsare ref'lected the shoulin der width values given in Table V-14. Under adverseterrain condirions.

Horizontal Alinement

wouldbephysically impractical sections roadway of the of Because use straight horizontalcurvesare undesirable, roads)aesthetically and (for recrcational and speed horizon' between design relationship nts. necessary eleme Theproper in are of tal curvaturcandthe relationship both with supcrelevation discussed in instances, however, certain facilities; recreational-type to applicable paved to wherethereis a tendency drive At variations appropriatc. locations are

AASHTMeometric

Design of Highwoys and Streets

Local Roads and Streets

intermittent shouldersections ortumoutsmaybesuitable altematives continuto ousshoulders, particularly lower functional on roadway Whereguardclasses. rail is used,the gradedwidth of the shouldershouldbe increased about 0.6 m.

lY1

w2
m m

o (, o o
6

3.6 m 1.2m

{. or norc

ctt o o
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nc
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=
-t
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ROAO ON CURVE

tot

(%l uollB^aloradns

FigureV-5. Turnoutdeslgn.

AASHTO--Ceometric Design of Highways and Streets

Local Roads and Streets

Type (two lanes) Primary access roads (two lanes) CiiCulation roads (two lanes) Arearoads (onelane)b Arearoads

Traveled Way Width (m)"

Shoulder Width (m) 0.6-1.2 0.6-1.2 0.0-0.6 0.0-0.3

potentialis greater thannormal,suchason theoutsideofsharphorizontal curves at the end of long, steep downgrades,liberal clear zone widths should be provided.

6.6-7.2 6.0-6.6 5.4-6.0 3.6

Roadside Slopes Where terrain conditions permit, backslopes,foreslopes,and roadsidedrainage channels shouldhavegentlewell-rounded transitions. Foreslope of I :4 or flaner s are safer,stable,and permit establishment maintenance turf. The maxiand of mum rate of foreslopedependson terrainconditionsand the stability of local soils as determined local experience. by Cut sectionsshould be designedwith adequateditches. The ditchshould be deepenoughto accommodate designflow andprovide the for satisfactorydrainageof the pavementbaseand subbase. While foreslopesof l:4 or flatter are preferable, there are other important considerationsin ditch designfor recreationalroads.Sunounding tenain and physical fearurepreservation may dictatenarrow width ditches.The lower speeds prevailing on recreational roads reducethe chanceof personalinjury for passengers vehicles in which drive into shallow-sided ditches.

"widening on the insideof sharpcurvesshouldbe provided.Addirionalwidth equalro 35 divided by the curve radius in metersis recommendedbRoadwaywidths greater than 4.2 m should not be used because the tendencyfor of drivers to use the facility as a two-lane road.

TableV-14.Widths ot traveledway and shoufder.

Cross Slope Crossslopemust be providedto ensureadequate drainage. However,excessive surface slopingcancausesteering difficulties.cross sloperatesgiven in thefirst sectionofthis chapterare generallyapplicableto recreational roads. On one-laneroads with low-type surfaces,a crown would not usually be provided.Roadsof this type would be inslopegraded(toward the cur ditch) or outslope graded(towardthe embankment fill), depending rheresistance on of the soil to erosion.

RoadsideBarrier Roadside barriers at shouldbe installed pointsof unusual particularly danger, thosepointsthat are unusualcompared with the overallcharacteriStics the of road.The criteriausedin freewaydesign not fit thelow-volumerecreational do road situation. The AASHTO Roadside Design Guide (8) provides some insight into the applicationof roadsidebarrierson low-speed, low-volume facilities.

il

Clear Recovery Area Providinga clearzoneadjacent a roadinvolvesa trade-offbetween to safetyand aesthetics. driver who leavesthe roadshouldbe provideda reasonable A chance to regaincontrol and avoid seriousinjury. On the other hand,the philosophyof recreational roads dictates that natural roadside features be preserved where possible. Because the character the traffic and the relativelylow operating of of speeds recreational roads,wide clear zonesare not as importantas on highon speed. high-volumefacilities.For thesereasons, dimensions smallerthanthose used on thesehigher order roads are appropriate.Desirably. 3 m or more of recoveryarea,measured from theedgeofthe traffic lane,shouldbe providedon the higherorder recreational roads,i.e.. the primary access roads.Thesevalues are recommended the generalcase;however,whereeconomicand environfor widthson the lowerorderrecrcational roads,i.e..circulationroadsandarcas. are even less critical than on primary accessroads. In areaswhere the accident

Signing and Marking Although safety and ettlciency of operationdependto a major extent on the geometric designof a road,theyshouldbesupplemented standard by signingand markingto provideinformationandwarningto drivers.Theextentto which signs and markingsare useddepends the traffic volume, the type of highway,and on the frequencyand use by drivers unfamiliar with the area.The MUTCD (2)

markings.

MSHTG-Geometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Local Roads and Streets

Thedesign bridges, of culverts, walls, tunnels, other and structures should in be accordance with the AASHTO standardspecifications HighwayBridges for (l). The minimumdesign loading new bridges for should M 13.5. be Higfer designloadingsare appropriate highwayscarryingotherthanjust recrcfor ational traffic.Theverticalclearance underpasses at should atleast4.3 over be m theentireroadwaywidth.Theclearroadway widthsfor newandreconstructed bridges should a minimum thesurface be of widthplusI m. wheretheapproach roadwayis surfaced the full crown width, that surfaced for width shouldbe carriedacross structures. Recreational roadsshouldbereviewed determine theyaresufficientto to if r- :-::- -aceommodate bicycletraffic.Whenspecial facilitiesaredesired theyshouldbe in accordance AASHTO'sGuidefor with (6). Development BicycleFacilities of

i--

Resource Development Roads Resource development roads includemining and logging roads.Design criteriaappropriate this typeof roadin manyareas not significantly for are differentfrom thosefor recreational roads. this reason criteriadevelFor the opedfor recreational roadsshouldbe followedto the extentthey areapplicable.severalitemsareuniqueto this category roadanddeserve of special attention.
Traffic on this type of road is primarily composed large,slow-moving, of hcav-ily loadedvehicles. For this reason, particularartention shouldbe paid to superelevation horizontalcurves.The centerof gravity of trucks is much of higherthanthatofpassenger cars, andthisfact increases tendency trucks the of to overturn.When semitrailers used,only part of thepaytoadis on the drive are axles.This situationincreases tendencyof the drive wheelsto spin and the sideslip on slippery surfaces.For thesereasonsthe maximum superelevation should be limited to 6 percent. On long sustainedgrades adverse to the directionof haul, the superelevation shouldbe reducedto accommodate the slow truck. Gradients this type of facility havean effect on theroadmaintenance on cosrs and coststo users.An economicanalysisis usually necessary determinethe to mosteconomicalgradefor thespecificconditionsencountered. Suchan analysis must considerthe increasein culvert installationsto prcventditch erosionon steepergrades and the more frequentsurfacereplacementneeds.Adverse grades

merit specialanalysis. many instances, In failure to useflattergrades may result in additionalexpenses transportation for during the life of the roadfar in excess of any savingin constructioncosts. Geometric design features for resource development roads are similar to thosefor recrealional roadsin thatthey mustbe consistent with thedesignspeelf selected. Low designspeeds km/h or below aregenerallyapplicable roads 60 to with winding alinementin rolling mountainousterrain.Table V-15 lists those minimum design speedsfor both one- and two-lane roads for varying terrain conditions. Because the mechanicallimitations of many of the vehiclesusing these of roads, special attention should be given to the need for warning signs and markings.On long descending grades, consideration shouldbe given to providing escapelanesto decelerateheavy vehicles that lose their brakesand run out of conuol. Decelerationmay be artificially induced by the useof loose material or providing combinations of sufficient length and upgrade for freewheeling deceleration. ChapterIII for "EmergencyEscapeRamps." See Many designconsiderationsfor resourcedevelopmentroadsare basedon the economics the equipmentoperatingon the facility. The effectsof gradesand of curvatureon operational cost arediscussed considerable in detail inthe Logging Road Handbook (9). In many instances, resource development roadsare ultimatelyusedfor other (e.g., recreational)purposes.In instancessuch as these,the original design shouldtakeinto account the possible all ultimateusages.

Type of Terrain Level Rolling Mountainous

Single Lane 100VPD Maximum (km/h)

Two Lane (km/h)

50 30 l5

60 50 30

TableV-l5. Minimumdesignspeedsfor resourcedevelopment and local serviceroads.

Roads LocalService

grades should besolongthattheyslowa loaded not truckto crawlspeed. Except for shortsections canbe overcome that largelyby momentum, adverse grades

(or for further development that rcquire a higher type facility if further developed)andthoseservinga minimal numberofparcels land.Most of these of roads

AASHTA--Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

Local Roads and Streets

ill not be throughroads(connected public roadson bothends)but will dead to end at the serviceto the last parcelon the road. Traffi c on this type of road is of very low volume (fewer than I 00 vehicles per day) and is of a repeat type. The design criteria, therefore,can be basically the same as those developed for recreational roads. Those criteria should be followed where applicable.

.,Roadway 12. Tngeer, Charles F. Council, TimothyR. Newman. V., and Widths for Low-Traffic-Volume Roads."NCHR? proiect l5-12. Transportation Research Board, National Research Councit. t9gl.

REFERENCES
l.

AASHTO.Sta ndardSpecift cations H ighway Bridge s.Washington, for D. C.: AASHTO.1992. U. S.Departmentof Transportation, Federal HighwayAdministration. Manualon UnifurmTrafficControlDevices.Washington, C.: U. S. D. Govemment PrintingOffice,1988. Bert, K. E., et al. Accommodation Utility PlantsWithinthe Rightsof of-Way of Urban Streetsand Highways,Manual of Improved practices.ASCEManualNo. 14. Chicago: American PublicWorksAssociation,and New York: American Society Civil Engineers, of July 't974.

AASHTO.GuideforAccommodating UtilitiesonHighwayRights-ofWay. Washington, C.:AASHTO,1994. D. 5 . AASHTO.An InformationalGuide Roadway Lig'hting. Washingfor ton,D. C.:AASHTO, 1985. 6. AASHTO. Guide Development BicycleFacilities.Washington, of for D. C.:AASHTO. 1991. Corpsof Engineers, Construction Engineering Laboratory. Design Guidelines Recreational Roads. Washington, C.: 1975. D. for 8. AASHTO.Roadside DesignGuide.Washington, C.: AASHTO, D. 1989. 9. U. S. Department Agriculture, of Forest Service. Logging RoadHandbook--:The Effectof RoadDesignon Hauling Costs. HandbookNo. 18-1. Washington, C.: U. S. Deparrment Agriculture, D. of Foresr 1960. Service. 10. U. S. Depanment Agriculture, of ForestService. Manual Network Analysis MethodFor the Transportation Resources. 77I0-6. of No. Washington, C.: U. S. Department Agriculture, D. of Forcst Service, Engineering Management Services, 1991. Glennon,JohnC. "Designand Traffic Connol Guidelines Lowfor
A

vorume Kurat Koaos. NcnKr Keport .//4. Nattonal um Highway Research Board. National Research Council, 1979.

450

ChapterVI

COLLECTOR ROADS AND STREETS

INTRODUCTION Forpurposes design, of highwaysareclassifiedby functionwith enumeration of design values for each functional type. The following guides applicableto collectorroadsand streets presented a functionalbasis.This chapterwill are on be suMivided into rural collectors and urban collectors. A definition of the collector can be developed by refening ro its upper and lower limits - the arterial and the local road or street.The collector is the road or streetbetweenthesetwo limits. Collectorsalso servedual functions: collecting traffic betweenlocal roads and arterialstreets and providing access abuttingproperties. to The collectorstreetslink neighborhoods areasof homogeneous or land use with arterialstreets. Thesestreets servetraffic movements betweenarterialand localstreets, servethroughtraffic within localareas. and Collectorstreets should be planned as not to disruptthe activities so within the areas rheyserve. In manycases, theremay be no discernible difference between collector the andthe localaccess street within a neighborhood. localaccess The street. from a designclassification standpoint, a local streetthat providesdirect access is to lower densityresidential and is intended servethecollectionfunction lots to for a group of accessroads and ideally not the immediate accessneedsof individual residences. However. the collector streetdoes serve the access function for higherdensityresidential development and for some neighborhood facilities. The collector street is a public highway, usually serving moderatetraffic volumes. establish own individuality. design To its the should reflectirsspecific statusand shouldnot be conceivedor developedsimply as a continuousaccess street.The collector road or streetshould allow accessto'abutting properties consistent with the level of servicedesired. The use of more liberal values of desisn dimensionsthan the minimums every effon should be made to get the best possiblealinement,grade. sighr distance,and proper drainagethat are consistentwith the terrain,presentand proposed development. and availablefunds.

AASHTMeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Drainage, both on the pavement and on the sides and subsurface.is an important consideration.unless drainageis properly accommodated, mainteRancecosts will be unduly high. In areasof significant snowfall, provision shsuld be made for storing plowed snow with proper drainageas it melts. Safety is an important factor in all roadway improvements. low-volume on roadsor streetsor in urban areasit may not be possibleto obtain the desirable obstacle-free roadsides. much clearroadside practicalshouldbe provided. As as The judicious useof flatter slopes, roadside barriers,and warningsignsherpsto achieve roadside safety. Proper placementof utility featuresalso assistsin achieving safer roadsides.Noise abatementmay,need to be considered;see ChapterIV, section"Noise Control." The Highwoy capacity Manual (HcM) (l) provides the designer with the =---ehsiee of level of service for the highway facility under considerarion. collector streetsshould generallybe designedfor level-of-servicec to D. In heavily developedsectionsof metropolitanareas,conditions may necessitate the use of level-of-serviceD. In rural areas,a level-of-servicec is desirable for collector roads. However" level-of-serviceD is practical where unusually high traffic volumesexist or whereterrain is rolling or mountainous.Collector roads and streets cannot be designed entirely on the basis of functional classification.Many other facets of design must also be considered.See ChapterII, section"Level of Service."

The average daily traffic (ADT) for thedesignyearmay be usedfor theproject design.Seefunctionalclassifications discussed ChapterL as in

Design Speed Geometricdesignfeatures shouldbe consistent with a designspeed appropriate for the conditions.Low design speeds(60 km/h and berow) are generally applicableto highways with curvilinear alinementin rolling or mountainous terrain,or whereenvironmental conditionsdictate.High designspeeds km/ (g0 h and above)are generallyapplicabletohighways in level tenain or whereother environmentalconditionsare favorable.Intermediate designspeeds would be appropriate whereterrainandotherenvironmental conditions acombination are of thrise described for low and high design speeds. Table VI-l identifies minimum design speedsfor rural collector roads as a function of the type of terrain and ADT volumes. The designershould strive for higher valuesthan the minimum where conditions of safety dictate and costs can be supported.

Minimum Design (km/h)for Speeds DesignVolumes of: Type of Terrain

Level Rolling Mountainous

RURAL COLLECTORS

ADT 0-400 60 50 30

ADT 400-2000 80 60 50

ADT over 2000

GeneralDesign Considerations
An important part of the rural highway system consistsof two-lane collector highways. These roadways should be designedto accommodatethe highest practicalstandards compatiblewith traffic and topography.Basic information necessaryfor design of collectors includes safety, traffic volumes, terrain controls,and alinement.

r00 80 60

Table Vt-1. Minimum design speeds (rural conditions).

SightDistance
Design Traflic Volumes Rural collector highways should be designedfor specific traffic volumes and levelsofservice appropriate accepted to procedures. usually, the designyear is

Minimumstopping sightdistance passing and sightdist.ance a direct are function ofthe design speed. heightofeye of 1070 A mm anda heightof object 150mm areused determine of ro stopping sightdistance. height A of eye of 1070mm anda heightof objectof 1300mm areusedto derermine "SightDistance."

yearstrom constructron may (for range thepresent restoration-type of projects) 20 years thefuture(for to in newconstruction-type projects).

AASHTO--G eometric D esi

and Streets

Collector

Design Speed (km/h)

Assumed for Speed Condition (kmih)

Computed for Design (m) 29.6- 29.6 44.4- 44.4 57.4 62.8 74.3- 84.6 94.1 I10.8

K Value"for VerticalCurves (Rounded Design) for Crest 3 -3 5-5 9- l0 14-18 Sag

Grades Verticalalinement must be designed conjunction in with the horizontal alinement' Both alinementsmust complement each other to provide the safety, capacity, and appearancefor the type of improvement proposed.Table vl-l identifiessuggested maximum gradesfor the terrainand designconditions.See ChapterIII, section"Vertical Alinement."

30 40 50 60 70 80 -90 100 ll0

30-30 40-40 4 7- 5 0 55-60 6 3- 7 0 70-80 77 -90 85- 100 9l - ll0

rr2.8- t39.4 t3r.2- t68.7 157.0205.0 - 246.4 r79.5

22-3r 4 3- 7 r 62- tOs

8 0- 1 5 l 32-49

4-4 8-8 tt-12 15-18 20 -25 25-32 30-40 3 7- 5 1 43-62

Rural Collectors Typeof Terrain

DesignSpeed(km/h)

30 40
7 7 l0 lt

50

60

70

80 90 100 ll0
654 765 986

aK value is a coefficientby which the algebraic differencein gradeis multiplied to the of curvewhichwill provide determine lengthin meters thevertical minimumsight III, "SightDistance." See distance. Chapter section

Level Rolling Mountainous Design (km/h) Speed Typeof Terrain

r0
t2

(%) Grades 7776 9887 1010109

(wetpavements). TableVl-2A. Minimumstoppingslght distance

Urban Collectors

Design (km/h) Speed

30 40
999 t2 t2 t4 13

s0

60

70

80 90 100 ll0
65 76 97

-Design

Speed (kmih)

Minimum Passing SightDistance for Design (m) 2t7 285 345 407 482 54r 605 670 728

K Value" for CrestVertical Curves (Rounded Design) for

Level Rolling Mountainous

ll t2

(7o) Grades 9877 10988 t2 lr r0

l0

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 il0

50 90 130 180 250 310 390 480 570

oMaximumgrades shown for rural and urbanconditionsof short lengths, (lessthan 150 m), on one-waydown gradesand on low-volume rural collectorsmay be 2vo steeper.

Table Vl-3. Maxlmum gradesa. Alinement Thedesigner should strivefor ashigh a standard practical ruralcollector as for alinements. noted, As horizontal vertical and alinements complement must each other and be considered combination. in Topography, traffic volumeand composition, right-of-way and conditions controllingfeatures. are Abrupt changes horizontal in alinement should avoided. be verticalcurves should meet ..Horizontal shouldbc employed, wherepractical. SeechapterIII. section
Alinement."

rK value is a coefficient by which the algebraicdiffercnce in grade is multiplied to determinethe length in metersof the vertical curve which will provide minimum sight

passlngslght dlstance. TableVl-28. Mlnimum

AASHTMeometic

Desi

s and Streets

Collector Roads and

Slope Cross proper be to Normally, slope should adequate provide drainage. cross Pavement pavements to for and rangefrom 1.5percent 2.0percent high-type eioSs slopes pavements. for to from 1.5percent 3.0 percent intermediate-type are thatretainsmooth and ridingqualities good High-typepavements those with properties all weather under heavy raffic volumes loadings and in non-skid linle maintenance. pavements thosedesigned retain smoothriding are to Intermediate-type properties all weather, under in loads qualities goodnon-skid but lighter and and volumes. lesser traffic and are Low-typepavements thosewith treatedeanh surfaces thosewith percentcrossslopeis desirable low-type for surfaces. 3.0 A looseaggregate "CrossSlope." pavements. Chapter section IY See

surfaces, minimum the roadway widthis thesumof thetraveled andgraded way shoulder widths givenin TablevI-4. whereroadside barriers proposed,is are it desirable provide minimumoffsetof 1.2m from the traveled to a way to the barrier wherever practical. chapter sections See "shoulders" "LongituIV and dinalBarriers." "Pavement SeeChapter section III, Wideningon Curves" offtracking for information. When bicyclefacilitiesare includedas part of the design,refer ro rhe AASHTOpublication Guide theDevelopment BicycleFacitities (ll). of for

DesignTraflic Volumes: Design Speed (km/h)

ADT Under 400

6.0b 6.0b 6.0b 6.0b

ADT ADT ADT 400-1500 1500-2000 Over2000

6.0 6.0 6.0 '6.6 ' 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 7.2 7,2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2

Superelevation rate havecurvilinearalinement. suprelevation A Many rural collectorhighways mustbeused.Forruralcollectors,superelevation compatiblewith thedesignspeed shouldnot exceedl2 percent.Where snow and ice conditionsmay be a factor, runout denotes shouldnot exceed8 percent.Superelevation the superelevation the length of highway neededto accomplishthe changein crossslope from a crown removedto a fully superelevated sectionandvice see tion with theadverse ----versafor Adjustments in designrunout lengthsmay be necessary smoothriding, ChapterIII, section"Horizontal Alinesurfacedrainage,and good appearance. for ment," provides a detailed analysison superelevation appropriatedesign speeds.

Width of Traveled Way (m).

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
ll0

6.0 6.0 6.6 6.6 6.6

Width of GradedShoulder EachSide(m) Ail Speeds 0.6 L5" L8

AA

L,+

Number of Lanes the The numberof lanesshouldbesufficientto accommodate designvolumesfor . Normally, capacityconditionsdo not governrural level of service the selected See collectorroads,andtwo lanesareappropriate. ChapterII, section"Highway Capacity."

u wherethewidthof rhetraveled isshown be7.2 way to m, thewidthof raveled waymay remainat 6.6 m on rcconstructed highways wherealinement safetyrccords and are satisfactory. b 5.4minimum ADT under for 250. q May beadjusted to achieve minimumroadway a widrhof 9.0m for design speeds o f 5 0 k m / ho r l e s s . Seetextfor roadside barrier offtracking and considerarions.

TableVl-4. Mlnimumwldth of traveledway and gradedshoulder.

way to thepoint from theedgeof thetraveled Gradedshoulderwidth is measured and high-type of of intersection shoulderslopeand foreslope.For intermediate

AASHTO--Geometric De

and Street

Collector Roads and Streets Rural

oreslopes will dependon the stabilityof local soils as The maximum rate of foreslope determinedby soil investigationand local experience. Slopesshouldbe as flat as feasible, and otherfactorsshouldbe considered determine designslope. to the safetyby providing maneuveringareain emergencies, Flat foreslopesincrease more stability than steepslopes,aid in the establishment plant growth, and of work. Roadsidebarriersmay be used where topography simpler maintenance and right-of-way are restrictiveand a needis proven. leavethetraveledway can often recovercontrol Drivers who inadvertently of their vehicles if foreslopesare l:4 or flatter and shoulderand ditchesare well rounded. Such recoverable slopes should be provided where tenain and shouldbe madetothecurrentAASHTO iigh.of-waycontrols permit.Reference . Roadside Design Guide (3). See Chapter IY section'Traffic Barriers." Where this constructionis not practical,the combinationsof rateand height ofan out-of-controlvehiclehave ofslope providedshouldbe suchthatoccupants for a good.chance survival. Where high fills, right-of-way restrictions,watercourses,or other problemsmake this provision impractical, roadsidebarriers in should be considered, which casemaximum rate of fill slopecould be used. with adequate shouldbedesigned ditches. Preferably, foreslope the Cutsections l:3.Theditchbottomandslopesshouldbewell rounded. shouldnotbesteeperthan shouldnot exceedthe maximum requiredfor.stability. The backslope

Current Traffic ADT Under 400 400- 1500 1500-2000 over20@

Minimum Roadway Width of Bridge

Width of traveledway plus 0.6 m each side Width of traveledway plus 1.0m eachside Width of traveledway" plus 1.2m eachside Approach roadway widthu

Design Loading Structural Capacity MS-I8 MS-I8 MS-18 MS.I8

'For bridges excess 30 m in length minimum in of the widthof traveled plus1.0m way on each sidewill beacceptable. DWhere approach the roadwaywidth (traveledway plus shoulder) surfaced, is that surfaced width shallbe carriedacross structures. all

TableVl-5. Minimumroadwaywidths for new and reconstructed bridgesb.

Wherean existinghighway is to be reconstructed, existingbridgethat fits an the proposedalinementand profile may remain in place when its structural capacityin termsof designloading and roadwaywidth are at leastequal to the value shownfor the applicabletraffic volume in Table VI-6. The valuesin Table VI-6 do not apply to structures with a total lengthgreater than 30 m. Thesestructures should be analyzedindividuallyby taking into consideration clearwidth provided,safety,traffic volumes,remaininglife of the the structure, designspeed,and other pertinentfactors.

S.tr-uctures walls.tunnels, otherstructures culverts, shouldbe in The designof bridges, and accordancewith the current AASHTO Stantlard Spec'ifications Highu'ay" for Bridges (2). Except as otherwise indicatedherein.the dimensionaldesign of structures with thesespecifications. should also be in accordance The minimum designloadingtbr bridgesshouldbe MS- l8 on collectorroads. bridsesshouldbe The minimum roadwavwidthstbr new and reconstructed as given in Table VI-5.

Traffic ADT Under 400 400-1500 1500-2000 over2000

Design Loading StructuralCapacity MS-r3.5 MS-13.5 MS-13.5 MS-r3.5

Roadway Clear Width (m)t 6.6 6.6 7.2 8..1

Bridges to Remain in Place and roadwa speeds attractlargervehicles. existingstructures also shouldbe improved and Because their high cost.reasonably of bridgesand conespondingly. adequate criteriashouldbe retained. culvertsthat mcet tolerable

'Clear widthbetween curbs rails.whichever thelesser. considered bear or is is to least same theapproach the as traveled width, way

Table Vl-6. Mlnlmum structural capscitles mlnlmum and roadwsy wldths brldges remaln place. lor In to

AASHTO-Geometric Desi

Collector Roadsand Streets(Rural)

Vertical Clearance Verticalclearance underpasses at shouldbe at Ieast m overtheentireroadway 4.3

width,plusan allowance futureresurfacing. for

it areas may be more feasibleto limit the right-of-waywidth to In developed however,lheright-of-wayshouldbenot less In everycase, a practicalminimum. elements of the design cross section and appropriate than that required for all border areas.

Horizontal Clearances to Obstructions On a rural collectorroad with a designspeedof 60 km/h and below,a minimum clearzoneof3.0 m from the edgeofthe through-trafficlaneshouldbe provided. The recovery areashould be clear of all unyielding objectssuch as trees,sign supports,utility poles,light poles,and any other fixed objects.The benefitsof removing theseobstructions must be weighed againstthe safety aspectsand the environmental effects. On a rural collector road with a design speed of 80 km/h and above, the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide (3) should be referred to for guidance in making a selectionof clear zone.For the intermediate rangebetweenhigh and low designspeeds, is desirableto provide the greatestclear zone associated it with the high designspeeds. however,the conditionsmore nearly approach If, thoseassociated with the low designspeeds, would be permissible employ it to the lesserclear zone width. SeeChapterIY section"Horizontal Clearances to Obstructions." To the extent feasible,where anotherhighway or railroad passes over, the structureshould be designedso that the pier or abutmentsupportshave lateral -clearanceas great as the clear zone on the approachroadway. The approachroadway (traveledway plus shoulders)shouldbe carried across an overpassor other bridge when feasible.Approach roadsidebarriers,anchored to thebridgerail or parapet, shouldbeprovided.Sidewalksshouldbecarriedacross a bridge if the approachroadway hassidewalksor sidewalk areas. Strucrures over the project roadway should have piers set back beyond the clear zone.When this is not feasible,roadsidebarrier protection should be provided at the piers.

Intersection Design Intersectionsshoutd be situated carefully to avoid steep profile gradesand to shouldnot be situated An sight distance. intersection approach adequate ensure sharp horizontal curve. Where just beyond a sharpcrest vertical curve or on a there is no practical alternateto such a location, the approachsight distanceon each leg should be checked carefully. Where necessary,cut slopes should be flattened. and horizontal or vertical curves should be lengthenedto provide additional sight distance.There should be sufficient sight disranceto permit a vehicle on the minor leg of the intersection to cross the traveled way without requiring the through approachingtraffic to slow down. As a generalrule, there shouldbe a minimum of 7 s availableto the driver crossingthe throughlanes. of "sight Distance,"containsa detaileddiscussion intersecChapterIX, section tion design. should be designed with a corner radius for pavementor Intersections usually,a minimum edge for surfacingadequate the largervehiclesanticipated; Whereturningvolumesaresignificant, in radiusof l5 m is applicable rural areas. should be considered' lanesand channelization speed-change legsthat will operateunder stop sign control preferablyshould Intersection The designershouldstrive to provide anglesno greaterthan be at right angles. from normal,wherepractical.A landingplatformaslevelaspossible degrees 30 shouldbe providedfor approachvehiclesthat are requiredto stop'

Railroad-Road Grade Crossing Appropriate grade crossing warning devices should be installed at all rail road-roadgradecrossings.Details of the devicesto be used are given in the Manuolon IJniformTrffic Contol Det'ices(MUTCD) (4)' grrde crossings. at is Sight distance an importantconsideration railroad-road on distance the collector rural roadfor the driver Theremust be sufficientsight to recognizethe railroad crossing,perceive the warning device, and stop if

Right-of-Way Width The procurement right-of-way to widths that accommodate construction, of the adequate drainage, prope maintenance a highway is a mostimporranr and r of part of the overall design. Wide right-of-way permits the constructionof gentle

for themotorist. orovidins and easier more and

of theinitial improvementpermits wideningof the roadwayandthe widening the and strengthening the pavementat reasonable of cost as traffic increases.

necessary.
at alt ral

See Chapter IX, section"RailroadGrade the traveledway plus shoulders. Crossing."

AASHTMeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Collector Roads and Streets(Urban)

rossings that involve bicycle routes which are not perpendicularto the roadwaymay requireadditionalpavedshoulderwidth for bicyclesto maneuver

oyelthe crossing. theAAsrHo publication See Guidefor theDevelopment of BicycleFacilities(ll\.

Traffic Control Devices Signs,pavementmarkings,and traffic signal controls where pertinentare essential elements all highways. for The MUTCD (4) contains detailsof the devices be usedandwarrants their use. to for A system routenumbering letteringfor rural collectorroadsis highly of or -. desirable travelers for unfamiliarwith theareaandsimplifiesessential signing in accordance the MUTCD (4). with

Erosion Control All slopes and drainage areas should be designed with proper regard for the desired natural ground cover and growth regenerationon areasopenedduring construction. Seedingand mulching of slopesand the treatmentof swalesand other erodibleareasshouldbe a part of the collector design. In roadsidedesign' the preservation naturalground coversand desirable of growth of shrubs and rrees should be considered if such growth does not constitute a problem in the recovery area. Placementof trees should not itute a problem to the driver nor should it interferewith the driver's sight distancein conductingnecessary highway operations.

GeometricdesignguidesforarterialstreetsarecoveredinChapterVll;local streetsare coveredin ChapterV' access betweenmobility and The function of urban collectors is equally divided access.Fewcitieshaveeffectiveaccesscontrolrestrictionsalongcollector abutting properties'except where streets;almost all streetspermit accessto are plannedand conrights have been acquired'Many new-collectors access structedwithlittleo,nou..",,restriction.Uncontrolledaccessfacilitiesare of obsolescence the collector ,"i:"., to the deterioratinginfluencesthat cause desirable to ofiriveway access the urbancollectorsis a facilities.Management undertaking. Whentheobjectiveistoexpeditetrafficmobility'therearemanyadditional criteriaincludetheminimizing ur" criteriaforwhici guidelines n"..rrury. These ict storagefor ali tuming movements'minimum confl of conflict points, adequate and opposite adjoining with pedestrians,coordination of driveways serving to meet signal progression needs' and efficient prop.ni"r, locational criteria capacity. By using these design circulation for adequateingressand egress developed' criteria, an optimum system of accesscan be Accesscontrolonu,buncollectorstreetsshouldbeexercisedprimarilyto ensurethataccesspointsconformtotheadoptedstandardsforsafety,location' and maintenance' design,construction,

Design Traflic Volumes to the geometric^values be Traffic vorumesarea major criterion in determining thedesigntraffic volumes Specifically' urbancollectorstreets' usedin designing basisof design'lt usuallyis to projected the (future)designyearshouidbe.the of an existingco.llectorstreet design difficult andcostly to rnodifyihe geometric The designtraffic provision is made uitr," ii-. of initial construction. unless preferably20 yearsfrom the date for shouldbe estimated at least l0 yearsand comPletion. of construction I

URBAN COLLECTORS GeneralDesignConsiderations

Design SPeed

A collector street a public is wayforpurposes ofvehiculartravel includes and theentireareawithin theright-of-way. urban The collectorstreet alsoseryes pedestrian trafficandoftenaccommodates publicutilityfacilities withinthe right-of-way. improvement The ordevelopment streets of should based be on a functional street classification whichshouldbe partof a comprehensive planned ultimate development. general, In values collector design for streets should greater be thantheminimums cited.

D e s i g n s p e e d i s a f a c t o r i n t h e d e s i g n o f c o l l e c t o r S t r e e t sbeused n s i s t e n c y i n .Forco should of speed 50 km/tror higher design a ellments minimum il; tenaii:"dj*:ll right-of-way' on dependlng available streets, collector forurban sectton
and other u,.u development.
"Destgn 5peeo.

i""t:":11"-T-T:::y"]:: grid' theclosely street In the typical -s9a1ed

"iJ,r,ur-*ake

Ior augrtlull'rr

See Tabte VI-l and ChapterII' "ont'olt' lllrvrrrrsrrvlr'

significance. of speed lesser of theeffect design

".;;;"i;;;;J,

473

with the Nevertheless, longer sight distancesand curve radii commensurate resultin saferhighwaysandshould higherthanthevalueindicated designspeeds

Superelevation for Superelevation, specific locations,may be advantageous urbancollector in the streettraffic operation, in built-up areas combinationof wide pavement but areas,proximity of adjacentdevelopment, control of cross slope, profile for drainage, frequencyof crossstreets, and otherurbanfeatures combineto makd When used, superelevation urbancollector its useimpracticalor undesirable. on of streetsshould be 6 percent or less. The absence superelevation urban on collectorsfor low speeds(60 km/h and below) is not detrimentalto the user. Generally,some warping or partial removal of the tangentpavementcrown facilitates user'soperation. SeeChapterIII, section "HorizontalAlinement." the

practicable feasible. and be used theextent to

SightDistance from 60 for collector streets should in therange be Stopping sightdistance urban passing distance is applicable urban on for sight seldom m to 140m. Design VI-2A andVI-2B. SeeChapter section "Sight III, See collector streets. Tables Distance."

Grades with the shouldbe as level as consistent Gradesfor urbancollector streets gradeis acceptable facilitatedrainage. to terrain.A 0.30 percent sunounding grade more, whenpossible, to or it However, is recommended use0.50percent purposes. depressed below the Urbanstreetgrades generally are for drainage property to adjacent drainage thecurbarea tenainto accommodate sunounding gradients, radii,and Applicable in andaccumulation the stormdrainsystem. "VerticalAlinein III, features discussed Chapter section are otherpertinent grades. urban street ment."SeeTableVI-3 for maximum

Number of Lanes and parking are Two moving traffic lanesplus additionalwidth for shoulders sufficient for most urban collector streets.Where the street is developedby stages,initially a rural cross section with shouldersmay be used.This street of shouldbe plannedfor later stageconversion the shoulderwidth to a parking laneor a throughlane,usually with outercurbs.Wherethe initial development with rural conditionsand utilizes a rural crosssection.a clear zoneconsistent with the designspeedis to be provided.As the conversiontakes commensurate place,the clearzonecan be modified to that acceptable urbanconditions.If for practical economically and feasible, initialconstruction the shouldbe four lanes with curbs,allowing parking on the outer two lanesuntil later development necessitates of all four lanesfor movingtraffic. use in In somecases commercialareaswheretherewill be severalmidblock left to continuous two-way, tums. it may be advantageous providean additional leti-tum lanein thecenter. with high traffic The numberoflanesto be providedon urbancollectorstreets volumesshouldbe determined a highwaycapacity The capacity analysis. by whenappropriandmid-blockanalysis. shouldbe based intersection on analysis should madetbr futuredesign be ate.tbr levelof service. Desirably suchanalyses tratTic utilizing the Hi,gftn'avCapacitv Manual (l). See Chapter II. section "Highway Capacit1,."

Alinement Alinement in residentialareasshould fit closely the existing topography to minimize the need for cuts or fills without sacrificing safety.Caution that the safety of the facility is not reducedshould be taken in the designof both the vertical and horizontalalinement.

Cross Slope Crossslope slopeshouldbe adequatetoprovideproperdrainage. Pavementcross normally shouldbe from 1.5percentto 3 percentwhercthereareflush shoulders adjacent to the tmveled way or where there are outer curbs. secttons. The oavementcross slooe is usuallv desienedto Drovide

Width of Roadway The width of an urban collector streetshould be plannedas the sum of the ultimatelanestor moving traffic and parking,includingmedianwidth where appropriate.

sectionto permit However, centersectionmay bc designed a parabolic the as parabolic Whenused, sections normally are transition thecross of slope. smooth streets. foundon two-lane

474

AASHTMeometric De

Collector Roadsand Streets Urban

reet lanesfor moving traffic should rangein width from 3.0 to 3.6 m. In industrialareas, lanesshouldbe 3.6 m wide exceptwherelack of space rightfor otway imposes severe limitations, lanes m widemaybeused. 3.3 Addedtuming lanes at intersections, where used, shoutd range in width from 3.0 to 3.6 m dependingon the percentage trucks. when rural shouldersareused,reference of should be made to Table VI4. When bicycle facilities are included as part of of the design,refer to the AASHTO publication Guidefor the Developmentof Bicycle Facilities (ll).

Parking Lanes

---TJtllough

parkingconsritures safetyproblemand impedes on-street a traffic

flow, parallel parking lanescurrently areconventionalon many collector streets. Parallelparkingwill normally beacceptable urbancollectors on wheresufficient srreetwidth is availableto provide parking lanes.where neededin residential areas, parallel parking lane from 2.1 to 3.0 m in width shouldbe providedon a one or both sidesas the conditionsof lot size and intensityof development may require.In commercialand industrialareas,parking lane widths shouldrange from2.4 to 3.0 m and they are usually provided on both sides.The principal problemof diagonalor angleparking when comparedto parallelparking is the lack of adequate visibility for the driver during the back-outmaneuver. Design with diagonal angleparkingshouldonly be in special or cases. Chapter See IV, section"On-StreetParking." should inqlude consideration likely for ____-P4rking lane width determinations ultimate asa laneformovingtrafficeither use duringpeakhours orcontinuously. Where curb and gutter sectionsare used, the gutter pan width may be included a partof theminimum width of parkinglane,but desirably lane as the widths shouldbe in additionro that of the gutterpan.

protectionof a vehicle crossing at an intersectionand spacefor parkway landscape treatment. On urbancollectorstreetswith raisedmedian,openingsshouldbe provided only at other streetintersections and at reasonablyspaceddriveways serving major traffic generators such as industrialplantsand shoppingcenters. Whenever practical,medianopeningsshould be designedto include left-turn lanes.'" Openings shouldbe situated only wherethereis adequate The sightdistance. shape and lengthof the medianopeningsdependon the width of the medianand the vehicletypesthat must be accommodated. The minimum lengthof median openingsshould be that of the projectedroadway width of intersecting cross streetor driveway. Desirably the length of median openingsshould be great enough to provide a 15 m turning control radius or the design vehicle for left-turning vehicles between the inner edge of the lane adjacentto the median and the centerline the intersectionroadway. of On many urban collectors it may be impractical to place a raised median. A continuous left-tum lane,flush with the adjoiningtraffic lanesandpainted,is an accepfableapproach.Chapter IV, section "Medians," and Chapter IX, section "Median Openings,"containfurther discussion medians. on

Curbs Streets normallyaredesigned with curbsfor high utilizationof availablewidth, control ofdrainage,protectionofpedestrians, and delineation. The curb on the rightoftrafficshouldbe l50mmhigh,usuallywithappropriatebatter.Onlightly traveledresidential streets with gradeslessthan2 percent, lower curb thatdoes a not require modification at driveway entrances may be used.The curb slope shouldbe 6: I or flatter. On divided streets the type of median curbs should be determined in conjunctionwith the medianwidth and the type of turning movementcontrol to be effected.Where mid-block left-tuming movementsare permitted and the medianwidth is under 3 m, a well-delineatedflush or roundedraisedmedian separator to 100mm high is effectivein channelizing 50 traffic and in servingto avoid excessive travel distancesand concentrations turns at intersections. of Where traversable wider mediansare appropriate, rhey may be either flush or borderedwith low curb 25 to 50 mm high. On narrow and intermediate-width medians.and on some wide medians, where cross-medianmovementsare undesirable createproblems.a barrier mediancurb should be used.usually or

IVledian U r b a n c o l l e c t o r s t r e e t sd e s i g n e df o r f o u r o r m o r e l a n e ss h o u l d i n c l u d e width for appropriatemediantreatmentwhenevernecessary and practical. T h e r ea r e s u b s t a n t i aa d v a n t a g e f o r e a c hi n c r e m e n t n m e d i a nw i d t h . a n d l s i m e d i a n s h o u l db e a s w i d e a s p r a c t i c a lf o r t h e s p e c i f i cc o n d i t i o n s F o r t h e s . g e n e r a lt y p e s o f s t r e e tm e d i a n t r e a t m e n t h e f o l l o w i n g w i d t h s s h o u l d b e

' provided:I ) paint-striped ( tion,0.6 1.2m wide;(2)narrow to raised or curbed sections. to 1.8m wide;(3) paint-striped curbed 0.6 or sections. 3.0 to .1.8m wide providingspacefor separate left-turnlanes:and (4) .1.8 curbed )-ections, to 12.0 wideor moreproviding m space shielding for

150to 225 mm hieh andwith an curb batter.A barriercurb or a median baniershould usedwhere be positive separation opposing of trafficis whercthereis no needfor pedestrian essential. crossing, and wherclocal regulations permit. Chapter section "Curbs." See IV

AASHTO--4eomet

Collector Roads and Streets( Urhan)

Barrier curbs 150 mm high or more adjacentto moving traffic lanesshould be offset from 0.3 to 0.6 m. Where there is combination curb and sutter construction,the gutter pan width (normally 0.3 to 0.6 m) may be usedas the offset distance. Often a good application of paintedor striped median on collector streerscan precludethe needfor mediancurbs.

Curb-Cut Ramps Curb-cutrampsshouldbe providedat crosswalks accommodate to persons with disabilities. variousdesignapplications suchramps.See ChapterlVdiscusses on ChapterIY section"Pedestrian Crossings."
j

Roadway Widths for Bridges

Drainage Surface runoff is gathered a system gutters, by of inlets,catchbasins, and sewers. guttergradeshould 0.30percent. The be However, guttergrade a of 0.50percent moreshouldbe used,whenpossible, drainage or purposes. for with anopen grate Inlets catch basins or should located theguttertineand be in ponding thepavement be sospaced that on wouldnot exceed tolerable limits. Grates should designed accommodate be to bicycleandpedestrian traffic.see portions drainage ofChapters andIV for additional III details.
The minimum clear width for all new bridgeson urban collector streetswith curbed approachesshould be the same as the curb-to-curb width of the approaches.The bridge rail should be placed immediately beyond the curb if no sidewalk is presentto avoid vaulting of vehicles.For urbancollector strcetswith shouldersand no curbs, the full width of approachroadways preferably should be extended acrossbridges. Sidewalks on the approachesshould be extended across new stmctures. all Desirablythereshouldbe at leastone sidewalkon all street bridges. Further discussionon this subject and the applicationof the concretebarrier rail is given in Chapter IV, section"Traffic Baniers." Table VI-5 applies for urban collector bridge widths.

Sidewalks Sidewalks be should provided along bothsides urban of collector streets are that used pedestrian for access schools, to parks, shopping areas, transit and stops and in alongall collectors commercial areas. residential In areas, sidewalks are of on but - desirable bothsides thestreet, should provided at least side be on one of all collector streets. sidewalk The should situated far aspractical be as from the traffic lanes, usuallycloseto the right-of-way line. SeeChapter section IV, "Walkways." widthshould at least1.2m in residential Clearsidewalk be areas ranse and from L2 to 2.4m in commercial areas.
..t I I

Vertical Clearance Verticalclearance underpasses at shouldbe at least4.3 m over theentireroadway width, plus an allowancefor future resurfacing.

Horizontal Clearance to Obstructions which are curbedwith no shoulders, minimum On all urbancollectorstreets, a clearance 0.5 m or wider wherepossiblebeyondthe faceof the curb should of be provided. Where a continuousparking lane is provided, no clearanceis required but a minimum 0.6 m setbackto obstructionsis desirableto avoid interference with openingcardoors.heferably theseobstructions locatedat are or near the right-of-way line and outside of the sidewalks.In areasof dense pedestriantraffic the construction of barrier type curbing between the traveled way and adjacentstreet fixtures would aid in protecting the high volume of pedestrian traffic. All urbancollector streetswith shoulders and without curbs shouldhave clear zonesthe sameas on rural collectors.Seediscussion this in Other off-roadway obstaclessuch as trees that might seriously damage out-of-controlvehiclesshouldbe removedfrom the roadside wherever feasible.
- l

Driveways Driveways should regulated to widthof entrance, be as placement respect with to property linesandintersecting streets, angle entry,vertical of alinement. and number entrances a single to property. of

"T

AASHTO--G eometric Desi

locations may be subjectto removar. SeechapterIy section..Horizontil Clearance Obstructions." to

A wide andlevel borderareashouldbe providedalongcollectorstreets the for safetyof the motorist and pedestrian well as for aesthetic as reasons. However, the preservation and enhancement the environmentare of major importance of in the designand constructionof collector streets. The streetalinementshould be selected the basisof minimizing cut and fill slopes. on Roadsidebarriers are not used extensively on urban collector streetsexcepr

Flowever,the potential benefitsfrom the removal of treesshould be weighed against adverse the effectsthat their removalmay haveon the roadside environment: and they should be removedonly when necessary reasons safety. for of Depending on the conditions, only those fixed objects in very vulnerable

pedestrians vehiculartraffic,sidewark and space, and an areafor both underground andabove-ground utilities suchastrafficsignals, parking meters, fire and hydrants.A portion of the borderareawould servesnow storage and aesthetic featuressuch as grassor other landscaping features. The borderwidth should rangefrom 2-4 to 3.3 m, incrudingthe sidewarkwidth.Traffic signars, utiriry. poles,fire hydrants,and other urilities should be placedas far back of the curb as practicalfor safetyreasons. Breakawayfeatures may be built when feasible as an aid to safety.

Intersection Design The pattemof traffic movements the intersections the volumeof traffic at and on eachapproach,including pedestrianand bicycle traffic, during one or more peak periods of the day are indicative of the type of traffic control devices necessary, the widthsof lanesrequiredincludingauxiliary lanes, and whereapplicable, the degreeof channelization neededto expediteih" *ou.rn"nt of all traffic. The arrangement islandsand the shapeand length of auxiliary lanesmay of differ dependingon whetheror not signarcontror is necessary. The compositlonand characterof traffic is a design control; movements involving large trucks necessitate larger intersectionareas and flatter approachgrades than those requiredat intersections wheretraffic predominantly consist,of purr.ng., Bus stops located near an intersectionmay further modify the arrarigement. "u.r. Approachspeeds traffic also havea bearingon the geometricdesigriaswell of ason controldevices andpavement markings. Traffic signals a majorelement are in the designof major urban collectorstreetintersections. Chanter See III. "Signals." section The numberand locationsof approach roadwaysandtheirangres intersecof tion are major controls for the intersectiongeometricpartem,the location of islands, thetypesofcontrol devices. and Intersections gradepreferably at should be limited to no morethanfourapproachlegs.when two crossroads intersect the collectorhighway in close proximiry.they shouldbe combinedinto a sinsle publicroadconnection. The more importantdesignconsiderations intersections gradefall into tbr at two majorcategories: First,thegeometric designincluding capaciry a analysis, andthesecond. locationand typeof traffic controldevices. the Forthe mosrpan. these considerations are applicable to both new and existing intersections: althoughon existingintersections built-up areas. in heavydevetopmenr may makeextensive desisnchanoes imnmcri-l ChapterIX containsthe discussion intersection on design.

- -:-w-hre thercaresafetyconcerns environmental or considerations asalong such sections with steep foreslopes at approaches over-crossing and to structures.
Right-of-Way Width

The right-of-way width should be sufficient to accommodatethe ultimate planned roadway, including median, shoulder,grass strip, sidewalks,public utility facilities,and width for necessary outerslopes. The width of right-of-way for a two-laneurbancollectorstreetshouldrangefrom l2 to l g m, depending.on the conditions listedabove.

Provision for Utilities In addition to the primary purposeof serving vehiculartraffic, urbancollector streets may accommodate public utility facilities within the streetright-of-way in accordance with statelaw or municipalordinance. use of the right-of-way by utilities should be plannedto causethe leastinterference with traffic using the street. The AASHTO Guide for Accommodating lltitities within Highway Right-of-wav (5) gives generalprinciplesfor utility locationandconstrucrion to minimize conflicts between the use of the street right-of-way for vehicular movementsand a secondarypurposeof providing the spacefor location of utilities.

Border Area A borderarea betweenthe roadway and the right-of-way line should be wide enoughto serveseveralpurposes includingprovisionof a buffer spacebetween

AAS HTO--C eometric D esi

and Steets

Collector Roads and Streets(Urhan)

Railroad-Street GradeCrossings
wamingdevices grade crossing shouldbeinstalled alI railroad-street Appropriate at grade crossings. Details of the devicesto be usedare given in the MUTCD (4). gradecrossings. Sightdistance an importantconsideration railroad-street is at There must be sufficient sight distanceon the streetfor the driver to recognize the railroadcrossing,perceivethe warning device,and stop if necessary. The roadway width at all crossingsshould be the sameas rhe curb-to-curb distanceofthe approaches. Sidewalksshould be providedat all railroadcrossings whereapproachsidewalksnow exist or are plannedwithin the nearfuture. In specific instances the street section may be non-curbed. The crossing should be consistentwith the approachstreet width and shoulderwidth. See ="'C-hapter IX, section "Railroad Grade Crossing." shouldbeincorporated Provisionsforfuture sidewalks intodesign, theycan if be anticipated, to avoid future crossing work on the railroad facility. Crossingsthat involve bicycle routes which zue not perpendicularto the roadwaymay requireadditionalpavedshoulderwidth for bicyclesto maneuver over the crossing.Seethe AASTHO publicationGuidefor the Development of Bicycle F acilities (ll).

for Consideration streetintersections. of in the design majorurbancollector pedestrian cycles, trafficflow are walk and progression, multi-phasing, signal III, intersection design.SeeChapter section in necessary major signalized "Signals."

ErosionControl ground ofnatural consideration forpreservation include ofstreets should Design Seeding, withintheright-of-way. and growth shrubs trees of and cover desirable and swales, other of measures slopes, mulching, sodding, otheracceptable or See partofthe urban design' Chapter collectorstreet be areas should a erodible Development." "ErosionControl"and"Landscape III, sections

Landscaping and of with thecharacter thestreet in should provided keeping be Landscaping designs Landscape and controlpurposes. for its environment aesthetic erosion wide,clear,and safepedestrian to shouldbe arranged permita sufficiently in and treesshouldbe considered of walkway.Combinations turf, shrubs, be However, should exercised care the areas along roadway. border continuous guidelines are to and that sight distances clearance obstruction to ensure to be The should developed serve at especially intersections. roadside observed, shouldalso and the travelingmotorist.Landscaping both the community additional utilities, problems costs, future sidewalks, and maintenance consider "Bicycle Facilities." IV, facilities. Chapter section See bicycle lanes, possible and

Street and Roadway Lighting is requirement that Goodvisibilityunderday or night conditions a fundamental enablesthe motorist to move on roadwaysin a safe and coordinated manner. Streetlighting. properly designedand maintained,shouldproducecomfortable and accurate night visibility, which shouldfacilitatevehicularand pedestrian traffic. with sat'e crime Determinations lighting shouldbe coordinated on operation, protection,and othercommunity concerns. SeeChapterIII, section"Lighting." The AASHTO publication A n I nformati ona I G uidefor Roadway Li g hti ng (6) providesdiscussion streetand roadway lighting. on

REFERENCES
i-. :lr: l

Traflic Control Devices Traffic control devicesshouldbe appliedconsistently and uniformly. Details of the standarddevices and warrants for manv conditions are found in thc

(4). MUTCD
Geometric design streets include consideration thetypcs of of should full
of traffic control to be used,especiallyat intersections where multiple phases majorelement are actuated traffic signals likely tobe needed. Traffic signalsarea

Board.HighwayCapacityManual' Washington HighwayResearch Research Board, 1985. D. C.: Highway Washington. Bridges. Highwav Specificotionsfor Standard 2. AASHTO. 1989. D. C.: AASHTO, D. DesignGuide.Washington, C.: AASHTO' 3. AASHTO.Roadside I 989. Administration. Highway Federal of 4. U. S. Department Transportation. D. Washington, C.: U. S. Manualon lJniformTrffic ControlDevices. L
5. AASHTO. Guide for Accommodating Utilities Within Highu'av

AASHTHeometric

Design of Highwoys and Streets

6. AASHTo. An InformationalGuidefor Roadway Lighring. washington, D. C.: AASHTO.1984. FederalHighwayAdministration. Drainageof Highwaypavements. Washington, C.: Federal D. HighwayAdministration, Officeof Engi_ neering, Bridge Division, 1984. 8 . Schoppert, W. and D. W. Hoyt. "FactorsInfluencing D. Safetyat Highway-Rail Grade Crossings." NCHRP Report50.1968. 9. Residential Washington, C.: published the American Streets. D. by Society Civil Engineers, of NationalAssociationHomeBuilders, of and UrbanLandInstitute, 1974. 10. Designof UrbanStreets. Prepared forthe U. S.Department Transpor_ of tation,FHWA, by J. H. K. andAssociates. Washington, C.: U. S. D. Department Transportation,980. of I I L AASHTO. Guidefor theDevelopment BicycleFacilities.Washingof ton,D. C.: AASHTO,1991. 12. Zeegler, V., T. R. Neuman, al. "RoadwayWidth for Low-Traffic C. et VolumeRoads." NCHRPReport362. 1994.

ChapterVII

RURALANDURBAN ARTERIALS
INTRODUCTION The principal and minor arterial road systemsprovide rhe high-speed, highvolume network for fravel between major points in both rural and urban areas. ChapterI hasan extensivediscussion the functionalpurposes this ctassof on of facility, both rural and urban. The material in this chapterprovides the general informationrequiredto establishthe basisof designfor theseroadways. The designofthese arterialscoversa broadrangeofroadways, from two-lane to multilane,andis themostdifficult classof roadwaydesignbecause theneed of to provide a high standardof operationunder sometimesunusualor limited conditions.The designermust be thoroughly familiar with the material in all chapters this text in order to skillfully blend the varioustypesof arterialsinto in the functional network. Although freeways are included in the functional description ofan arterial,the designis unique;therefore, that classofroadway is treatedseparately ChapterVIII. in The materialin this chapterconsiders rural and urbanarterialsseparately the because ofdistinctive features ofeach.The designer must,however.be prepared to useboth to provideadequate transitions thearterialflows between rural as the and urbansettinss.

,.:, I

RURAL ARTERIALS General Characteristics An importantpan of the rural highway systemconsistsof the rural arterials. which rangefrom two-lane roadwaysto multilane, divided conrrolled-access arterials. This part of the chapterrelatesto the designof new rural arterialsand majorreconstruction existingones.Theseroadways designed the basis of are on of traffic volume needs and should be constructed to the highest standards

AASHTO--Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

Rural and Urban Arterials (Bural)

Principalrural arterialsincludetheInterstate systemandmostrural freeways. They usually warrant multilane roadwaysand connectmost urban centers. Minql rural arterials link the urban centersto larger towns and are spacedto provide a relatively high level of serviceto developedareasof a Srate. with available information regardingtraffic volumes and composition,the type of terrain,and the generalcharacter alinement,the designgeometrics of of thearterialneeded may be readilydetermined from theselected designspeed and designtraffic volumes.operational characteristics, designfeatures, crosssections, and rights-of-way are discussed this chaprer. in Two-lane arterialsconstitutethe bulk of the arterialsystem.Theseroadways are adequatewhere traffic volumes are light and long sight distancesare generally available. Theseroadways generally are surfaced with all-weather+ype

Levels of Service Techniquesand procedures adjustingoperationaland highway factorsto for compensate conditionsother than ideal are found in theHighway Capaciry for Manual (HCM) (8), which also presentsa thorough discussionof the level-of-service concept.Although the choice of the designlevel of serviceis left to the userof the HCM (8), designers should strive ro provide the highest level of service feasibleand consistentwith anticipatedconditions.Refer to Table II-5 for level-of-service characteristics.For acceptabledegrees of congestion, rural arterialsand their auxiliary facilities, i.e., tuming lanes, passing sections,weaving sections,intersections,and interchanges, should generally be designed for level-of-service B except in mountainousareas where level-of-serviceC is acceptable.

I
l

g4ggc andaremarkedandsigned accordance in withtheManualon [Jniform Trffic ControlDeyices (MUTCD) (1).

Sight Distance General Design Considerations Design Speed Rural arterials,exceptingfreeways,are normally designedfor speeds 60 to of 190 km/h depending terrain,driver expectancy on and whetherthe designis construction new locationor reconstruction an existingfacility. Design on of speeds the higherrange,100to I l0 km/h, are normallyusedin level tenain, in deiign speeds 80 to 100km/h are normally usedin rolling renain anrJ of design -5pssds of 60 to 80 km/h are usedin mountainous terrain.when a lower design speed required, is refer ro Chapters III, and IV for designfeatures. II, Sight distance is a direct function of the design speed which grearly influencesthe level of serviceon rural arterials.Minimum stoppingsight distance must always be provided as a safety requirement.Passingand d e c i s i o ns i g h t d i s t a n c e sn f l u e n c et h e o p e r a t i o n a c a p a b i l i t yw h i c h p r o i l v i d e st h e s e l e c t e de v e lo f s e r v i c e .P r o v i s i o nf o r a d e q u a t e i g h td i s t a n c e n l s o rural arterialswhere both high speedsand high volumes can be facrorsis c o m p l e x . T h e d e s i g n e ri s r e f e r r e dt o C h a p t e r I I I f o r a c o m p r e h e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n n t h e s u b j e c t f s i g h td i s t a n c e n d f o r t a b l e so f v a l u e ss u i t a b l e o o a f o r t h e d e s i g no f a r t e r i a l s .

t1 li

tt

n t1 tl

ii

i:

Alinement Design TrafTic Volume when a rural arterial is to be improved,trafflc countsare taken.or if on a new location.estimatesare prepared. Thesevaluesare then projectedto the design year. normally 20 years. and are expressed terms of averagedaily traffic in (ADT). TheseADT valuescan rhen be translated the designhourly volume to (DHV), usually l5 percentof ADT, and the estimated 30th highesthourly volume,30HV. Low-volumeruralarterials normallydesigned are with the use of only the ADT values becauseneither capacity nor intersection operations govern the overall operation.Theseroadwaysare of minimum servicedesign often not iapableof providing free flow; therefore. DHV is usedto determinc the the designt'eatures required. A smooth flowing alinement is desirableon a rural arterial. Changesin a l i n e m e n tb o t hh o r i z o n t a a n dv e r t i c a l ,s h o u l db e s o g r a d u a l h a tt h ed r i v e r , l t w i l l n o t b e s u r p r i s e d y a n y o f t h e c h a n g e s S p e c i a lc o n s i d e r a t i o s h o u l d b . n b e g i v e n t o p r o v i d i n ga d e q u a t e e c i s i o ns i g h td i s t a n c e t l o c a r i o n s u c ha s d a s h i g h - v o l u m en t e r s e c t i o na n da t t r a n s i t i o n s f r o a d w a yw i d t h so r n u m b e r s i s o of lanes.Adequate alinementis usuallymore safeand effectivethancontrol b y s i g n i n g o r p a v e m e n t a r k i n g a n d s h o u l d b e a c h i e v e dw h e n e v e r e a m f sible.

:r:rl
f ii-I

AASHTMeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

'I

Rural and Urban Arteriols (Rural)

Grades ofgradesdirectly affect the operational T*relengthand steepness characteristics of in arterial. Table VII-I gives recommendedmaximum grades for rural When vertical curvesfor stoppingsight distanceareconsidered, arterials. there are seldomadvantages using the maximum gradevaluesexceptwhen grades to arelong.Gradesbelow themaximum arealwaysdesirable, minimum grades the primarily to provide naturalroadsidedrainage. being considered

CrossSlope to drainage. Two'lanerural roadCrossslopeis constructed provideroadway with a centerline ranging waysuue crownandcrossslopes normallydesigned with thehighervalues Multilane.beingmostprevalent. from 1.5to 2 percent is or roadways crownedat the centerline stoped are one way. Whendrainage the adjacent lanes, cross slopemaybe increased from onelaneto carried across another.

Rolling - --..-.-Dsign Speed(km/h) Grades(%) 5 5

+

Mountains

Vertical Clearances provide4.9 m clearance theentire over structures should New or rcconstructed provide m, if allowed localstatute 4.3 by width.Existingstructures that roadway a of In areas, minimumclearance 4.3 m may mayberctained. highly urbanized provide Structures should beprovided thereis oneroutewith 4.9m clearance. if ofthe underpassing road. for additional clearance futureresurfacing

60 70 80 90
100 ll0 t20

4
J

3 3

6 6 5 5 4 4
A

8 7 7 6 6 5 5

Structures

gradesto designspeed. TableVll-1. Relation maximum of

Number of Lanes The numberof lanesrequiredis determined volume,level of service, by and capacityconditions.A divided arterial,asdiscussed this chapter, in refersto four or more lanes.
i +-f i

definedasbridgeshavingan overalllengthin excessI Long bridges, \ new bridges. railor barrier width. On longbridges, offsetsto parapet, lof 60 m may havea lesser i from the edgeof the nearest travel laneon both i shall be at least I .2 m measured

X on left [_the andright.SeeChapter for moreinformation bridgewidths. haveadequate strength at leastthe and Bridges remainin placeshoirld to way plus0.6 m clearance eachside,but should be on width of the traveled at widening replacementtheydo notprovide least if or considered ultimate for for narrow bridges should considered be As measure, MS-l 8 loadings. aninterim and marking. narow bridge treatments assigning pavement such special

Superelevation When the useof curvesis requiredon a rural arterialalinement, superclevation a must be used.Superelevation ratecompatiblewith thedesignspeed ratesshould not exceedI 2 percent;however,whereice and snow conditionsare a factor.the maximum superelevationrate should not exceed 8 percent. Supcrelevation runotTdenotes lengthof roadwayneededto accomplishthe changein cross the slopefrom a sectionwith adverse crown removedto a fully superclevated sccdon

TrafTicControl Devices playan in importantrole the pavementdelineation,pavementmarking and Signs, of Placement theseitemsshouldbe of optimumoperation a rural arterial. and while adjustments the alinement to stage considered earlyin the design thecurrent MUTCD(l) for easily Referto beconsidered. intersection designcan

iry.
smoothriding.dtainagc, appeamnce. and chaprcrIII Plovidcsr dctailcdlnslysir and tablcsfor superelevation variousdesignspeeds. for

AASHTHeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Rurol and Urban Arterials (Rural)

Erosion Control onsideration of erosion control featuresis important to the proper design of a rural arterial. By controlling erosion, the safety shape of the roadside is maintainedand the environment downstreamis protectedfrom siltation and other possibleharmful effects.Providingadequate ground treatmenr and cover hasthe additionalbenefitofassuring a pleasingroadsideappearance little or at no additionalcost.Topsoiling and seedingareconsidered minimum treatments for erosioncontrol in rural areas.

Horizontal Clearance to Obstructions When fixed objectsor nonroadsideis highly desirable. A clear unobstructed underhorizontal zones fall discussed traversable slopes within theclearroadside cfearanceto obstructions in Chapter IV, refer to AASHTO Roadside Design Guide (6) for guidance in selecting the appropriatetreatment.Utilities and landscaping shouldbe locatednearthe right-of-way line and shouldbe outside the selected clear zone.

Cross Section and Right-of-Way

Widths

l-

The logicalapproach laneandshoulder widthsis to providea width related on to thetrafficdemands. values thewidthof traveled TableVII-2 provides for way and usable shoulder that shouldbe considered the volumesindicated. for Shoulders shouldbe usable all timesregardless weather at of conditions. On high-volume highways theyshould paved, because economic be but of limits, this type of surfacing may not alwaysbe feasible. The shoulder shouldbe constructed a uniformwidth for relatively to long stretches roadway, of For additional information regarding shoulders, to Chapter refer IV.
Design Traffic Volume

(km/h)

ADT Under 400

ADT 400-1500

ADT 1500-2000

DHV over 200

60 70 80 90 100 il0 t20 ) ' All Speeds

Width of Traveled Way (m)" 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 7.2 't) 11 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2
Width of UsableShoulder (m)b

7.2 7.2
11

7.2 ?.2
1)

The type of surfacing and shoulder treatment should fit the volume and composition of traffic. Two-lane rural arterials normally are crowned to drain is away from thecenterlineexcept wheresuperelevation required.The treatment in is of cross slopes,roadways,drainagechannels,and sideslopes discussed Chapter IV. Right-of-way should be wide enough to include all of the cross-sectional elementsthroughout the project. Figure VII-l indicatesthe when determiningright-of-wayfor a elements be considered to cross-sectional but two-lanearterial.A uniform width of right-of-waymay be convenient, there Thesecases whereadditionalright-of-way may be very desirable. arespecialcases wherethe sideslopes would be locations extendbeyondthe normalright-of-way, and junctions with where greatersight distanceis desirable,at intersections considerations. railroadcrossings, for environmental and highways, at-grade at when andsnowstorage mustbe considered suchasdrainage Local conditions in widths.Whereadditional lanes may be required the determining right-of-way right-of-wayshouldbe adequate providethe wider roadway to future,the initial section.It may be desirableto constructthe initial two lanesoff center,so the will not interferewith the traffic or wastethe investmentin futureconstruction the initial gradingand surfacingstage.

7.2 2.4

1.2

t.8

t.8

highwayswhere " Width of traveledway may remain at 6.6 m on reconstructed alinementand safetyrecord are satisfactory.

b Usable shoulders anerials on should be

/(%vAlK
arterial. minimumRAl/two-lane FigureVll-1. Deslrable

TableVll-2. Mlnlmumwldth of traveledway and usableshoulder for ruralarterlals.

AASHTHeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Rural ond Urhan Arteriqls (Rural)

for Passing
ln the designof two-lane,two-way arterials,accommodation alinementand of piofile should provide sectionsfor safe passingat frequent intervalsand on a major portion of the highway length.Table VII-3 providesthe relarionof sight distanceto the designspeed.

Design Speed (km/h)

Minimum SSD (m) 57.4- 62.8 74.3- 84.6 94.1- 110.8

Minimum SSD (m) 345 407 482 605 670 728 792

Intersections or and railroad crossingsshould be separated provided with adequate Decisionsightdistance shouldalwaysbeprovidedwhen sightdistance. economicallyattainable. Ideally, intersections shouldbe placedin saglocations to allow maximum visibility of the roadway and pavementmarkings. The design elementsand requirementsfor the use of climbing lanes are" discussed ChapterIII. in to In conclusion,the following is a summary of the designprocedures be followed in providing passingsectionson two-lane highways:

50 60
70

80 90 100 ll0 t20

n2.8 - 139.4 r3r.2 - r68.t 1s7.0 205.0 t79.5- 246.4 202.9 285.6

TableVll-3. Relation sight distance designspeed. of to

Theremayberestrictive cases where passing sightdistance economically is difficulttojustify.In those instances, passing provide sections should least at thc -----d-estred Where levelof service. achievement adequate of passing sightdistancc is notpractical, auxiliary lanes such truckclimbinglanes perhaps as passing or lanes should considered. be Although climbinglanes normally are provided prevent to reduc. unreasonable tionsin operating speeds, alsoprovide they opporrunities passing areas for in that passing normally wouldnotpermit sections. provided Climbinglanes usually to are therightof thenormal raffic lane should 3.6m widewithasomewhat and be rcduced shoulder width.A usable shoulder 1.2m widthor greater acceptable. of is Passing should lanes normally considercd in areas be can only where roadway the beexpanded fourlanes. introduction short, to The that ofa requires four-lane section consideration given to adequate be Fansitions particulady markingand and to signing. Climbinglanes prefened arc overpassing lanes they because pmvidca normal typeof rearnentwithouttheriskof themotorist thinking heisentering that
: -l-drle a four-laneroadwayof any length.Adequatelydesigned and well-markedclimbing and will allow passingby driven who prefer to move at normal speeds.

alinement Horizontal vertical should designed provide much be to as and with sightdistance safepassing. for of thehighwaylengthasfeasible volumes approaching design capacity, effectof lackof the For design passing in capacity shouldbeconsidered. sections reducing because trucksclimbing up long of 3 . Wherethe DHV is approached grades, of construction climbing laneson critical lengthsof grade should considered. be of sections made available by 4. Where extentandfrequency passing the application itemsI and3 arestill toofew,consideration should be of givento theconstruction a four-lane of highway. However, restrictive it difficulttojustifyclimbing lanes conditions or making economically for multilanes may requirethat the roadwaybe designed only the required. minimum levelof service
l.

An example a climbinglane on a two-lane rural arterialis shownin of VII-2. Figure

UltimateDevelopment Four-LaneDividedArterials of ..,;*, fi;;-

will in arterials adequately serve trafficdemands the Although manytwo-lane particularlynearurbanareas, where instances, the futurc,thercarc numerous typeto handle arterials require will ultimate development a higher to two-lane theexpected traffic. will Where isanticipated a DHV withinaboutI 0 to 20years bein excess it that should the be of thedesign arterial, initialimprovement capacity thetwo-lane of patterned the ultimatedevelopment a four-lane of dividedarterialand to provision No rural made acquisition thenecessary of right-of-way. two-lane for to that be arterial should builtwiththethought it will later widened a four-lane be someform of undivided highway.Even whereright-of-wayis restricted.
in

(Four-lane preferably wider. undivided arterials discussed a followare in much ing section thischapter.) of

2.

in on Theremay be no lossof interest investment initialextragrading' is If theentireultimatedevelopment gradedwhen thetwo-lanearterial thereexistsa continuingcostwithout immediatebenefit is constructed, in the form of intereston the investmentin that portion of the grading '= not requiredfor the two-lanearterial.If the initial two lanesareoffset' thegradingmay be omittedon one sideof the roaduntil the highertype facility is constructed' There may be no loss of intereston investmentin initial extra right-of-way.If theentireright-of-wayrequiredfor the ultimatedeveltheoretiwhenthetwo-lanearterialis constnrcted, opmentis purchased exists a continuingcost of intereston investmentin that cally there portion of the right-of-way not required for the two-lane arterial. particularlyaftertheconstruction in However,the increase landvalues, the arterial, may more than offset the interest on or improvement of to in investment additionalright-of-way.It is desirable acquireinitially including that for the ultimate development, sufficient right-of-way and gradeseparations. improvements requiredfor future intersection Traffic is subjectedto tittle restrictionor delay when the additional The two-lanesurfacingexisting at two-lanesurfacingis constructed. as a two-lanehighwayl no detoursare that time continuesin use and contact with constructionoperationsis restrictedto necessary, on and intersections turnouts one side' and of Lateradjustment minorroadstructures plantgrowtharereduced divided four-lane theultimate grade for to a minimum.when theentire andculverts asdrains such all initialty, structure.s is arterial constructed whenthefinal two lanes undisturbed and are usually completed remain areadded.Ifgradingforonetwo-laneroadwayiseconomically may be completedon one side,and temporoad structures advisable. rary headwallsand open drains may be provided on the side where laneswill be placedlater. additional

3.

4.

5.

laneon two'laneruralarterial. FigureVll-2.Ctimbing

the dividedarterial. initiallwo-lane of development a four-lane ln theultimate roadways. one-way to form oneof thetwo-lane. shouldbe constructed roadway overthatof the initial two lanesin the middlc procedure of The advantages this of the right-of-wayare the following: 'Ihere and in is no lossof investment existingsurtacing in highwayand to when progressing the higher typc' Wherc railroadovercrossings untlercrossin[sare constructedfor the ultimate improvement.therc
exlsts il

cleurzoneis provided however.that an appropriate Caremust be exercised. seeding. tbr may be adopted topsoiling, A in the initialsrage. similarprocedure the planting.and any orherwork that is doneto preventsoil erosion. valueof with time. which increases to conversion a dividcdaflerialhave for planned ultimate Two-lanearterials way of 7.2 m wide and usable volumeinitially to wansnt a traveled sufficient 2.-l shoulders m wide. as shown in Figure vll-3A. Thesetraveledway and tbr recommended four-lane Whenan arterialwill in itsdiscussed the lastpartof this chapter. divided arterials with a wide medianand dividedarterial to ultimatelybe developed a [our-lane the is offset to one side of the right-of-waycenterline. the initial roadway-

cost.but thiscostmay be lessin totalthanthc on interest theadditional hrtercost of rebuildingthe undercrossing.

AASHTHeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Rural and Urban Arterials (Rural)

generallyis crownedto drain both ways. Ultimately,the wide median

and runofffromone-half surface of to is depressed be self-draining to receive generally (Figure for VII-38). Grading thefuture development is eachroadway whenthemedian wide. is defened
Where the right-of-way for the future four-lane arterial is restricted,a narrow median, which should be not less than 1.2 m wide, may have to be used.If a As a positive separation considered, wider medianmay be appropriate. for a is work should be offset so the ultimate developmentis wide median, the initial centeredon the right-of-way. To economizeon the cost of drainagestructures may be the and to simplify construction, initial and thefuturetwo-laneroadways (Figure VII-3C). Future grading may or may positioned to drain to the outside not b deferred,dependingon local conditions and on the probablelengthof time ---ts thedrll development. On most two-lane arterials constructed many years ago, no provision was made for future improvement to a higher type. In such instances,if feasible, a new two-lane, one-way roadway should be provided approximately parallel to the first, which then is convertedto one-way operationto form a divided arterial. Where the frontage is developed, it may be feasible to construct another one-way, two-lane roadway nearby without disturbing the existing development. This method also may be used to advantage where topography is not favorableto direct wideningof the existingroadwaysection.If this construction cannot be accomplished,it may be possible to obtain a divided section by widening 4.2 m on each side of the existing roadway (Figure VII-3D)' When it to noneof thesemethodsis practicable, may be necessary find a new location. The old road then becomesa local facility and may also serveas an alternate ---route. and serviceprovidedto throughtraffic, From rhestandpointof adequacy the the last method is preferredbecause arterialon a new location will not be preferably influencedby the old facility and can be built to modern standards, with somecontrol of access. with a nanow median(Figurcs Crosssectionsfor the ultimatedevelopment VII-3C and VII-3D) all have a minimum combined width of roadways and medianof 20.4 m. About 3.6 m or morc additionalwidth shouldbe obtainedso that median lanesfor left tums may be provided at intersections'

, brqrcr,

loaa'tovndtn trord.d lor ,stglcrl

ffi

ffi
Typbl 2-lrn.

too<trcy ndrn ,z{ot

l--ril

lrayalad fo' , Ldo1.

Multilane Undivided Arterials on A multilaneundividedarterialis thenarrowestarterial which eachtraffic lanc is intended to bc usedby traffic in one direction, and passingis accomplishcdon

5p".?-

| hlrE lrod.a

tor I

{).

inhclancofopposingcafficrcsuhsinsfrc.randsmoothcroPcrationandela4. I
of Bccause thc over that of two-lanearterials. in increase arterialcapacity

FlOurevll-3. Two-lan wllh ultlmst developSrtgrlgl cro99gqctlon

ment tO a f.Ur-lAne arterlAl.

AASHTMeometric

De

Rural and Urban Arterials

genbrally higher volumes, drivers on multilane arterialsare confrontedwith addedtraffic frictions not only from opposingtraffic and from the roadsides, but alss from traffic in the samedirection. The accidentratefor all reportedaccidents

is arterials, anaverage all volumes, higher as for than undivided that on multilane arterials.There are individual caseswherethe accidentrate is on two-lane carry heavier higher.However,as a rule, multilanearterials substantially frequent intersections moredevelopment adjaand of volumes havemore and bearing accident on ofat-grade crossings appreciable has centland.Frequency and experience capacity. in chapters applicable are of The elements designdiscussed preceding that generally multilane undivided arterials, except passing sightdistance to is required at is sightdistance all points thestopping The notessential. minimum '--sight passing affected is withoutthenecessity usingalane of because distance, stopping sightdistanee is traffic; Longerthanminimumrequired for opposing as desirable, it is on anytypofarterial. with in are and arterials fouror morelanes mostapplicable urban Undivided of land. wherethereis concentrated development adjacent areas suburban in arterials ruralareas require construction multilane the of If trafficvolumes trafficshould be is where speeds aptto behigh,theconsensus thatopposing are fouror morelanes should on requiring be All separated. arterials newlocations facility of arterialto a multilane divided.Improvement an existingtwo-lane a include median. preferably should

with wide medians.These accidents usually are serious.Where median lanes for left turns are provided, rear-end collisions and other inconveniencesto through traffic resulting from left-turn movementsare greatly crossing the divided arterial are required to watch reduced.Pedestrians traffic in only one direction at a time and are given a welcomerespiteat the median. Where the median is wide enough, crossing and left-turning vehicles can slow down or stop between the one-way roadways to take advantage breaksin traffic and cross when it is safe to do so. Divided of operation,particumultilane arterialsmake for more relaxedand pleasant night when headlightglareis bothersome. larly in inclementweatherand at Headlightglare is reducedsomewhatby narrow mediansbut can almostbe eliminatedby wide medians.

Lane Widths Roadways divided arterialsshould be designedwith lanes3.6 m wide. The on with divided arterialswill justify the and largevolumesassociated high speeds to arterials,it may be acceptable of construction 3.6 m lanes.On reconstructed retain 3.3 m lanesif the alinementand safetyrecordare satisfactory.

CrossSlope

Divided Arterials
General Features lanesfor traffic in oppositedirections. A divided arterial is one with separated or situated a singleroadbed, two roadwaysmay be widely separated. on It may be The width of median may vary and is governed largely by the type of arcB. characterof terrain, intersectiontrcatment,and economics,An arterial is not normally consideredto be divided unlesstwo full lanesare provided in each or direction of travel and the median is 1.2 m or more widc and constructed precludeits useby moving vehiclesexceptin emergencics markedin a mannerto medianwidth to or for left turns.A four-lanerural facility shouldhaveadequate provide for protected teft tums. Vehicles making a left tum should not bc requircdto stop in the passinglaneof a roadwaydesignedfor high volumesand

Eachroadwayof a divided arterialmay be slopedto drain to both edgesor each depending on roadwaymay be slopedto drain to theouteredge,thearrangement on and the width of median.Roadways divided arterials climaticconditions should have a normal cross slope of 1.5 to 2 percent.Traveled ways with slopethan the inner unidirectionalslopemay have the outer lane on a steeper 3 lane.On an auxiliary lane,normally the crossslopeshouldnot exceed percent auxiliary alinement. no caseshallthe crossslopeofan outerand/or In on tangent lane be lessthan the adjacentlane.

Shoulders of Arterialshavingsufficienttraffic volume to justify theconstruction four lanes justify the provision of full width shoulders. The width of usableoutside also

are arterial i of the advantagesdividing multilane Theprincipal

safety,comfort. and easeof operation.Of significanceis the reduction in o h e a d - o nc o l l i s i o n sa n d v i r t u a l e l i m i n a t i o n o f s u c h a c c i d e n t s n s e c t i o n s

2.4 should at least m. be shoulders should carried be usable shoulden, including madway section, Thenormal usable duringall should be on overall stnrcturcs. Shoulders dividedarterials widthof shoulder preferred. is of Paving theusable of seasons theyear.

AASHTO-4eometric Design of Highways and Streets

Rural ond Urban Arteriols (Rural)

Shoulderspaceon the left side of four-lanedivided arterialswithin the to as medianis not intended servethe samepurpose that of the right shoulder. shoulderon the right, throughcustomaryuse on undividedarterials,is The Wherethemedianis flush for accepted all driversasthe refugespace stops. by with the roadway or is mountable,vehicles may encroachor drive on it whenforcedto do so to avoidan accident. momentarily Only on rareoccasions would therebe needfor driversto use the medianfor deliberate stops. in strip havingtwo lanes eachdirection, paved shoulder On dividedarterials a 1.2 m wide may satistythe needsfor a shoulderwithin the median.Such a ruttingat theedgeof traveled way andwill alleviate shoulder strip will preclude possibleloss of driver control of vehiclesthat inadvertentlyencroachon the median. - -9n divided arterialshaving threeor more lanesin eachdirection,a dnver rn the to distress the lane nearest medianmight havedifficulty maneuvering the in within the medianis a right-hand shoulder. Consequently, full-width shoulder desirableon divided arterialshaving six or more lanes. Where the roadwaysof a divided arterial are at different levels,the graded greaterimportancethan when the roadways shoulderspaceon the left assumes driversmay have a sense insecuritywhere of are at equal elevationbecause there is and because narrow shouldersare coupled with a downward sideslope leli encroachment vehicles. graded The needfor lateralspace inadvertent for by shouldbe nearlythe sameas thaton thc width in suchcasepreferably shoulder are widthof thelcti controls rigid,theusable shoulder right,2.4m. Wherelateral but somewhat to a dimension not lessthan 1.2m. of shoulder may be reduced

. m W h e ni n t e r s e c t i o n s et o b e p r o v i d e ds p e c i ac o n c e r n u s tb e g i v e nt o t h e ar l a a w i d t ho f t h em e d i a nW h i l e m e d i a n s sn a r r o w s 1 . 2t o 1 . 8m m a y b e r e q u i r e d . for conditions. medians to 9 m wide provideprotection 3.6 undervery restricted a l e f t t u m i n gv e h i c l e s t i n t e r s e c l i o n s . from an Median widths from 9 to l5 m should be carefullv considered at Thesewidths do not providemedian standpoint intersections. operational the crossing median.Also. thesewidthsma.ustorage spacefor largervehicles a the independently leaving portionof the encourage driverto attempt crossings fiom throughtrafflc. These widths,even with these the vehicle unprotected problems. quite well and apparently within the realmof are normallyoperate expectations thedriver.Widthsin range l5 to 24 m have of of normaloperational tend to problemsin someareasas the driversapparently developed accident of characteristics the multiple becomeconfusedaboutthe intendedoperational Medianswide enoughto assure driver that the the intersections encountered. quitewell. separately haveworked with of operate intersection thetwo sets lanes with are tbr may Research provethatwidermedians not desirable somefacilities Ref'erto ChapterIV for more informationon median at-grade intersections. design.

A l i n e m e n ta n d P r o f i l e f a A d i v i d e d a r t e r i a lg e n e r a l l yi s d e s i g n e d o r h i g h - v o l u n t e n d h i g h - s p e e d p r o v i d e dB e c a u s e . s f o p e r a t i o no r w h i c ha f l o w i n g t y p eo f a l i n e r n e n th o u l db e beinstances o o a c l i v i d e d r t e r i ac o n s i s t s f t w o s e p a r a t erd a d w a y st,h e r em a y a l w h e r e m e c l i a nr v i d t h sa n d r o a c l w a y l e v a t i o n s a n b c v a r i e d f o r s p e c i a l c e In n c n c o n s i d c r a t i o n .p e c i atl o p o g r u p h io r i n t c r s c c t i or c q u i r e t n e n l s a - v c c e s s i S b e P n b c t l t e s u c ht r e a t m e n tfs r e c r l n o r n io r ( ) p c r i l t i ( ) nrx l a s o n s . r e c a u t i os h o u l d e Suchproblcrns do aft'cctoperations. takenthat suchvariations not aclversely crossings of curves.headlightglare.and grades intersection as sharpreverse rnustalrvays considered. be h . P r o f i l ed e s i g ni s l c s s d i f f i c u l t f b r n t u l t i l a n e i u h r v a y sh a n t b r t w o - l a n c t s . h i q h w a v sW i t h t w o o r m o r e l a n e s o r t r l v e l i n e l c h d i r e c t i o ns t t t p p i n g i g h t . f governs. volumesrvcll belowcapacity, grades and For may be steeper distance beclusethcre is ;.t longeron multilanehighwavsthan on two-lancarterials. vehicles upgrades. on of continuous lanetirr passing heavy.sl<;w thanon artcrials designcontrolsrnly be loweron divicled Althoughvc'nical a s b o i . t w o - l a n c n e r i a l s e c l u s c n l y s t o p p i n g i g h td i s t a n c es r e q u i r c dp r o p e r n d a protrle dcsign tbr divided arterialsrcquircsdesignjudgcntentand adequate th Evcn thoughthe pro[ilc rna;"satisfl l l l o f t h c d c s i g nc ( ) n t r o l s . c f i n i s h e d s s productcrn rppcar tilrccdund rngular A t l o r v i n u p l i n el i n c t l n a b r o u d c e l c

iVledianBarrier Clearance the In cases wherea wall or medianbarrieris required themedian, AASIITO on (6) may be ret'erred tbr guidancein selecting an to RoadsideDesignGuide tiom thenormaledgeof thetraveledway to thebasc appropriate lateralclearance of the wall or barrier.

lledians i O n h i g h w a y sw i t h o u t a t - g r a d e n t e r s e c t i o n s h e m e d i a nm a y b c a s n a r r ( ) w t, v a s [ . 2 t o 1 . 8m u n d e r e r y r e s t r i c t ec o n d i t i o n sb u t a w i d t ho f 2 0 m o r I n o r e d , s h o u l d b e o r o v i d e d w h e r c v e rt ' e a s i b l eA w i d e m e d i a na l l o w s t h e u s c o l ' . n t p r o l t l e s . K e o u c e oI r e q u e n c y t c r o s s o v e ra c c l o w d u c t i o n o f h c a d l i g h t g l a r e a r e s a f e t y f e a t u r e sa s s o c i a t e d i t h rnedian.

AASHTO-ljeometric Design of Highu,at'sand Streets

Rural and Urhan Arterials (Rural)

ould be used. Suchdesignis of prime importance wherea median constant of w i d t h i s u s e di n r o l l i n gt e r r a i nT h e l a c ko f a p a s s i n g i g h td i s t a n c r e q u i r e m e n t . s e temptsdesigners usea roller coaster to profile.which is moredispleasing a on dividedarterialthanon a two-lane arterial because drivercanseetheroadway a for opposingtraffic. With a wide divrdedarterialof fixed crosssection.rhe profile venicalcurvesandcombinations with tangent grades moreapparent are in the driver's foreshortened view of thearterial. The relation horizontal of ancJ verticalalinement shouldbe studied obtaina suirable to combinarion. avoid To undesirable profile designs appearance. shouldbe checked long continuous in plottings, whereinthe foreshortened aspect can be simulated.

Cross Sections Superelevated to A divided arterialon a curve should be superelevated ensuresafe traffic concemis themeans Of and appearance, economy. specific pleasing operation. and to section fit siteconditions to meet in changes cross progressive of affectinS design. of controls intersection crosssections dividedarterifor superelevated of methods attaining General cases thefollowing:( I ) the are III. in arediscussed Chapter The threegeneral als as whole of the traveledway, includingthe median,is superelevated a plane are plane,and the two roadways (2) the medianis held in a horizontal section: treated are and(3) thetwo roadways separately edges: aboutthe median rotated edges. FigureVII-4 at in difference elevation themedian variable with a resultant cross section for narrow and wide medians with treatmentof demonstrates roadway in relation to the width of median for the three cases superelevated noted. In Cross SectionsA and D both roadwayslie in the same plane. The of are roadways rotatedabouta profile controlon thecenterline the median.The about the edgeof traveledway or any sameeffect can be obtainedby rotation controlline. otherconvenient widemedians may be fitting in some across of The projection superelevation general in conjunction use of instances in crosssection FigureVII-4, but its as and in is with largerates superelevation not satisfactory appearance generally of wherethe profile of the It nor economical. may fit at highway intersections it slope. Occasionally, will fit the road inrersecting approxinrates superelevated prevail, the large the naturalslopc ttf the terrain. Unless theseconditions b ici t b n d i f l e r e n c ie c l g , a t i o n c t w e e nh eo u t c r s h o u l d e r c c l gslsk e l y ' t o eo b j e c t i o n edges thc betwecn outcrshoulder in the able.For exarnple. di{'l'crence elevation ratc of artcrialwith a nredian l2 nt antla superelcvatiorl clividecl of a tour-lanc is of ll percent about2.4 m. to slopeof thc landis adverse ln lcveltcrrainanrlin terrainwhercthc natural and in improvement appearance economy substantial slope, thecross-sectional if results the wide medianis madclevelas in CrossSectionB, or in earthrvork C Section of FigureVII-'1. plancasin Cross itpposite thcsuperelevation t1-l sktpr.d shoultlbc lrudcd VII--l is uscd.thernc'diltn \!'hcreCrgssScctionA of l--igurc dtlcs rttlt tirltin in suchI ntlnner thirt surtacewltcr lrorn thc highcr rtladrvltv u alirtetnent shallowdrlinageswalccan Ircross lorvcrrtttdwlty.On tangent thc drlinagcchlnnel rn about-1.-5 widc.lnd a rvcll-rounded in be provided I ntct-lian i n u u i d t h o f a b o ultl l n t ( F i g u r c V I I - 5 ) ' O n a s u p e r e l e v a t e d s e c t i t > n r o t a t c d a b o u t 9 approrirnatcly nr ot' its rhc nrcdian ccnterlinc. in ScctionA of Figurc VII--1. left channcllnd adequate ftlr wicjthis ttcccssarv a rtlundctldrainage rncdian channelwith tlat rlrte if cln sitlcslopes bc proviLletl thc superelevation is smxll.or i plved channcl o jtt t t t c t i t l n i t h h i g h c rr u t c s l ' s u p c r c l c V l l t l o n ' w c u r th c u s c r il n c t r t

-,... -.---elimbing Laneson Multilane Arterials

Multilane rural roadsusuallyhavesufficientcapacityto handletheir traffic load, includingthe normal percentage heavy trucks.without becomingseverely of congested. Climbing lanesgenerallyare not as easilyjustified on multilane arterials on two-lanearterials, as because two-lane on vehicles arterials following slow-movingtruckson upgrades prevented are psychologically physiand cally from usingan adjacent trafficlanefor passing: whereas suchbarriers its to useare not present multilanearterials. on Furthermore. climbinglaneon a two-lane. a two-lvayroaci someuseut all has t i m e s , v e nd u r i n gn o n - p e a k o u r s : h e r e a o n a m u l t i l a n e r t e r i aa c l i m b i n g e h w s a l l a n eh a so n l y l i m i t e du s eo t h e rt h a nd u r i n gp e r i o d s f h e a v yf l o w . A t a l l o t h c r o t i m e sa s l o w - m o v i n gr u c ki n t h en o m r a lr i g h tI a n ed o e sn o t i m p e d e o l l o r v i n g t f vdhicles canreadilymoveleft to thenexrlaneandproceed that withoutdif'ficulry or hazard. although thereis evidence thatslow vehicles through-traffic lancs on may causeaccidcnts. Because arterials designed 20 years morein thef uture.thereis littlc are tbr or l i k e l i h o o d f c l i m b i n gl a n e sb e i n gj u s r i i i e do n m u l t i l a n e r r e r i a l sb r s e v e m l o t a yearsafier construction. even thoughrhey are deemed tbr desirable the peak hoursof thedesignyear.Thcremay be an economic lilr. in atlvilnttse dcsigning b u t d e t ' e n i n g o n s t r u c t i o n f . c l i m b i n s l a n e so n m u l t i l t n e a r t e r i a l sI.n t h i s c o g s i t u a t i o n ,r a d i n g b r t h ef u t u r e l i m b i n cl a n e h o u l d ep r o v i c l eid i t i a l l y V c r y t c s n . b l i t t l e d d i t i o n a l r a d i n gs r e q u i r e d e c a u sa i u l l s h o u l d ei r l i k e l yr ob ep r o v i t l c d g a i b e s w h e r et h e r ci s n o c l i m b i n gl a n e , u t o n l y i l n a r r o ws h o u l d eirs r e q u i r c d u t s i d c b o o f a c l i m b i n gl a n e .t h ec l i n r b i n g a n ei t s e l t ' s e r v i n0 si l n e m e r g e l g y 1 s 1 h c r r w l q 1 nccded. A f u l l d i s c u s s i oo n t h en e e df b r c l i m b i n sl a n e s n dt h c i rd c r i v a t i o r r l i x r n d n is a

502

AASHTO--CeometricDesign of Highwaysand Streets

Rural and Urhan Arterials (Rural)

[(ta L.dtr

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have C In CrossSections and F of FigureVII-4. the two one-wayroadways in of grade. The difference elevation theouterextremities a commoncenterline roadwaysis a minimum,being the productof the superof the superelevated The methodof rateand the width of one of the one-wayroadways. elevation roadway. to runoff is directlyapplicable eachone-way attaining superelevation of C the With a wide median treatment CrossSection of FigureVII-'1allows in and economy thewide-graded to appearance bemaintained permits thedesired fairty level to the motorist, The roadwayas a whole will appear crosssection. of in of the who will not readilyperceive difference elevation the insideedges generallyis not suitablefor importantat-grade roadway.This crosssection the unless medianis very wide.The medianshouldbe sufficiently intersections its profileacross S-shaped to wide in relation superelevation afforda smooth to reguiredfor the width. The width for this shapeis somewhatmore than that with a superelevation of l0 rate previoussections: about 12m is necessary, shoulderareas.The width can be reducedto about 9 m percentand adequate is whena pavedchannel provided. in widthof median difference elevation and with variable arterial On a divided profile. betweenthe two roadways,each roadway is designedwith a separate in wide median,each roadwaycan be superelevated any With a reasonably With with littleeffecton themedian slope. for manner suitable a singleroadway a might require retaining in diff'erence elevation appreciable a narrowmedian. has the of wall in themedian. The manner superelevating roadways someeff'ect o h i o n t h eh e i - e h tf w a l l ,b u t t h ea m o u n t s s m a l la n ds h o u l d a v el i t t l eb e a r i n g n o w m c V F d e s i - g n .i g u r e I I - 5 s h o w sv a r i o u s e d i a n o n f i g u r a t i o n sh i c hm a y b e u s e d Figures D, and E. C, on ruralarterials excepting

C|u Sacds Foufcd About C.ntcillnc ot Each Roadway Carnrdlnc rl slmc Elcvatlon,

lVidths CrossSectionand Right-of-Wa-v of of clements dividedartelials-the widthsanddetails traveled Cross-sectional channcls-havebeendisand sideslopes. drainage ways.shoulders. ntedians. inthisantlinotherchapters.Therequiredwidthsofrigltt-tli-wa."" cussedseparatelf in rrc crosssccti()n dcnronstratcd arterial in to include elenrcnts a compositc all l . th o F i g u r c! ' l l - 6 . I n l n i d e a ls i t u a t i o n . et o p o g r a p h y ,t h e rp h y s i c ac o n t r o l sa n d cross sr'ction()l' permit the dcsign of a well-balanced economict'ea.sibility widthof right-ot'-way cstablished is lbr an desirtble tlimcnsions, rvhich adequate procured. the otherhand.the controlsmly be so rigid that it'a divided On and a r t e r i a li s t o b e p r o v i d c da t a l l . i t m u s t b e d o n e w i t h i n a l i m i t e d w i d t h o i b e t d o m r i g h t - o f - r v au s i n g i n i m t t m r n e a r - m i n i m u mi m e n s i o nts r e a c h l e m e no t ' y. sectiolt in of higherdesignstiindards the crossscction: the lltter crsc thc cros.s o f t h ea v i r i l a b l w i d t ho t ' r i g h t - o f - w l ; " . e d i s d e t e m r i n eo n t h c b a s i s

Figure Vll- . Methods of attaining superelevation divided on arterials.

In CrossSections and E of Figure vll-4 the eclges roadways the B on of mediansidesare at the sameelevation.Designson this basisare plcasingin appearance generallyare desirable an operational and in sense. with l widc separation between one-wayroadways, the CrossSectionB husconsiderablc advantage overCross Section in thereduction difference elevation A in acmss in treatment crossScctionB requires minimum medianwitlthof aboutg In to in a providcfully effective shoulder arels and a well-roundetJ srvale.

AASHTo--4eometric Desig,n Highways and Streets of

Rural and {JrbanArterials (Rural)

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FigureVll-S. Typicalmedians dividedarterials. on

The widthsof cross-sectional elemenrs shouldbe proporrioned providca to well-balanced arterial section. Recommended widths traveled way andshoulder areshownin Table VII-2. The borderwidth is aft'ecred directlvby the deprhof cut or fill. If therighr-of'-way restricted. border is the or area medianwidrh.rarhcr thanthelaneorshoulder width.should reduced. mosrcases borde width be In rhe r shouldbe reduced betbrerhatof the median.foreslopes permiuing. a hightypetacilitywhereliberalwidthof right-of-way rrrrlinable. Whcrerhcsc is widcr witithscannot obtained. be attempts shouldbe madc: providea right-rll'ro

on Figurevll-6. cross sectionarrangements dividedarterials.

AASHTO--CeometricDesign of Highw,avs and Streets

Rural and Urban Arterials (Rural)

way width which permitsthe useof a median m or moreandsufficient 9 borders to providefor the needed clearzone.For additional information clearzone on referto AASHTO Roactside De.sign Guide(6). Sometimes the right-of-way may be so restricted that minimum or near m i n i m u mw i d t h so f c r o s s - s e c t i o n a e m e n tm u s tb e u s e d I f a t a l l f e a s i b l et.h e el l s . right-of-way shouldbe wide enoughto permitthe useof medianand borders of 5 n o t l e s s h a n- 1 . -m ( F i g u r e I I - 6 A ) .A 4 . 5 m m e d i a n s a n e a rm i n i m u mw i r h i n V t i which a medianlanecan be provided at-grade at crossings. FigureVII-5 shows with curbs.Barriercurbsarenotrecommended ruralroadways, somesections in exceptif required restrictecl in areas if special or treatment needed locations is in s u c ha s i n t e r s e c t i o n s . The crosssections right-of-way widthsshownin FigureVII-6 pertainto and

Boltnan

Int nacltorE .4.

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Where provision b bemadefor uhimate is convenion a to I ,,..!9!dgnefaciliries. siX.laneoreighclanefaciIiri.henghr-of-waywidth5shou|dbeincr.ascdbyth.ffi -\r widthof lans added, with rhiswidthpreferably included rheinirialmedian. in | -=-:lL: Thecross-seclional arr.tngements shown FigurVII-6 indicate in generally I balanced sections what are termeddesirable. for minimum.and restrided rights-of-way. Somevariationin these a.rangements b appropriate may in individual The widrhneed beuniform maybevaried cases. righr-of-way not and ^rsed.d cl'!!a alongthccourse thelrterialasnecessary t grading of tofi requiremenB andothe Whcreconlrolsbecome conditions. dgid. the two roadways may havero bc bruughl closertogethcr. Whercphysical conditions fnvorable landis are and readilyrv:lil blc.lhc rordways 'nnybesprcad gmde fartherapan. Wherefurure Figure Vll'7. cross seclion arrangemenls on divided aneriats' prov'sion rhc initiatacquisirion separrrions rnmpsarc cnvirioncd. rnit lor oI additiomlcomcrrights-of-way should considcrcd. b fie crossscctions dcpicledin FigureVII-6 rpresenr nomully divided l.ncilitiesinrrnlar!s'Sonretime$inruri13fe$.andplniculrrlyinMdncarwherecrossroadsiuegrad.scpartcdl.romthethr urbandistricts.itisnccessirytosepnnlelh(lughtrarictiomIocalk.ltfic.whcrclIralserviccisprovidcdontionla8co|olherroas suchisthccase.tionhgcr0f{lsmnvbeprovidedl]onglhcouterlimitsol'the(lrecway)resuIts'Atypic ro'ds'rrcpmvidedlhe vll'78. wherefromagc in is deprcssBddepicted Figurc highwaycrossscclron(Figurc vlt-7). FrontrlE roids servero co ecr d thanon with cradesepurtions must be wider on anerials outersepdrdons dirrriburc provide parking locrl rrrthc lo andliom adjacent devetopment. and chapterx for at anerirlscrossing gn|deto 'rlbw tbr rlopesmd ramps See service therero rumovcd liom rhenuin truvelcd wry. rnd thu:i through tiee rnttc on turther discussbn liontigc rolds' lmm thc disturbancc rnl$duccdbv bcilopcntliur. Thc componcot ofa parts rypiurlcross scction with lri)nlagc .oadsin generally rcnrin rrc shown in iltlr VII-7A. Thelrcntxge Figurc roads shown rrc withintherjghl-ot-way limils.rn rencrng trrangcmcnt mostolicnis lhcc.rsc. thrr Frontlgc providcd ru. s sometimcs.rrc oursidc right-of-wrvlimits.in whichcase righcof-*:rycrn ben.rm)wcr ihc rhe lhmshown'whcrethcproflcofthclhmUghtrlvelr.lwlyp!sscsovcrorcut.Fencinr.rlt)ngrighFot-9-rylimitsm:]ybtdcsirxblcloc lhroughtncnalura|gi(Nnd.thetiontageroad$fgener.lll:/heldttllhel.!c|()||houldbehcatcdon of indiscrim inrteenlryor crossing the control nces ,rr" io, no ,r"""r,rp,rr"n, . l r v e l c d w"* v s i l l ( l r h c t i o n t a g c r c n d 5 i s . f 1 t t r c d w i t h i n l h c o u e r $ : p t l r . r l i 0 N h y n _
o r clrth slopcs r rctainingvalls.

MSHTO--Geometric De.signof Highways and Street.s

Rural and Urhan Arterials (Rural)

Sections With Widely SeparatedRoadways oclasionally, it is practicalto separate wideiy the one-way roadwaysof a dividedarterial. This situationmay follow wherean existingtwo-lanearterial provesinaclequate is improvedto a four-lane and section, on which direct but widening notfeasible is because oftopography adjacent or development. such In casetheold roadwayis not disturbed is converted one-wayoperation but to on construction another. of completely separate, one-way roadwav. Sometimes this action results in acquisitionof two separate rights-of-wayto contain the individualroadways the dividedarterial. of widely separated one-wayroadways may be particularly fitting for cerrain topographic conditions.In valleys where drainagemay make the location individual roadways may be situated on each side of the valley. ---ddf!qlt, Drainageof the roadwaysis then simplified, both sidesdrainins directlv to the naturalchannel. Along ridgesor wherethereis a continualchangein ground cross slopesthe separate roadwaysmay be better fitted to the tenain than an arterial on a single roadbed.Such arrangements simplify location problems because only half of thetotalroadwaywidth is considered a time.with reduced at roadwayprisms,construction scarsare kept to a minimum and more of the natural growth is retained, particularly that between separate the roadways. In areas whereright-of-wayis not a problem, designs thischaracter of oftenresult in lowerconstruction costs. Crossings gradewith theone-way at roadways greatly are simplifiedin design and operation. Accident potentialis generallyrecluced and the capacityof intersections increased. is Moreover, operation widely separated on roadways provides nraximumin drivercomfbrt.Strainis lessened largelyelinrinatthe by ing theview andinf'luence opposing of traffic.Substantial reduction eliminiior t i o n o f h e a d l i g hg l a r ea t n i g h t i s e s p e c i a l l h e l p f u li n e a s i n g r i v e rr e p s i o n . t y d operationalproblems intersections widely spaced of on roadways must be considered. Desirably.a wide median is adequate store the longestlegll to vehicles. movements All and theirvolumesshouldbe considered determine to the number of intersection lanes required.Additional discussionon wi6e m c c i i a nis l o c a t e tiln t h i sc h a p t e r . s If lrterialsof appreciablc lengthhaveroadwavs separated wiclely so thatcach roadrvav cann()t sec'tt be from theother.driversntayclevelop sense beingon a of rl two-wAv insteadof a one-way roadwayand hesitate passslow-moving to v e h i c l c s .h i ss i t u a l i o n a nb ea l l e v i l r e d y a no c c a s i o n a l o p e nc r vb e t r v e ctn e T c b vi h two roadwavs. -

Intersections is and The liberaluseofhigh-typeintersections ofinterchanges highlydesirable turningwidthswith Adequate thatdo not havelull controlof access. on arterials will providea minimum designtor minor tapers and acceleration deceleration shouldbe on a minor arterial.Principalarterialsthat intersect intersections study possibly the free-flowtype.A comprehensive of by served interchanges, with thelevelof consistent design anda Suitable is desirable. of all inte.rsections controlby trafficsignals Ruralintersection shouldbe selected. service required by high-baniercurbs.Drivers divided nor are intersections is not desirable, speeds' thathavehighoperating in signals ruralareas generally not anticipate do low. Barrier curbed islands especiallywhen traffic volumes are relatively presentan obstacleto the driver and becomesnow traps in snow zone aras. areas. Therefore,barriercurbs should be avoidedin high-speed merging adequate intersections, are If interchanges intermixedwith at-grade must be providedto allow ramp traffic to operatefreely.The merging distances driver shouldnot have to be concemedwith crosstratfic while making the mergingmaneuver. with should be in accordance and interchanges Design of intersections IX Chapters and X.

I i t I

Control of Access a and are Ruralarterials designed built with theideathattheywill provide higher Although and on oravailable localroacls strc-ets. thanthatrequired typeof service volumc's its mav not havetnorc traffic lanes. ability lo carryqreatcr an arterial or intcrt'erence sidetiictionttl u hich of to relatcci theamount crossroacl is r-rsually of in considcrations thc developnrc'nt One it is subjected. of the mostimportant Thc abilitv ttl control that can be acquired. of an arteriaiis the degree access of and rvill relatedirectlytothe sat'ety capacitv the pro.fect. controlacccss crtntrolis usuallynot too difficult to obtain in a rural arca rvhcrc' Access srcat access ntlrmallybe providcdrvithtlut can is tlcvelopment light. Adequate Rural areasdo pose distinct problents. to land-uscopcrations. intert'erence of N{ovement large, slow-moving piecesof machineryis llot uncommon: fbr field drives are also requested the landowncr'sctlnvcnience. numerous in pointsnrustbe situated suchI r"av problems. access unique of BeCluse these will directlyopposite pointssituated Access harmfuleft'ects. asto minimizethcir tirne.Dual access possiblc in the shonest to allow machimerv crossthe arterial rvill llso lnd unitbrmminitnuntspacing Adequate required. of access locations n w h e r eI l a r g cv e h i c l ct l n l n i n t c ' r s c c t i trl r ' i l lh i d c e l i n r i n l t em u n vc o n d i t i o n s

Rural oncl (JrhanArlerials (Rural)

point with The locationof the access anothervehicleon a nearbyapproach. must be considered. felalion to sight distanceor important intersections if Short bothersome not properlysituated. High-volumedrivesare especially .sections rural frontage roads oiten may be neededto provide optimum of locationconditions. intersection placed the on depends thedemands on controlrequired ofaccess The degree thanthelocalroads importance and the arterial. Because ruralanerialhasgreater needsand cannot normally provide collectorsthat usually serve all access with freeways, arterialis most influenced the useof by the features associated of if of controlis vital to theconcept an arterial access control.Provision access it is to providethe servicelife for which it is designed.

R a i l r o a dC r o s s i n g s on the rural arterial Desirably.all railroad crossingsshould be separated thatmanycrosslngs require however, of asDects theproblem, Practical system. in can be treated variousways' includingadequate Crossings *ilf U. at grade. m s' i u i , hg o t t ' ' a n df i n a l l ys e p a r a t i o nJ u d - e m e n tu s tb e . s i g n i n g s i g n a l ss i g n a l s . s p e e do f a m o u n ta n d p u s e di n t h e s e l e c t l o n r o . . , J , w h i c h w i l l i n v o l v et h e and and railroadand the availablesightdistance' traffic on borh the roadway the best The tendencymust alwavsbe.to attemptto provide benefits. saf'ety control fbr to Ref'er the NIUTCD (l) ibr guidance traffic p.ot"ction possible. grade crossings'See Chapter IX fbr design iyr,r*, for railroa<J-highway criteria.

Bikeways and Pedestrians Rural arterialsoften are the only direct connectionbetweenareasof population parks,and rural and locationsto which the public wishesto travel.Schools, readilyaccessible automoby are to housingdevelopments usuallylocated be wishto travelto thesame pedestrians bicycleriders and may also bile. However, consider the Whensucha situation should exists, designer points. the destination macle effortshouldbe A andoperation thearterial. special of effecrs thesafety on that within theeconomic constraints must degree safety of to providethegreatest alwaysbe considered. unacceptablc is shoulders cleemed Whereuseof thetravellaneor wide-paved ,b.v-some on thesemay be accommodated additional or pedestrians bicyclists. i d e s p e c i a b i c y c l et a c i l i t i e s e s i g n e dn a c c o r d a n cw i t h A A S H T O ' s G u i d e . f t t r l la B D eve lopmento.l' icvc F aciI iries l2l.

Rest Areas Safet-v t'eature is a desirable on The provisionofsafety restareas theruralarterialsystem Rest areasprovide the high-speed' arrerials. fu.t*utorty on rhe irincipal opportunityfbr short periods of traveler with the necessary iong-distance of Publicrecognition the hypnosis driver hypnosis. which relieves relaxation. safetythattheyprovidea desirable the p.out.rnancl useof the restareainclicate feature. of early in development an shouldbe considerecl The locationof restareas for reasons aclditional provicle or interest I isualquality Sitesof special arterial. of thestay.The spacing rest tlf the to thenrotorist stopandusuallyexrend length are costs and constructitln operattng on is dependent lnanyconsiderations. areas Ald d i t i o n ail' t b m l a t i ' n v m s i g n i f i c a nb,u rt h et l r i v e r a l u e u s ta l s . b ec o n s i d e r e c . i tllay bc tbund in ChaptcrIII' ot'restareas subject oi the

Bus Turnouts When bus routesilre locatedon rt rural anerial,provisionmust bc made tilr Because the sizeol the vehicle.a bus cannoteasily of loadingthe passen{ers. widcncd provisions made.A well-marked, special are leavethe roadwly unless il and shouldbe included. turnoutis highly desirable shoulder indcpendent or to or possible. Althoughit may be impossible impractical provide,fbr example, schoolbus tumoutsfbr every dwelling. they shouldbe providedin lt^-ations t'or provisions buscs wherethereare known concentrations users. of Adequate
will nrovidc rrreiltercaoacitv and satetv to a

URI}AI .\RTERIAI,S ( ieneral Characteristics Urbarrartcrialscarryllrgetraiiicvolunlcswithinandthrouglrurblnareas. Thcirdesignvlries|rornthefrccwltvrvithfullycontrtlllcdacccsstolhc t o t h c t ) - p ct l t s c r r , t c c i T t w o - l a n es t r L . c t . l r c t v p e s e l c c r c d s c l o s e l yr c l u t c d ot The principuIcharirctcristic thc urbanartcrialtn".:ltf^I-"]:il:: required. t t s e r v i c c o l o c a ld c v c l o p m e n tI'f r e s t r i c t i o no l o c a l w i t h l i m i t e do r r e s t r i c t c t l
p r t l v i d i n gs c p i l r l t c t u r n l e n c s d d c s i r a b l c .T h c . s c c s r g n . . , , n u . r l l ' r t l n lr o u t l w a y s to one-wilv strccts
ilcccss ls n()t I)IilclluJl! )PsLr'rr u! )rir

)tJ

)lz

to of Urbanarterialsare capable providingsomeaccess abuttingproperty. to the primary functional S[ch iervice should, however,be only incidental responsibilityof travel serviceto major traffic movements' the to it,is important establish extentand an Beforedesigning urbanarterial. be takento protect must steps If needfor sucha system. the needis established. or rhe designcapacityfrom such thingsas strip development the unplanned regardshouldbe anticipated Development locationof a major traffic generator. lessof the sizeof the city. With properplanningand design,the development along an arterial need not seriouslyaffect its major purposeof long and safe and provide the such development throughtrips. Rather,it can complement servicerequired. principalandminor. ranarterialsarefunctionallydivided into two classes, in Thesearediscussed detailin ChapterI. and anerialstreets freeways,serves The urbanarterialsystem,which includes centersof activity of a metropolitanarea,the highesttraffic volume the major corridors,and the longesttrip desires. on or eitherplanned existing, which access system, The portionof thearterial constitutesthe arterial streetsystemfor the urban area. is not fully controlled other than all From the standpointof designcharacteristics, urban arterials, as a singleclassin this chapter' are freeways, treated

DesignSpeed 60 to 100 km/h' and Designspeedfor urbanarterialsgenerallyrangefrom km/h.The lower (60 km/h andbelow)speeds may be as low as 50 occaiionally while rhe higher areas. districtand intermediate apply in the ceniralbusiness On areas' and business developing to ,p..i, are more applicable the outlying of 100km/h is normallyused' a urbananerialfreeways, designspeed

DesignTraffic Volumes for developed the The designof urbanarterialsshould be basedon traffic data volume (DHV) is the most designyJar, normally 20 years'The designhourly is capacity usedas Sometimes, designrequirements. to merhod determine reliable adesigntoo|.Thelimitationsandrestrictionsthatareoftenencounteredare level of service for those ,ecognizedin capacity design, and a preselected II Referto Chapter for informationon traffic andcapacrty' is cond'itions provided.

Levelsof Service and their arterials rural and suburban of degrees congestion, For acceptable n i n t e r s e c t i o nis ' t e r w a u x i l i a r yt a c i l i t i e si,. e . ,t u r n i n gl a n e s , e a v i n gs e c t i o n s . be generally etc')' should (traffic signals' and changes, traffic controlsystems of sections rrretropolitan C. tbr dcsig'nett level-of-service Heavily developed D D. useof level-of-service Whenlevel-of-service is the .r..i u.r.y,necessitate or streets alternattve the to desirable consider useof one-way it sclecrecl.rnal,be levelof service' to routes improvethe b1'pass

General DesignConsiderations sclectcd the program. routes improvcmcnt of ln thedevelopmcnt a transportation systenl' portions anexistingstreet of may colnprise as tbr improvement arterials through relatively alinenlents or they may be projectedlocationson new the historically need Usually,it will be the former because areas. undeveloped r\s of resources. a the has tbr improvingexistingstreets surpassed availability develland-use tendto lag.rlther thanlead. streetimprovements consequence, oDment. c c t i V l a j o irm p r o v e m c no f e x i s t i n ga r t e r i a l s a n b c e x t r c r n e l y o s t l y .p a r l l c r r t m l a r l y w h e r ea d d i t i o n a lr i g h t s - o f - w a y u s t b e a c q u i r e d h r o u g hi n t c n s i v c l l ' o n i a . d e v e l o p e d r e a s A c c o r d i n g l y . t i s f r e q u e 6 t l v e c e s s l t rty u s e d i m e n s i o n a l and are below thoseusedwherc valuesthat are somewhatlessthandesirabte w e o i wide righr-of-ways available r can be acquired conornically. hcn rcto provids co a s t r i c t e d o n d i t i o n s r ee n c o u n t e r e d . n s i d e r l t i t l n h o u l db e g i v e n c valuestbr suchitemsthat tend to tlflset thosecrcatcdby ing above-desirable reslnctron.An e h a v i n gb e l o w n o r m l l l a n ew i d t h s .
o elrmlnate

Siqht Distance in urbanancrialdcstgn' is tlf The provision ldequatesightdistance important pcrricularlywhere characreristics. operarional aitectsnormaI Sighi distance valucsgivcn in'Ilble volumes'The sight distancc canr high traffic ,oi.irn"1", design' to VII--l lre llso applicable urbanarterial

significlnteftlct on its for Thc gradcssclcctcrl an urbanarterialmay havea lnd affccttruckspeeds olerall capacSteepgrarJcs ch.racreristics. ,,pcririonirl

5t4

AASHTO--Geometric. Design of Highv,aysqnd Streets

Rural and Urban Arterials (Urban)

5t5

arterials havinglargenumbers trucksandoperating of nearcapacity flar grades shouldbe considered avoid undesirable to reductions speeds. in Steep g+ades also resultin operational problems intersections, at particularly during grades practicable while providing minimum gradients requiredto ensure as adequate longirudinal drainage curbedsecrions. in (SeeTable vll-4.)

pavement rutting. The overallcrosssection shouldprovidea smoothly rounded appearance withoutsharpbreaks. Because urbanarterials oftencurbed, is are it necessary allow for longitudinal well as crossslopedrainage. to as The useof highercross-slope pondingand flow on the roadway.a feature ratesreduces which is desirable. The discussion cross slopesin ChapterIV provides on additional information the subiect. on

Level DesignSpeed(km/h)

Rolling

Mountains

S u p e r e l ea t i o n r Superelevationis generally not used on low-speed curbed arterial srreets. Problems suchasdrainage, formation, ice driveways, pedestrian crossings, and the effect on developedproperty must be recognizedwhen superelevation is considered. The sectionon horizonralalinemenlin ChapterIII providesgreater detailon thediscussion superelevation. achieve functionof little or no To of the superelevationon low-speed arterial streets, Method 2 distribution of superelevation usuallyis usedin designof suchfacilities.

(Vo) Maximum Grades 8 7 6 6 5 5 9 8 7 7 6 6 1l l0 9 9 8 8

50 60 70 80 90 r00

TableVll-4. Maximum gradesfor urbanarterials.

Alinement A l i n e m e n o f t h eu r b a n r t e r i ails i d e a l l y e v e l o p e s t r i c t l yi n a c c o r r l a n c e i t h t a d d rv the designspeed selected particularlywhen a principalarterialis locatecl a on n e r vl o c a t i o n n d i s n o t r c s t r i c t e d y n o r m a lr i g h t - o f - w a y e q u i r e m e n tT . c r c a b r sh a r L ' m a n y a s e sh o w e v e r , h e r et h i s i s n o t p o s s i b l e n d d e f l e c t i o n s u s tb c c . w a m m a d e i n i n t e r s e c r i o n st. i s d e s i r a b l e o u s e t h e h i g h e s ta l i n e m c . nd e s i g n I t r possible because urbanarterials often not superelevated the low-soeed are in range.

Vertical Clearances New or reconstructed structures shouldprovide4.9 rn clearance over the entire roadrvav rr'idth. Existing structures provide m clearance.allowed locrl that 4.3 if by statute ma-\' retained. highlyurbanized be In areas, minimumclearance 4.-3 a nr of may bc providedif thereis one route with 4.9 m clearance. Structures should provide additional resurtacing the underpassing clearance f'uture tbr of road.

Lane lVidths Laneu'idthsmav vary fiom -1.0 3.6 m. The 3.0 m widthsareusedin highlv to rcstrictcd arershavins liitle or no truck traffic.The 3.-3 lanesarc usedquitt-. m extcnsivclvtirr urbanarrerialstreetdesigns. The 3.6 m lane widths ere nrosr desirable and lrc generallyusedon all higher speed.tiee-tlowin{. principal artcrial s. Underinterrupted-t'low operating conditions low speeds rhrough kmr at up 60 h narrouer lane widths are norrnally adequate and have some advantages. Rcduced lane',vidths all()w.qreater numbers lanesin restricted of riqht-of-wtr antllllorr' bettc.r pedestrian crossmovements because reduced of distance. Ther are also more ecr)norntcal construcl. to rs ildeouate through lrrnc's, continuous tw()-wav leti-tum lanes.and a lane adjacentto il p a i n t e d r c d i r n A - 1 . (m l c t i - t u r n a n ea n da c o m b i n a t i o ln n e u s e d b r p a r k i n g n . ) l l t

Cross Slope ,'\dequate crossslopetbr properdrlinage is importanr urbananerials. on Thc nonnal problerrrs rclaredro splashing and hydroplaning are compoundcd in hcav-v trlflic volumc opcrations intermediate high speeds. at to Crossslopcs shouldrangc' tiom I .-5 3 percent, lowervalues to the with beinqin theccntcrlancs the crossslopesincreasing about I percent eachadditi for witlL'r mustdrlin until thc maximum3 percent reachetl. is Evenhighcrriltcsarc uscdlilr parkingllnes. Adequatc crossslopes wirh offserproblcmsas.sociuretl

517 516
eometrlc
st8tl

Speciallane widths for such wirh traffic during peak hours are acceptable. evaluation. within the roadwayrequirespecial as instances bike lanes All width maybe desirable. the additional If heavytrucktraffic is anticipated, controlsshouldbe evaluated design and intersection requirements lane-width lanethat a For whenmakingthe lanewidth selection. instance, widerright-hand a may require nalrower laneencroachment provides righttums withoutadjacent lanewidthsshouldalso regarding and experience left-turnlane.Local practice as Speciallane widths for such instances bike laneswithin the be evaluated. s l r r o a d w a y e q u i r e p e c i aa t t e n t i o n . with shouldbe in accordance thediscussion theirplacement If curbsareused, IV. in on curb placement ChaPter

and from a capacity desirable a whereleft turnsaremade, left-tumlaneis arways movements left-turning The medianwidth to accommodate safetystandpoint. least5'4 3'6 m' Desirably'the medianshouldbe at shouldbe at least desirably restricted l'8 m medial separator'At m wide for a 3.6 m median lane and a may be used' a 0'6 m medialseparator a locations, 3.0 m lanewith on for configurations mediansthat may be used FigureVII-5 showsvarious urbananerials,Thetypeoftreatmentusedisusuallydependentonlocalpractice andavailableright.of-waywidths'Thetype'selectedshouldalwaysbecompatible with drainageand streethardwarerequlrements' or with depressed raisedmedians Median openingson roadwaysprovided when a divided arterial is planned' openings should be carefully considered shouldonlybeprovidedforStreetintersectionsorformajordevelopedareas. to adequate allow for introduction of Spacingbetweenmediunoptningt tnust be to operatewithout falsecalls' loops left-tum lanesand signald-etection l'0 km or more' the width of are Where intersections widely spaced'e'g" where width betweenintersections median may be varied by using a nutto* to on the approach the intersecwidening for necessary economyanOgraJuatty is hardly practical, accommodateir," i.n-ru* lane. This solution tion to however,andshouldn"u",u.usedwhereintersectionsarec|oselyspaced lane in linesresults excessive changes' of the because curvedalinement thelane width' of uniform It is far more desirablethat the medianbe A S t r e e t w i t h a n o d d n u m b e r o f l a n e s ' p e r h a p s t h r e e o r f i v e , m isy b e u s e d t o a This lane one lanefor left-tumingvehicles' in advantage providinga storage of in Left-turnbaysaremarked advance flush-median' form of utilizinga paved, may be used'for bays. The length of lane betweenleft-turn the intersections. doesnot adversell' maXini midblockleti turnsif this usage of storage vehicles a f f e c t t r a f f i c f l o w a n d , o f " - . y o n t h e a r t e r i a l : o t h e r w i s e . m i d b l o c k l e fthann s m a l . ttur turns it conditions is betterto permitmidblock Undersorne be prohibited. torequirethatvehiclesmakeU-tumsatintersectionsortrirvelaroundablockttl reachadestination.Insomecasesthecentcrlaneisdesignatedtbr..Left.Turn Onl1"'throughout,withtlutspecially-markedbays:rtintersections'Thistl'pcot' ()pcrltti(.}nw,orksrvcllwhcrethcspeedonthcirrterialhighrvey'isrclativcll.lotr Figurc trat't'ic' ol'lcl't-turn cotlcentrotions t.t0 to 7()knr/h)lrrd thcrcarcno heavJVll.t]isanerltn-rplcofacorrtinuouslet.t-|urnlanc.Rct.crtoChilptcrl\''sccttt)n '.Nlcdians..arrdClraptcrlX'scction..CorrtinutlusLc|tTunlLlncs''tilrt.urtlrcr of t l i s c u s s i o n s t h i st y p eo f m c d i a n ' ltrcx ha\ lng nulllcrcrus Wherc ln artcrial must passthroughI dcvcloped strcetanddrivewayint.r..e.tion,.anclwhercitisirnpracticaltolirnitlc|tturns. s tlnly practical oluttorr m i n u o u sl e i ' r - t u r n c d i a n l a n c i s o f t e n r h c
Beclusculllul:tturllsllrethusprotcctcd.thctnterlcrcncct()t|lf()ugll.r r l l t l l ' a c o n t i n u t l u s c l ' t - t t l r n ; ' t n ce q u t r c s s llncs isnrininrizcd. ucccssful()pcration .r(lc(luittlltnetttltrkitt{ c

Number of Lanes of and availability on The numberof laneswill vary,depending trafflcdemand but the right-of-way, normallyit will be within the rangeof four to eightlanes. the A capacityanalysisshouldbe usedto determine propernumberof lanes. by widenedthroughintersections the additionof one are Roadways sometimes turning vehicles.SeeChapterII for additional rwo lanesto accommodate or on information capacityanalysis.

!Vidth of Roadway the to roadwaywidth shouldbe adequate accommodatc traffic lancs. The street on tiorr barrierfaces.Plrrking an clearances required curbs.and the mcriians. ol' when provisionis requircdbecausc cotlsidered shouldonly be arterill street parking lanes are provided.the rvidth should bc when exisringcontJitions. thc to adequate allow ultimatcopcrationas a traffic lane.In manv instances. p r o v i d e t u r n l a n er t ti t t t e r s c c l i o t t s . a p a r k i n u a n ei s i n i t i a t l yu s e dt o l

\ledians streets shouldbe providcdwhcrc and of f'eature arterial are \lc.dians a tlcsirable IV' in baniersarediscusscd Chapter Whcrc and lvlcdians median splcepcmrits.
right-of-wly is limitetl, it is tiequently necessarytotlecide htlw best ttl lllocatc
the SVAtlable SpACe OetWeCn OOfOCt AIeaS. traIIlC lilllss. .utu llrcurdrr.)- vrt !rrL 'w ' r

in the artcrials dccisionis otien resolvecl favorof no rncdilrtlt rrll' r\ imr){)naltt

nredian onlv 1.2 nr wicle is better than none: l.ttlwcvcr.crrch lddititlrtll tilot

rtct'iuls(Urhutt)

onstreetsservinghigh-speedtraffictheraisedmediandoesnotprevent If accidentally' i'ntt" o medianbarrier is provicled' accidents cross-median They' controlofthe vehicle. the cause driverto lose ma.Vmedians raised Struck.

t::l"1tJ::,"i::il when except used'" to at difficult see night are nuuus a si:::;T::il

d e l i n e a t i o nl'h e v c a s t l g o f t t x e c i - s o u r cie h t i n go r r v i t hp r o p e r oncomingheadlightstnatnotonlymakesthecurbdiiticulttosee'butalsoplaces m o s t o | t h e a d j a c e n t l a n e i n s h a t i o w . R a i s e d m e d i a n s a r e o | l i t t lc u rs e a s a p l a c e eu v e r yl o w w i t h i l a t s l o p i n g b s ' t u f d o f r e f u g e o r c i i s a b l ev e h i c l e s n l e s sh e l ' a r e Insomecasesthepreventiono|midblockturnscausesoperationalproblems becauseo|heavyconcentrationso|left-turningtrafficattheintersectrons. when eliminated are of disaOvantages raisedmedians largely The foregoing mediare medians used'However't'lush-paved flush or low-profilemountable by use ot nightwhenwet' Visibility canbe improved ansarealsodifficult ,o Raised "t delinearion. suchasa chip sealcoatandby proper rexture of a contrasting barsorblockshaveprovedtobeineft.ectir,easamediantreatmentandshouldnot be used. I n s u b u r b a n a r e a s a n d e | s e w h e r e w h e r e a m e d i a n w i d t h o f Tadvan-m o r e c a n .2mor mostof the medianoft'ers a be provided. tlushot titp""td lanciscaped attributes' with t'ewof the unfavorable nreclian a raised *U.t whenat-grade "f consicleration begiven to thewidthof medians to needs Special g lo l-5 m should bc or.,o o. ir,rvided. Iiledian widths from intersecrions c a r e f u l l y c o n s i c l e r e c l t r o , n a n o p c r a t i o n a l v i c , " v p o i n t . T h c s e w i d tAls.' t l n o t a l w a l ' s lrsd the nredian' crossing median.rn,.gt 'ft'tt tilr longer'eliicles provicle t h e s c w i t J r h s l l l l l v c l l c o u r a g c t h c t | r i v c r t o a t t e l l l p t t h c c r o s s i nwidths'e p e n d c n t l r gsind These frornrhcthroughtrat'l'ic. and leaverhcvchiclcnof i;llv prorcctcd thc rL'alnl arc apparcntly rvcllattcl r.luitt t,pcrirtc prol.rlcrns, "vithin even $,iththcsc tlt' cx opcriltiollal pcctlttiolls thc drtvcr' of nttrnrltl Witithslnarllngc()t.l.5to1-lttlltltr'cr.lcr'elollctlaccitlcrrtprtllllenrsittsottrc arcaslstlredrivcrsrnaytendttlbcctltnecontuscclabouitheintcndedopL'rllti()Ilill ellc()untcrc(t' oi characteristics the rnultiplcintersec''iotrs Experienceintlicatesrhirtdrivcrspretcrmediensthatareobviousll,,ni|rr()\\'()r rtllldr+itr rct'tlgc;trca ttl allorv irtde'pcrttlcnt thosc'thltt provitlc lttl lttlctlttatc
crosslng opcrlltloll. ()t'lcl1 prcscllt prtlhIctttsrvith turning ltl()Vclllcllt\ Urtcurbct| llilrr()w trtctlilttls ltintcrsectitltrsirrthatl'chiclcsrcrtdtoruntl|f.t|rcrtxtd'uvavctlgcs' Arrtctliltrtbitrrtcrtttltvbetlcsirablc()ns()lllcartcrialstrectsw'ithrcllttirclr l c \ c p i t r i t t i ( ) l t l t ' t r i t t ' t ' ir t r t t d l s c o - u r e 9 c : l I ' u s t - n r o irn g t r l i t ' i e . l t p c r r r l i t sr t 1 ' r t r s i t i v c intliscrinrinlr.p.,.l.'t''t"t""'in*'\\'hcrcrhctltctlilnharricristcrrtlinrttctl
lt)r lllc \pce (r' NururLrrLL tcrnrinul tlr tcrtttittltl crttl lpprtlprtiltL' ot'thc cn(l rrl (irrirlr, (6) lilr-tlrthcr tliscttssitllt ()ll trcitttllcnt R o r r t / . s i , / t1 ) r , . r . t q , 1 , tttct|iltrltrcltIlllctlt\ trtt tttctIilttt hltrricrs ltrttl l . . l t r r i c r ' . ' . \ t l t I i t i r r r r l r li I l l ( ) r I l l J t i ( ) l l

lane. medianleft-turn FigureVll-8. Continuous

on * curhinurnavbe usL'(l ltlrvand itrtennc..\ ruiscdnrctlilrn itlr burrir'r-tvpc 'l-his to it N pc is dcsirlble'"vhcrc is ttcccsslry prcvcllt uncrilrlstrccts. tliutcspcctl w t r t . r n i t l b l o c ku r n s ( ) r ts t r c c t s c n i n t l o u - s p c c 'td l r f f i c h i st 1 ' p e i l l p r c v r ' n t n ( ) s t ltlstlprtlvidc' rcfugc tor pcdcstrtans a tttcdillns Rrriscd acci(lcnts. cross-ntctliurt In gootl l()clrti{)tt siUns, signals, and othCrappurlcnanccs. sntlrv-bc'lt tirr Irntltr
ilI UitS lllL' L Ut lrUtr lllLutrur l,r \, I ruL.l l'\'rl rl I I uLrlr rL.rrr\'r rr

.;::':,;:;:;,';;;,;,i,;,

ir ,r,"ai.,i.pcninus. sh..ltl l*rc;'t cresh*orrh1

u l . c c r r r r t r , i.r r t l i s c c r n i l . l c n t l c r t h c l i g h r c s t o t ' s n o ' ' r , t i r l lc t t n d i t i o n s . l ' l o r ' v c v e r . s ls p r c 5 c n tt l i s l r t l r ' : t r t t l t gtc t l t s h o u l t l b c c o t l s i t l c r c t il n t l c c i d i n u t h c r : r i . . ' r ln r . : t l i r r n s

r. ......t,, , I

520

AIISHTO--Ceontetrit'Design of Highv'aysand Steets

Rural and Urban Arterials (Urban)

521

. i a I a i l n t e r s e c t i o n r e a si s c o n t a i n e d n C h a p t e r sV a n d I X . r e s p e c t i v e l yT h e i n f ' o r r n a t i o o n m e d i a n sa n d m e d i a nb a r r i e r si n C h a p t e rI V i s e s p e c i a l l y n s a t o p L . H i n e n o u r b a r r r t e r i a l s i n c et h e y r e q u i r e h e m o s tv a r i e da p p l i c a t i o n f tt t h e s et ' e a t u r e s .

Curbsand Shoulders are on and Shoulders desirable any hi-uhway, urbanarterials no exception. are for room and providingspace by to The.v'contribute sal'ety affbrdingmaneuver pedesThey offer a measure safetyto the occasional of immobilizedvehicles. and trian in sparselydevelopedareaswhere sidewalksare not appropriate lanes for vehicles provrde space tbr bicyclists. They serve as speed-change space plowedsnow, for and they providestorage tuming into driveways, their use is of on Despiterhe many advantages shoulders arterialstreets, of generallylimited by restrictedright-of-wayand the necessity using the propertyis usedfor Wherethe abutting tbr right-of'-way traffic lanes. available residential development, a or consistsof high-density commercialpur?oses localtrafflcthatthe is subject suchheavyusein serving to if shoulcler. provicled. In be as pavenlent nrust aboutthesame thatfor thetravellanes. addition, strcngth in necessary heavily of is a raisetl curb at the outcr ecl-ue the shoulder usually preventing deterioration ol' ol'controlling access and as ilrcus a nreuns clcvclopcd h a v i n ga ts t h c s h o u l d c r1 ' h c s cr c c l u i r e l n c n us u a l l vr e s u l ti n a c r o s ss e c t i o n . pilvcnlcntdcsignwith lrarricr-lyJre curbs. r-rnilirrrn
\\'ltn shoultlcrs arc culbcrl rvith blrricr curbs. the shoulclerwiclth should bc .adcalnatc t() rrcc()lnlll(xhtc it disablcd vchiclc and be at lcasl l.tl rn rvide. Il' pcnnlne nt ()n-strcctpllkirrg is lctpircd. thc ef'tccton adjacent trat'l'iclanesrntlst l'rct'trrtsitlcrctl. c l r r r r c r v l vt l c v c l r l p i n gl t r c a s .r v l t c r cr i g h t s - o f - r v a y a n b e a c q u i r e da t r c i t s o t l o l u l r l c o s t s .u r r t li n t l r c c x t c r r s i t r rttr t i l n p r o v c r r r L ' n tf a r l e r i a l st h r o u g h s u b u r b a n c t r r r c r r si.t i s o l ' t c r rt ' c l r s i b l c o i n c l u t l e s h t t u l d c r sa s a p a r t o f t h e u l t i m a t c c r o s s \ c c t i ( ) n t r r p o s s i l r l l l i l r i n t c r i n r L r s cL r r t t i lt l r c s p a c c i s r t c c t l c d t i r r a d d i t i o n l l ' . l r r t l ' l ' i ci l t t c : . l t r l l l c s c s i l t t l i t i o t l s r r l t c r c i l i s i i ' l s i b l c ' t o p r o v i t l c s h r t u l d c r s c u r b s l t t : l t o t r l t l p l c l c n t b l r l r c o r t t i l l c t l t u ' t l c s st c c c s s : l r vo c o l l t r o l t l r a t n l t g c . t \ \ ' h c r c r c l c o r r t l i t i o u sr t r . l u i r c t l t r c o n s t r u c l i o r ro t c u r h s o r s h t l t r l t l c r s , l t c . i r s u r r s s i o n ( ' l t l p t c r l V i r t t u l t la p p l v t o t h c i r d e s i g r t . i

,. --

and of to be locatedadjacent and upstream the intersections at intermediate a shoulderareais provided'the full width Where locationswherenecessary. inlets. of this areamay be utilized to conductsurfacewater to the drainage travellanemay be the outside one-halfof areais provided, Whereno shoulder existin providedtwo or moretravellanes drainage utilizedto conductsurface provided eachdirection, in are Wherethreeor moretravellanes eachdirection. storm. in travellanemay be utilizedfordrainage a majordesign thefull outside shouldbe kept at on of Ponding wateron traffic lanes arterialstreets low points on limits. The width of waterspread the roadwayshouldnot within tolerable on encountered continuous greaterthan the width of spread be substantially to Additionalinletsshouldbe providedin saglocations avoidponding grades. III Chapters and IV havecomprehensive to wherethe gradeflattens 0 percent. drainage. concerning discussions

Parking Lanes in is whereadequate capacity available the parkingmay be considered Parallel off-streetparkingfacilities throughlaneswhen parking is neededand adequate to The parking lane width shouldbe designed are not availableor feasible. laneto the of providea clearance I to 2 m from the edgeof the through-traffic parkedvehicles. to vehiclesparkedadjacent a curb will occupy,on the average. Passenger andthe totalparkinglanewidth for space, 2. I m of actualstreet approximately fbr be shoulcl, theretbre, 3.0 to 3.6m. This width is alsoadequate passenger cars vehicleandbicycleuse.Wherethereis not.tn parked commercial an occasional thatthe lanebe usedasa trafficlane.a parking future.a demand the foreseeable be acceptable. laneas norrowas 2.4 m may to lanewhich is 3.0to 3.6m in widthcanbeconverted anadditional A parking It capacity' can alsobe volumeswarrantadditional traffic laneif futuretraffic parking hours prohibiting by peaktratTic trafficlaneduring as usecl an atjditional be m J.0 to -1.6 in width can alst'r useda'sa hours,A parkingtane rluringthese by srorageIlne tbr turning vehiclesat signalizedintersections prohibiting Widths lessthan J.0 rn arc intersection. irom the parkingtbr sttnre distance a Theretore. parkingllne of less trafficlanes. fbr undcsirablc arrerial considered width if usage full curb-to-curb of undesirable is ,1.rxn nr in w'itlth considered -i.0 as laneof 3.7 m may bc rtcccptablc A rrafficis tnticiparcd. parking tirr rhrough o s w h e r ct h ea v e r l g cr u n l l i n q p e c d n i v l l us t ( ) r i l glen c t i r rt u r n i n g e h i c l e sn a r c l s the lncrial is 6(l krn/hor lcss. and tendsto ordcrll' end et'licicntuse where parking turnoveris substantial l o l d i n u l o n e s .l P b p r e \ c n t e n c r o a c h r n c o n f i r c h y d r u n tz t l n c s . u s s t o p s , nl

I)ruirruge e . . \ r t . r t l e t l t l t t . ' t l t ' l t t t l t g c \ _ \ t c l n t ( ) i t c c ( ) n l n l ( ) ( l a td c s i g n r u t t o t l ' s h o t r l t l h c i r t \ c i t r r l e r lr i t l l t t ( l e \ l L r l ( ) l ( ' \ e r \ i l I t c r i i r l l r c c l . l n l c t s l l t l t tl t t c h i er c l c s i l l c s l t o u l t l

AASHTO-Ceometric Design of Hi,qhu'a;"s Streets and

Rural and IJrhanArterials (Urhan)

turnoutsin downtown district. FigureVll-9.Parking

whcreparking for clearance space islands, otherzotres and proaches comers. to m a l i s p r o h i b i t e cT.y p i c a lp a r k i n g - s p a c ea r k i n g s r es h o w ni n t h e M U T C D ( l ) . it with largeoffice or industrial builclings. and in areas districts In downtorvn possible provideparkingturnouts shownin FigurcVII-9. Thc pavctl as to nrqy_be atrtl areaof the tumout is 7.2 m wide. A curbcdislandwith entr:.tnce t-xil lapcrs separates throughlanesfiorn the turnout. the

streetin residentialarea' Arterial Vll-10. Figure

aesthetics' but needs alsoasa tnatterof functional not wide borclers only to serve Where developrnent. of the nuisance trafTicto adjacent anclrc'ilucing saf'ery. the asa partof the initialconstructioll. bordershould are sidewalks not inclirdeil See thc scctitln"Pedestriart fi;r bc sufficicntlvw'iclc thcir future installation. F a c i l i t i e sl"a t e ri n l h i s c h a p l c r ' or is Whcn hicl.clc trat'l'ic anticipated is ttl bc scrvcd on anerial strccts' tt.l Dc't'clttltrttL'trt Guidt'.fitt' lvith AASHTO',s be shOuld in accorclancc provisions e R icvcl F uciIi rics 12\. r ' a l a V F i g u r e I I - I I i l l u s t r a t e sd i v i d e d r t e r i as t r e eitn a r e s i t l e n t i a l e aA t u r t e d sidcwalkanclthe guttcr.B.nicr-curb rtnd the buftti strip is providedbetwcc'n w'hich tnavalstlscrvc Plrking lancs. t'rn gutter urc sections cnrplttvecl thcoutsitlc. rtre as shoulders, prttvidcd.

Borders and Sidewalks T h c b o r d e ri s t h e a r c a b c t w e c nt h c r o a d w a va n t i t h c r i g h t - o f - r v l t r ' l i r t c ' t l t l t t ot'thc corltllurritv.[;or lt thc separates traffic tiom the homesand busincsscs : i . s i l n m i n i m u ms L . c t i oin a r e s i d e n t i atlr e aa b o r d e r h o u l d n c l u d c s i d c w l l kr t r l d t V l l n b u f t ' es t r i pb e t r v e cw a l k a n dc u r b .F i g u r e I I - 1 0i l l u s t r l t c sn t r r t c r i us t r c c t t l r banier curbs, a parking lltttc. curh cuts lilr r rc'sidcntillrtrel. lt t'eatures r r . d r i v c r v ; . r vu d s i d c w a l k s I n b l o c k s t u l l y d c v e l o p c d v i t h r e t l t i ls t t t r c s t n t l s, bordcrareausuallyis devotedto sidcrvllk. r..ffices. c'ntirc' the in rnininutn borderrvidthsltrc Somc tltctorsto bc considcrcd determining rlcvtccs. pedesrriln snow storilge. stor:rn drainagc. tnrffic contrrrl rcquirements. s t s ' t t ic p p u n c n l n cs .a n t lu t i l i t i c sI.n a l l c a s e t h cr n i n i n r u rb.o r t l c r l t t r t r lblc l e roadsid prrtvttlc prcli'rahll 3.6rn ()rrnorc.Evervcl'tirrt shr.rrrltl nlttl,-'lo u.itlcrrntl hc 2.-lm

Railroad Crossings t.elturr-' cun often bc thc nlosttlisruptive artcrial rtn crossings un urburt Railroad
rt'ti.cting thc tlpcrltiort ot' ltn urbltn ancrial. Crossings lhilt ilrc t'rc'qucntlr
o c c u p i c d ( ) r l h ( ) \ c t l r t t l t r e o c c u p l e o ( l u r l n g l l l q l l - v ( ) l u l l l u t r . r rr r r l , L r r t , u i ! l r l trnll occupictl I t c i i c c t i v c l r t r c : t l c ( lh v p r t x i t l i n g a s c p a r l l t i ( ) n 'C r o s s i n g s t h r t t ; t r c

*ith htgh-t1pc u i n l ' r c . t q u c n ttliv l i r t : :o t ' f - p c a kt r l f ' l ' i c p c r i t x l s t l r t v h c p r o r i t l c t l

AASHTO-Geometric Design d Highu'av.s and Streets

Rural and Urban Arterials (Urban't

Horizontal Clearanceto Obstruction.s Clear roadside designis recommended urbanarterials for whenever feasible. O n c u r b e ds t r e e t e c t i o n st,h i s d e s i g ni s o f r e ni m p r a c t i c a b l e .a r t i c u l a r l yn s p i restricted areas. thoseareas clearance In a from curb Io faceto objectof0.5 m ( o r w i d e r w h e r ep o s s i b l e s h o u l db e r h e m i n i m u m .A 1 . 0 m c l e a r a n c e i l l ) w d e s i r a b l yb e p r o v i d e dp a r r i c u l a r l ,n e a r t u r n i n g r a d i i a t i n t e r s e c t i o na n d v" s driveways. This desirable of'fset providesrheclearance required overhang for of trucksfrom srrikingthe object.When pedesrrians not a facror.obstrucare tionsshouldbe setwell back,protected, providedwith breakaway or features. Protective curbsor barriermay be considered specialcases. in

Right-of-Way Width The width of right-of-way the complete for development an arterial of is street influencedby traffic requirements, topography, Iand use, cost, intersection design, andextentof ultimate expansion. required The width of right-of-way is the summation the variouscross-sectional of elements: throughtraveled ways, median, shoulders, auxiliarylanes, borclers. whererequired, and, frontage roads, outer separations. sideslopes, drainagefacilities,utility appurtenances, and retainingwalls. The width of right-of-wayshouldbe based the preferable on dimensions cach elementto the extent f'easible built-up district.s. of in The designer contionted rviththeproblem providing overallcross is of an section thtt w i l l g i v em a x i m u m e r v i c ev i t h i n l i r n i t e d i d t ho f r i g h t - o f - r v aR,i.g h t - o f - w a r r s w a y widths in urban ureasarc sovernedprimarily by econonric considerations. physical obstructions. environmc-ntal or rr'asons. Along anv anerial route, conditions devc'loprnent tcrntinvary,andaccordinglv. availability of and the of right-of'-wav varies.For this reason risht-of-wav a given tacilitvshould the on not be a fixed rvidthpredetermined the basis the mostcriricalpoint in irs on of location. Instead. opportunity should raken providea desirable every be ro width r u k r n m o s t .i f n o t l l l . o f t h c t h c i l i t v . g 'Iraflic

Figure Vll-11. Divided arterial street with parking lanes.

at-grade treatments and are normally providedwith gate-equipped automiltic flashing ignals. s Crossingsthat involve bicyclc routes that are not perpendicular thc to r o a d w a yn t a y r e q u i r ea d d i t i o n ap a v e ds h o u l c l ew i d t h r o a l l o w b i c y c l i s rt o l r ina-rw-er rrverthc crossing.Seer\AS IITO's G uidc.frtrDcvektpmetrt ol'tlictrle Fucilitics (2).

Roadway Width firr Bridges T h e n t i n i m u mc l e a rw i c l r h o r a l l r t c r v r i d g e s n a r t c r i i l s t r e e t s h o u l ( b c t h c t h o l l ()n :;rmeu.s curb-to-curb tlte rvidrhot'thcstrcct. long britlgc.s. dct'ined bntlgcs as havingiln ()vL'rall lcngthin cxccss oi60 rn,thc ot'fsets partpcts. to rail.rlr burricr couldbe thc samcastheoftiet tronrthetravcled wav to thecurbon thclpproach s t r e e t . i f s s t h a ln l r n : i f t h c o l f i c t t o t h e c u r b o r s h o u k i e r l i n e i s g r e a t c r t h l n . le l . l n r o n t h ca p p r o a c h t r c c tt.h c nt h co l ' f s e{t) nr h cb r i d s cs h a l lb c a t l c a s tI . l n t s . ntcasured frorn theedgeof the ncarcst travellaneon borhthe let'tand the riuht. Frtr furthcr rclevantdiscussion. scc thc scctionson "Curbs." "W;.rlkwirvs,"

Barriers

l'raftlc barricrs sotllctimcs rre usedon urbln arterials rcstrictcd in urcas and lt scparations. in medians. and Thc barriershouldbe compatiblc rviththedesired v i s u a lq u a l i t y .a n d s h a l l b e i n s t a l l c d n u c c o r d a n cw i t h s t a n d a r d r a c t i c c . i e p mcans.Rcterenccis madc ro thc r\..\SHTORtxtd.sidt' Dt.riun Grriric(6) fbr l'unhcrdiscussion cntl trcuttnents. tirr

tric AASHTO---Ceome Design of Highv'aysand Streets

(Urban) Rurul und UrbutrArtcrial.s

AccessControl ral Features o i P a r t i a lc o n t r o l o f a c c e s s s h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e n a n a n e r i a l f a c i l i t y .S u c h a b c i w i l l n o t o n l y e n h a n c et s i n i t i a ls e r v i c e a p a b i l i t y u tm a y a l s oo f t e n provision level of service. while service may be required to preservethe original r d b p a b u r r i n g r o p e r t yi.t s h o u l d ec a r e f u l l y e g u l a t e t o l i m i t t h en u m b e r o fp o i n t s a i n i s e s p e c i a l l y e e d e dn a r e a s p p r o a c h i n g c . a n d t h e i r l o c a t i o n sA c c e s s o n t r o l lanesmay be required. where auxiliary and storage intersections of throughapplication zoning by Accesscontrol may be exercised statute, and regulations, geometric turningand parking drivewaycontrols, ordinances, -'-'- ---higlrway designacceptable the community and propertyowners. to

AccessControl bY Statute by it controlis desired, is usuallyaccomplished of Wherea high degree access is access usually controlis appliedto an arterialstreet, When statutory statute. or limited to the crossstreets to othermajor traffic generators. control by statute. an Figure VII-12 illustrates arterialstreetwith access In is Access lirnitedto the major crossstreets. the uppermiddleof the picture, that on havebecnconstructed thetwo localstreets wereternlinatcd. cul-de-sacs a alsof'eatures of on are Sidewalks provided sections this facility.This example right tbr lanes bothlcft ancl rvidthandexclusive of flushmedian variable oainted. t u r n sa t t h e i n t c r s e c t t o n s .

Fil

:"'rf

AccessControl bY Zoning llong thearteriillan(l controlthepropertydeveloprnent Zoningctn eftecfivel.v Pr6pertyuscsctn thc type lnti volumeof traffic genereted. thcrebyinlluc'ncc t h ( ) s t t h a t a t t r a c tv c r v l ' e v rp c o p l c .e r c l u d i n gt h o s c u s c st h o t b c l i n r i f c t lt o d o r I c n c n l t es i g n i l ' i c e r vto l u t r t c s t ' t r a f t ' i c u r i n gt h e h o u r so f p e a kI n o v c t n c n t s ' c t a h a v ea s c r i o u s d v e r s c t t ' e c o n t h e a r e a 'l n i { c a u ; -t o l u n r c so f t r a t ' i i c ' " v o u l d to exclutleland uscsthat rvtlultldcpcndrln cascsit rnighrbc clesirable cr-'rtuin t[ o h e r r v vv o l u n r e s f c t t r n n r e r c i a r a f f i c i f . t b r v a r i o u sr e a s o n st.h i s c l l s s t l f ea o r c h i c l c c a n n o t c a c c g n r r n t t t l a trc d r t i l y r ( h e r cl r e l i m i t l t i o n si n t h ed e s i g n b o f t h ch i g h w a y de of arrangement thc land-usc veltlplpprovll rlt'abuildingpcnnit.The internal \trccl .,h,rultl sucltlhatthc llarkingspaces frorn(heartcrirtl p1gn1 mostdistant bc

by controlled statute. Figure Vll-12. Arterial streetwith access

528

AASHTO--Ceometic Design of Highv'avs and Srreets

Rural anrl LtrbanArterial.; (Ltrbun)

re the most attractive the userto minimizecongestion the vicinity of the to in Vehiclesexiting from the parkingfacility to the arterial entrance the street. at should offer no impedanceto traffic entering the parking facility from the aneiiat. Subdivision zoningordinances or shouldrequire thatthedeveloper a major of traffic generator providea suitable connection the anerialstreet to comparable to thatfor a well-designed street intersection serving similarvolumeof traffic. a It shouldbe understood theintersection subject thesametrafficcontrol that is to measures, includingrestrictions turningmovements, are applicable to as elsewhereon the anerial.The developer may be requiredto provide a frontageroad betweenthe propertyand the arterialstreetif neededto maintaina high level of operationand safetyon the arterial.

General features fronta_qe of roadsand theirclcsign cliscussed Chapter are in I V . T h e e f f e c to f f r o n t a g e o a d so n t h e d e s i g no f i n t e r s e c t i o ns c o ' e r e d i n r i "lnrersecrion ChapterIX underrhe headin-e. Desi-un Elemenrs ivith Fronrage Roads." F i g u r e s I I - l 3 t h r o u g h l l - l 6 a r ee . r a m p l eo f a c c c s s o n r r o l 1 l r o n r a g e V v s c b r o a d s F i g u r eV I I - 1 3s h o w s d i v i d e da r r e r i aw i t h o n e - w a ;t-i o n t a s e o a d s n a . a l r i residential area. The residences wellremoved are andshielded fronrrherhroueh traftlcon theanerial. Minor roads interceptect thefrontage are by roatjs. onlv the more important streets permitted crossthe arterial. are to

AccessControl Through Driveway Regulations Driveway controls can be effective in preservingthe functional characterof arterialstreets. heavily built-up areas In and areas having potentialfor intensive development, controlof permitsfor curb cuts can be adopted minimize the io with the free flow of traffic. In more sparselydeveloped marginal interference areasholding little promisefor densedevelopment, driveway controlsare a useful device fbr ensuringthat drivewaysare placed so that there will be minimum interference the highwayuserand the free movement traffic. to of -AccesS Control Through GeometricDesign

Figurevll-13.Dividedarteriatstreetwith one-wayfrontageroads.
Frontage roadsand gradeseparations afford the ultimatein access control.Fully developedfrontageroadset'fectively control access the through laneson an to to arterialstreet.provide access adjoiningproperty,separate local from through traffic, and permit circulationof traffic on eachsideof the arterial.They may be with grade usedin conjunction separation structures majorcross streets. which in at casethe arterialtakeson many of the operatingcharacteristics a tieeway. of crcatc tiontageroadsin combination with at-grade Continuous intersections For tratficcontlicts to lanes. andareconducive wrong-way entryintothethrough this reason, frontage roadsshouldbe limited in application stagc to continuous of construction an ultimatetieewaydesign. of shortsections frontagc However, road are generallyacceptable and have proven to be very effective. Frontage roadconnections signalized to crossstreets alsoa problem.Thcy are of operatirrn the main signalized intersection.

F i g u r e v l l - l l s h o w s a n u n d i v i d e da r r e r i a rw i t h f r o n r a g cr o l d s . o r h c r t ' e a t u r e s et h cg r l s s c d u t e rs c p r t r a t i o nts , f f i cn t a r k i n g s . n i lt r u f f ' i c i g n u l s . ar o ra u s F i { u r e V I I - l - 5s h t l w sa s h t l r ts c c t i ( ) n f ' a o n c - w a vI ' r < l n t a g r l u t l r l t l r r - g r o rc : ur undividcd lrtc'riltl ;ln intcnncdiate ol'alargccitv.-fhc lirlnt:rgc in arcu rtlrrtl scrvcs I rorvof smallctltnmercial establishmcnts. arrangcment This rctiucu's corrgcstiorr on thc throuchroadwa,v. mal-cause but problcrns rrrcntionctl itluslr. prcr FigureVII- l6 showsan undividcdntljor strcetwith onc-,,,, tl'ontlr{c rrv rgltls i n a d o w n t o r v n i s t r i co f a l a r g e i t y .T h e f r o n t a g eo a t li s n r i n i r r r ub.u t d t c r l Srclrl\ rmprovetraffic opcrations relievinr:the throuuh lancs frorrrnl()st()f rhc by pcdcstri ans

and of AASHTO-(;eometri( Desig,rt Hi,q,hv'uvs Streets

Rural and Urban Arterials (Urhatt t

roads. frontage arterialwith FigureVll-14. Undivided

Figure Vll-16. One-way frontage roadin downtown district.

PedestrianF acilities Artcrialslrccts nrrlyaccolttrttodatc vehiclcsancl both perlestrians, thcdcsign antl gratls seprrrations shotrldirrcludesitlervalks. crosswulks, antl sornctinrcs lirr p c t l c s t r i a n s .c d c s t r i a f a c i l i t i c sa n r l c o n t r o ln r c l s u r t . 'u i l l v a r t ' ,d c p c n d i n g P n s I u r * c l 1 ' o r l t ev o l u n r c f p c d e s t r i l nr l f t ' i c ,t h c l o l u n r co t ' v e h i c u l a r a f f i ct o b c tt o t t c r o s s c r t h c n u r n b co t ' l a n c s o h c c r o s s c da n dt h c n u r n b co f v c h i c l c s u n r i n g l. r t . r t at intcrsectiolts. On rlany scctions lrtcrial strccts travcrsc of tllat relatively undeveloped arcas. thc nurnbcrof pcdestriarrs will bc so srnall tlrat .sidcwalks nor ncc(lsd are i r t t r t t c d i a t c lB'c c u u s ch c s cu r c a sr r i l l u s u a l l v c d c v c l o p c cn t h c l i r t u r c . h c r . t b il t s t l c s i q n h t l u i d l l o r r t i r r l h c u l t i n r a t cn s t a l l a t i o o f s i r l e r v r r l kF l.r l w c v c ru s u l i n s . g c t t c r a p r i l c t i c cs i d c w u l k s h o u l dh c c o n s t r u c t c d i t i a l l y ' a k r n gl l u r t c r i l l l . s l in \trcctsthatrrrcn()tprovitlcdrvithshouldcrs.evcn pcdcstrilntrll't'icnlil\' through It lighr. Thc mi.r.jor pcdcstriln-vchicular contlictusuallv cursrt intcrscctrorrs. thc oe On klrrcrclasscs ot'lrtcrials. with espccially intcrscctions rninorcross at \trccts\\'hcre rttrrrkings. FL'uturcs helpthc pc.tiesrrian tlut includefixr.d-sourcc lightinu. rctirgc islurttls. blrricrs.ruirlsisnals. Suchfcrrturcs tliscusserl Chlptcr l\'. lrc in

_l 'w

EY

FigureVll-15. Short segmentof one-wayfrontage.

wide with heavytraffic i.e., arterials, six or eightlanes on themoreimportant intersecat and n pedestrians vehicles at-grade betwee the volumes. interference acute The problem is especially problems. serious presents tions sometimes with and thereare intersections district a wherethe arterialtraverses business for grade separations pedestrians lmportant cross slreets. In extreme cases' solution.(See ChapterIV for further details') provide the only satisfactory at-grade are for Althoughseparations pedestrians justified in someinstances, with pedesConflict form of crossing. will remainthe predominant crosswalks rriansand vehicle traffic can be reducedif the crosswalksare properly placed' maintained,and operated. designed, crossingson heavily traveledarterialsshould be The number of pedestrian to districts it is usually necessary --kepf+o a minimumi but in and neal business on provide crosswalks at every intersecting street. Enforcement of a ban is at crossings an intersection very difficult. A crossingshouldnot be pedestrian unlessthe benefitsin improvedsafetyandtraffic operation pedestrians closedto to are sufficient to offset the inconvenience pedestrians' will leadto illegal crossing crossings closingof pedestrian Indiscriminate proper and reasonabledesign for pedestriansis maneuvers.Therefore, important. having on desirable wide arterials walk signalis especially The pedestrian On to of the greatdistances be covered. exceptionally roadsbecause frontage as in may be mounted themedian rvellas signals pedestrian streets, widearterial Refer in and,if necessary, theouterseparations' on thefar sideofthe intersection of' installation (1) tbr additionalintbrmationregarding to the currentMUTCD --slgnals.

Additional by to be seldom added anarterial theopencutmethod. should Urilities with normal boredor jacked to avoid interference are installations desirably traffic movements.

IntersectionDesign have a significanteff'ecton the The design and operationof intersections grades' provision and capacity, Sightdistance, qualityofan arterial. operational on Tuming movements operation. all for turningmovements affectintersection their lanes, if necessary. or on shouldnot encroach adjacent principalarterials in development intersection ChapterIX discusses effectsshouldbe considered. evaluated becarefully that It detail. is recommended eachindividualintersection in the earlydesignphases.

Operational Control and Regulations part by the in The efficiency of an arterialstreetsystemcan be measured lar-ge of adequacy traffic control devices and the degreeof entbrcementof traffic If regulations. the demandfor arterialroute serviceexists"vithin the traffic that it may be possible.to are conidor. thesemeasures of such.prominence traltlc into standards a maJor gooddesign rvithonly moderately converla street artery. use 0ll can havea strongbcaring stree( ciln controls The tactthatoperational of be both gooclanit bacl frorn the standptlint the lit'e ot'the citl"anci its e n v i r o n m e n tv a l u e s . al rvilh traffic operationllcontrolscan leadto blightedareas If usedunrvisely'. in property values and major upheavals land-usepltterns. This depressed traffic by resultrnight be broughtabout.for example. upgrading undesirable ancl regulationson a residentiulstreet to accommtltlrttc control mctsures overtlorv trafiic from a nearby parallel arterilrl scrving the slnrc trrtit'ic use cttrridor.The potentill ccononiicloss resultingt'rotnsuchin.iudicious tlf t th n t i . l v o r e t h a no t ' l ' s e t e c o s to t i m p r o v i n g h c l r t c r i a l t o r t m s u c he x p e t l i c n t s within the corridor' stlndardto servcthe major movements ttl controlmcasurcs improvethc caplcitv ltndtrlffic of The potcntial traffic dcsignatcd to the n)aximumdcgrecon propcrl-'scrviceshouldhc explclrted may be dividedinto thc iirllowinscuterlorics: measures Crtntrol streets. artcrial Ir di lanc
usilge.

Curb-Cut RamPs is intersections difficult tbr The use of crosswalksat typical curbed-street width must be providcd curb-cut rampsof sutficient with disabilities. persons rampsis ctlvcrcdin of The subject curb-cut thathavesidewalks. areas in curbed IV. Chapter

Provision For Utilities The urban arterial system must also otlen serveas a utitity corridor' Utilitics ' neverbc lrrcatcd should ml Service Inholes linesaspossible' right-of-way nearthe in ltlclltitltts horvevcr' the outsitle entireroadway: in traific lanesand desirably
r h * n r c t l r : l r r s r p : t r k i n q l t t n t ' s t n l t v b e a c c e p t n h l er t n d c r s p c c i l r l c o n t l i t i t l n s ' o

AASHTMeometric

Desi

r pfHufustlqry4

Rural and Urban Arteriols (Urban)

535

Traffic Control Devices during theroadwayconstrucWhen traffic signalsarerequiredor anticipated integratethe ultimate signal operation.The tion phase,the design should d e s i g n s h o u l d c o n s i d e rt h e r e d u c t i o no f s i g n a l p h a s e sb y p r o v i d i n g f o r the concurrent opposingleft turnsby constructing left-turnlanesin a manner w f w h i c h w i l l a l l o w f r e e o p e r a t i o nC h a n n e l i z a t i o n , h i c h p r o v i d e s o r s i n g l e . or double left turns and free right turns,often resultsin bettersignalcontrol crossingseasier.The spacingof signalsto allow and may make pedestrian free-flow timing in both directionsis highly desirableand may be achieved by control of accessduring early developmentstages.If this cannot be achieved,suitable time-spacediagramsbasedon traffic forecastsmay be used to determine signal and accessspacing. Such efforts will provide optimum signal progressionto provide maximum vehicle capacity and minimum vehicle delay time. The location of driveways also affectssignal operationsignificantly.Driveway locationspositionedso as to allow driveshouldbe avoided. way vehiclesto interferewith major throughmovements e t o w L o c a t i o n s h i c h w i l l a l l o we n t e r i n g r e x i t i n gv e h i c l e s o g e n e r a t f a l s ec a l l s on signal are undesirable. can The physicallocationof signalstandards alsoofien be improvedfor safety in when the locationis considered the roadwaydesign and visibility reasons srage. designshouldbe to safelycarry the The ultimategoal of any intersection with the level oi serviceconsistent requiredtralfic volumesat an acceptable including that elements, Thisgoalrequires all intersection design. -overallarterial into the entiredesignprocess. be traffic signals integrated control ilevicessuch as signs,markings.signals,and islandsare Traffic wam. or guidetraffic. or placedon or adjacent a street highwayto regulate, to needwith regard tratticoperation, to to tulflll a specitic Eachdeviceis designed tbr tratTiccontrol devicesshouldbe determinedby The need control.or saf'ety, with thegeometric design thestreet of studymadein conjunction an engineering of design andinstallation application thc various standard or highway. assure To to ret'er the currentIVIUTCD(l). traffic controldevices, needs clnnot that is responsive tratTic to of The importance a signalsystem fiom hour to hourand from day to Traffic needstluctuate be overernphasized. s b . s d a y .T h e s i g n a ls y s t e m h o u l dl i k e w i s e e t l e x i b l e T h e s y s t e m h o u l di n c l u d c Thc components well as a controlcomponent. as dctection anddataprocessing signalsystemis generallythe most economical installation a sophisticated of melhodto imDrove tratfic servicein a densel the Arnongothcr considerations. signalsystemshouldallocatethc time tn mtlvcwith denrand. shouldbe coordinated progressivc lor Signals eccordancc alth()ugh street, florvof trafficon an rtrterial of nlcntin thctlircctitln predominlnt

Where as of theoptimumtrafficservice the system a wholemustbeconsidered. h v a r i o u s o v e m e n t a t i n t e r s e c t i o nts .e m s o s m u l t i p h a s i n ig n e c e s s a rty c o n t r o l when phases provide skipping should tor equipment and detecting programming or time dueto lackof demand, too Idteand lostgreen rhere no trafficdemand. is this goal is to mustbe keptto a minimum.Equipment accomplish manyphases is available.This methodof improving traffic service,althoughexpensive. which may be and right-of-way construction. costlythanadditional usuallyless trafficsignalsystems of The theonly otheraltemative. installation sophisticated the therefore, operatin-e effort to maintainand operate: requires considerable il to manpower thesystem capable adequate. to agency mustbe prepared assign optimum benefitsare to be realized. is on of Progression throughmovements an arterial oneof themosteffective meansof improving operationson both the arterial and the cross streets.By moving queues of traffic through the corridor' the corridor remains open, and operationOl The selection movements. allowing more time for cross-street to is traftlc controlequipment related the designof the arterial. the optimum largelyon properpaveof operation an urbanarterialdepends Successful h o e s p e c i a l l y n a r t e r i a l s a v i n gm u l t i p l el a n e sa n d p a r t i c u l a r l y m e n tm a r k i n g . in developments products provisionis madefor lefi turns.Recent whenspecial promise in providing adequate marking show considerable for pavement long-life marking, even tbr areas where snow removal often obliterates l i r o r d i n a r y n a r k i n g sn v e r y s h o r tt i m e s .O v e r h e a da n es i g n i n gi s u s u a l l yv e r y a s t h ed r i v e r t om a k em a n e u v e rw e l l i n a d v a n c e n da l s o h el p f u l .T h es i g na l l o w s . c , r s c w e a t h e r o n d i t i o n ss u c ha s r a i n t l r s n o r v A d e q u l t t e i s h e l p f u lu n d c ra d v e s o n c r o s s u . a l k r : r r k i n si s r c q t r i r c df o r t h e s a t ' e t y f p e d e s t r i a no n t h e u r b a r l artcrial.

RegulatoryLleasures in take manv tilrnrsas discussed thc "Unitbrm Vchiclc nleasures Rcgulatory lhirl "Nlodcl Traffic Ordinance"(.1).The two mcasurcs Crxlc'"(J). and thc tt a r cr c s t r i c t i t r to s' ot l l c o r r t r i t r u nc r ) \ t ( rr l r co p c r a t i o r r clt ' t ' i c i c n c y a r t e r i as l r c c t s tl e tc u r b s i d c . o s n a l t u r n i n g o v e n t c n t sn cp r o h i b i t i o o t ' p a r k i n g .t o p p i n g .r s t a n d i n g m u b m ts R e s t r i c t i t l ng a i n s t u r n i n g o v c n r c n t s .o t hr n i d b l o c k n dl t i n t c r s c c t i t l n s . sht>uld not w suchrcstrictitlns it'upplied isely:however, prollotc {ootl rlperatitln to tbr muslbe providetl highwav usL'rs lllcons Sorne bc applicdindiscriminttcl.v-. thc d r e u c ht l c s r i n a t i o n a . t t lt h i s c a n b c a c c o m p l i s h co n l y b y t u r n i n gf r o r n sr u r t c r i a lc i t h c rr i g h to r l c l . t . .
r c l c s t u r r t r n gn g h t t n l t y t l l l c r l c r c Whcrc eorncr curb rudii lrrc ttntlcsirabll shtlrt. hclv-v pcdcstri:rrirr.trlvcrncnts. * v c h i c l c st u r n i r r gr i g h t n r a v l l s t l i n t c r l c ' r c i t h t h r o u g ht n t t t ' i cl o : l n c x t c l l t t h i l t i \

l-lTO--<; e| )nteIr i ( D e.s n r Hr q/rrrrrr'.r' SIreet.\ i.q AAS dttd

Rural and UrbanArterials(Urban)

I c i o t a r o u to f p r o p o r t i o no t h e i rn u n t b e r sn s u c h a s c st m a l b ed e s i r a b lte p r o h i b i t e t u r n sd u r i n gc c r t a i nh o u r si f - t h e r ca r e a l t e r n : r t r o u t e st o t h c c l e s t i n a t i o n s co t r i n v o l v e dA s a g e n e r arlu l e .h o w e v e ri n t e r l e r e n l i e m r e h i c l c su r n i n g i g h ti s .
n^t.r nr^hlPm

V e h i c l e s u r n i n gl e f t i n t o c r o s ss t r e e t s r a t m i d b l o c kl o c a t i o n si e q u e n t l l o f t . n tl m t s c r e a t e o n s i d e r a b li e t e r t ' e r e n c ei . i n i s h h ee f t ' e c t i v e n eo fst h ea r t e r i a la n d c o . c c o n t r i b u t e o t h e i n c i d e n c e f a c c i d c n t sF e w o f t h e s em o v e m e n t s a n b e t tg n t n e l i m i n a t e d .o t w i t h s t a n d i n h ep o p u l a r o t i o n h a ta " N o L e l t T u r n " s i g na t a n t t r , i n t e r s e c t i ow i l l c a u s e h e p r o b l e m o d i s a p p e a T.o t h e c o n t r a r yo r i g i n sa n d n of leti of traffic mustbe serr.ed the prohibition leti turns and on destinations the the rnaycompound problemat others. at one or more locations I s h n T h es o l u t i o n i e si n d i s c o v e r i no r a n t i c i o a t i nte ed i m e n s i o o f t h ep r o b l e m add ih providing tbr the movementsthrough a combinationof regulatory (that is. selective prohibitionof turns.geometric design,and tratfic measures and thesetactors independently. no firm rules control).It is diillcult to discuss principles that,if properly Several and methods areapplicable all situations. to and considered applied,will leadto a Iogicalsolutionareoutlinedas fbllows: l. Lcli turnsshould beprohibited not of The desires trafficmustbeserved. s a e u n l e s s l t e r n a t i vr o u t i n r : a r ea v a i l a b l e .
r A s a g c r r c r a l u l e . t h e t c u ' c r t h e n u m b e r o f l c f t t u r n sa t a n v l o c a t i t t r tt,l t c i l c s s t h c i n t c r f l r c n c c w ' i t l io t h c r t r a l ' f c . T h u s . t i r r u g i v c n t o t a l n u m b e r o l ' l e l ' t t u r n s r v i t h i na q i v c r t l c n g t h o l ' h i q h u u r ' . i t r n a y b c b c t t c r t o t c n c o u n l g c l f c r v l el ' t t u n r s i t l c u c l t o f s c v c r u l l o c u t i r t n s h i l n t ( ) c ( ) l t c c t t l f i t t c t h c ( u n l s l t t i t s i r t g l cl t t c a t i t l r t . r1)o\ c .S!'[]lrftrtc sigrtal pltllscs lilr lct't-trrrrt clncnts retlrre tltc lttllotiltI t-l' g r e c r r i r r r c v l i l u b l c t i r r o t h c rn r ( ) \c l n c n t \ l t t h c i n t c r s c c t i o r t . t r l t i p l t r s c M t a on s i g r u r l s r c t h c r c f i ) f ci t t l v u t t l : . t g c o u s l t i l ' t n t l t i c o p c l a t i t l r ta r r t ls t t t c t v a lr thc rurcrrrrprovcdsufl'icicrrt t() ()l't'sct loss i n grccn ti lnc. l-his dctcrnti-

and may be undesirable, the The threeright tums at the otherintersection of The applicability this form of rraffic is increased. of disrance travel where only a few regulationis usually limited to those intersections tuminglaneis not feasible. andwherea separate to vehicles desire tum left The desirabilityof exclusiveleft-tum lanescannotbe overstressed. or of may consist left-tumslotsin themedian a continuous lanes These Multiphase from bothdirections. for laneexclusively leti turns cenrer turning traffic and through traffic signal control is very inefficient if borhusethe samelane.Where tuming traffic is light' a left-tum lane may eliminate the need for left-turn phasesbecausethe storageof left-turning vehicles will not affect through traffic. Traffic safety is clearof the lanesused if greatlyenhanced tuming vehiclescanbestored by throughvehicles' 7 . With a t"putut. indication for left turns, two left-turn lanes will up accommodate to about 180percentof thevolumethatcan be served on greentime,depending the by a singlelanewith the sameavailable and width of thecrossstreet theradiusof tum.Thus,whereright-of-way, spacefor a long radius turn, and a wide crossstreetare available,the of installation two lefi-turn lanes may be a practicalsolution to a FigureVII-17 shows probleminvolvinga heavyleft-turnmovement. of an example two left-turnlaneson an urbanarterial' or warranted, are for 8 . Gradeseparations left-turnmovements sometimes X as treatments outlinedin Chapter may be required' soecial other to as left In summarv. turnsshouldbe accommodaled nearaspracticable the highwayuser.Shiftingthe left turnsaway from the point of point of desire the for if Nevertheless,thepointof desire left problems. up sers secondary of desire traffic control.or of from the standpoint design. rurnsis highly objectionable to may be employed shiftthepointwhereleft tums measures sattry.regularory should cases Only in exceptional moresuitable. thatis ,r].y t" r"d" to a location where left blockstiom the point of desire. the point be shitiedmore rhantwo designshould the tiom an arterialstreet, intersection tulLs areto be permittecl to it is totallyimpractical providcthem' unless lanes storagc incorporatc'leti-turn of provisions lcft turns.This FigureVII-tll showsan arterialwith excellent city, although of area a lar-rle residential a rhrough predominantly f aciliiv passes has arterial a wide mcdianwith The propcrtyis commercial. of ntosr rhcaburring limitcd to every two or threeblocks.The leti'turn lancsare offset crqssroads traftlcdoesnotcont'lict. left-turn so w.hcre thevioin thecrossroads thatopposing of thephotohastwo lanes at The aie Left rurns regulated. intersection thebottom
rrr tilf lett tUmS,.{CCeSS IS COntfOllCOtnr()ugll clrlu-r-ut rssurduurrr. drrs

+.

natitln rctluircs c;trclirl ltrttlvscs irt er t'tv casc. o W h c r c s c l c c t i v ep r o h i l r i t i < l n t ' l c t ' tt u r n s i s n c c c s s u r r 't.h c r c a r c t l p c r l t lt is g t i o n a l l r r l v i l r r t l r g c n c ( ) n c c n t r i l t i r l l c l ' tl u r n s i l t i l r t c r s c c t i o r t s , " v l t cfr cc v o l u r n c o i c r o s st r l l l ' i c i s l o w s o t h l r tl r l u r g c I n r e t i o nr r l t l t c s i g t t l t lt t t t t c r I i s l r l i l i I i t h l cl i r r g r c c r t r t tI l l L ' l l r t c f i l l .\ \ l t c r ct $ t r r t r t c r i r t5 l r c c t sI n l c r s c c t , t , n l t h c r c n l i l v h c l t t l v l t t t t u g ic r c q t r i r i r t g c t t - t u r n i r t !r c l t t u l c sl r r l r r P l t s s l t c i r r t c r s c c t i t l r tI.' o r i n s l u r t c c .( ) r ' r c r l l n n c r i n * h i c h t h c l c l - l - t t l r n n rrtrirr l n l i l l r c u v c rc l u t b c r t c e o t t r p l i s h c it s t o l u r n l c l t l r ( ) n r t h c t i r s l : t r l c r i l t lr t h l t r e i r t l r t l rl r r c t ' t l l t l t c r n l t i ni n l c r s t ' ei o n . p r o c c c t l, r r t ch l t l e[ * .t t r r nr i r . t l t t . t k ) r ( ) e c c (rl t t t t r t l t clrr l o c k ' l t t t t lt u r r r l c l ' t .( - l c l t r g t l i t l c s i g n i n g i s c s s c l l t i l t l ' 'J'ltc o r o t r l r r t r l l ' t n t t ' l l cu r o u n t lu h l t t k t o t h c r i g l t t .i n l i c r r . r l ' l c l i t t t n t s ,t s -l'hcrc 'l-hc ttrnttng \()r'nctlllrc\lrtlr'ltnl:rgcous. lrc (li\l(l\iultlgcs. llso. tt r l l r t l l ' i t ' t l c s l t t t c ol t l t t 'l r ' l ' t ' r c r t t t i r c t ( )0 i l : \ l h r ( ) u ! ! tt l t c i t t t c r s c t t t ( )lt\l\ t L c . ll

fromtheintersections' pointswell removed is access limitcdto oncor t\,','() blttcks is on curb parkingis permissible lnerials whcnthespecd low andthe traffic

Rural and Urban Arterials (Urban)

539

ctl
(g

o c
J
I

,'f.,t;

c
o (o
E .E
(!
L

.: 3 tr
(I)

for Figurevll-18. Arterialstreetwith provisions left turns.

during periodsof heavy anci At demandis well below capacity. higherspeeds and service with arterialstreet curb parkingis incompatible traffic movement. penritted. shouldnot be capacityand intcrferesrvith frcc tlow of adi0cent Curlr parking retluces e c c u r b p a r k i n g a n i n c r e a s t h c c a p a c i t lo l ' l i r u r -t o s i x - l a n e E rraffic. iiminaring by 50 to 80 percent. (curb-to-curb) lrtc'rials dime cross-sectional nin arc Whereparkingprovisittns included the design. can be usedby moving traffic when rheentirerviclth sionsshouldbe suchthat tirlrn it thereshouldbe a liberaldistance i\r parkingis removetl. intersections. be sh6ulcl at least6'0 rn from rt distance stall.J'hi-* .n^., tn the first ptrking thc spacctbr turningtrlffic. retluccs tnilncuvering L'Xtra It crossrvalk. prrlvitlcs i n c r c a s cssg h td i s t : l l l c c ' 'i , c o n t l i c t$ i t h r h r o t r s lttr a f t ' i cu n d I o l N o o t h c rs i n g l c p e r l t i o n ac o n t r o c e nh a v ca sd r a m l l i cl n c f t e c tt l n t r e l ' l ' i c o a t l o r v o n l r r c r i u l s r r c c r s s t h c p r o p e rr e q u l a t i o n f p l r k i n g : ,i n c l u d i n gt l t e rtntl in lolding zt.rttcs at btls st()ps' ot"')rtl Plrrking"reUttlations enfclrcc'mcnt

(E TI f, t-

o
3 ct) tt.

tional Lane Usage

'l'1.pictrllr. [ t h c c r r n r c n t i t l n l la f l c r i a ls t r c c ti s r t r n u l t i l l t t t c \ \ ( ) - \ \ l l vt l r c i l i t yr v i t h l t n ()llctt. ltor''crcr' ()nc-\\il\ ( i c t l u l r lt t u t t t l r c r ) t l i t t l c \ t i ) r f r i l i ' t ' i c n c l r c h t l i r c C l i o t t

AAS HTO--C e()meric D esi t

Highwavs and Streets

Rural and Urban Arterial.s(Urban)

ion is employed whereconditions suitable. are Somewhat frequently, less reversible lane operationis usedto improvethe efficiencyof operation. The conditions underwhich eachform of operation most Suitable is depend largely on traffic flow characteristics, street pattern, the andthegeometric features the of particularstreet.Where a streetsystemis undergoing expansion improveor nrent,theultimateform of directionalusage shouldbeanticipated, thedesign and should be prepared accordingly. Once an arterial street is completed to a desirablestandard,conversionfrom one form of directional usageto another may entailconsiderable expense disruption traffic.For existingstreets and to of conventional this design, conversion may be a feasible altemative increasing for the traffic capacity.For inforrnation regarding signingfor directionallaneusage, referenceshould be made to the current MUTCD (1).

Among theseare the to There are also disadvantages one-wayoperation. following: l. can be because certaindestinations are increased Travel distances is This disadvantage maneuvers. only by around-the-block reached streets. of grid is composed one-way if the street more acute One-waystreetsmay be confusingto .slrangers. at by vehicles may be blocked carsin all lanes intersections Emergency to change. waitingfor signals

2. 3.

One-Way Operation An arterialfacility consisting oneor morepairsof one-waystreets generally of is adaptable the following combinations conditions:(l) where a single to of two-way streetdoesnot haveadequate capacityand doesnot lend itself readily to improvement accommodate to anticipated trafficdemand, particularly where left-turningmovements numerous at intersections difficult to handle,(2) are where thereare two parallelarrerialstreets block or two apart,and (3) where a cross streets sutTicient of number andappropriate spacing available pennit are to circulation traffic. of havethe fbllowing advantages: Q1e-waystreets Traffic capacity mostcases increased a result reduced in is as of medial and intersectional conflicts and more efflcienr operationof traffic controldevices. Travelspeed increased a result is as ofreduction ofmedialconflicts and delayscauses lefi-turning by vehicles. The increase the numberof in lancsin onedirection permits readypassing slow-moving vehicles. of permits One-wavoperation goodprogressive timing of trafficsignals. l . The numbcr and severityof accidenrs are reducedby eliminating accidents reducing hcad-on and sometypesof intersection contlicts. I An ocldnumberof traftlc lanes usedtully on srreers do nor lend is thar t h c n r s e l v e s d i v i s i o n n t oa n e v e nn u m b e r f l a n e s f s u i t a b l c i d t h . to i o w o .5. Thc uvailable width is usedtully throushrheeliminarion need street of tor l mcdian. O. Un-slrcet parklng thct would otherwisehave to cunailcdmay be retained.

to and In summary.there are severaladvantages disadvantages one-way largely on which operationdepends The choice of one- or two-way operation. most economicallyand type can be developedto meet the traffic requirements property.Both typesof operationshouldbe with greatest benefitto the adjacent In considered. many casesthe proper choice is immediatelyobvious. In other a instances thoroughstudy involving all of themany facetsof the mattermay be necessary.

Operation Reverse-Flow of distribution trafficduringpeakhourson in The familiarimbalance directional in citiesolien re.sults congesin radialstreets iargeand medium-sized principal traffic. capacityfor opposing tion in the directionof heavierflow and excess by can duringpeak'hours be increased usingmorethanhalf the lanes Capacity tbr one direction. are streets on operation undivided Reverse-tlow Senerally justifiedwhere6-5 rvhe rc duringpeakperiods, percent moreof thetrafficmovesin onedirection or tbr tor lanes the lightert'lowareadequate thattraffic.whcrethere theremaining and wherethereis no median, wherc in is continuity therouteandrvidthof street. left tums and parkingcan be restricted. tor undividedsrreerneed nor be changedappreciably The conventional tneasures control and operatiOn, thecostofadditional to reverse-tlow conversion in would be operatcd thedircction street. threelanes On is not great. a five-lane 9i distribution approxtf'lorv.On a six-lanestreetwith directional of heavier inboundand two lanes to 3-5percent,four lanescan be operated mately 6-5 so on is duringthemomingpeak.Operation reversed themiddlelancs outbound peuk. duringtheevening are andfbur lanes outbound are thattwo lanes inbound in direction on periods. trafficis accomnlodated thrcelancs c'ach Duringottpeak with curb parking. r)n two lanesin eachdirection 3 reversc Ilow: rvith threeor tbur lanesean also bc operltl Streets
h o w e v e r ,w i t h o n l y t t n c l a n t ' i n t h c d i r c c t i o n o f l i g h t c r t l o * . l t s l o r v v c h i c l c o r

542

and AASHTO--GeontetricDesign rtf Hi,ghu'a;;s Streets

(Urbun) Rural and UrbunArtcriul.s

, t rr a k i n g u p o r d i s c h a r g i n g p a s s e n g e e t a r d sh ee n t i r em o v e m e n ta n da c . b v e h i c l eb r e a k d o w n l o c k st r a f f i c i n t h e o n e d i r e c t i o n o m p l e t e l yO c c a s i o n to streets can be adapted complete may be suchthat these irll,V. circumstances i o r e v e r s el o w . i . e . .o n e - w a yi n b o u n di n t h e m o r n i n ga n d o n e - w a y u t b o u n dn f t t h e e v e n i n g .A t o t h e r t i m e s t h e s t r e e tm a y b e o p e r a t e d w o w a y s . w i t h o r w i t h o u tp a r k i n g . Direct left turns by traffic in the minor directionshouldbe carefullyconto flow aresubject the sameconsidertrolled.Left turnsfrom the predominant operalionwith two-way as arionsand regulations they are fbr conventional wherelefi tums street to traffic.This systemis in contrast a one-wayreversible can at all intersections be madereadily. More controldevices. specialsigningand additional flow requires Reverse -----.polieing and manpowerarenecessary operate control devices. Stanchisns the to the or traffic conesare usually desirableto separate opposingtraffic. "No Left are "Keep Right" signson pedestals stanchions alsonecessary. or Tum" and by traffic to properlanescan be accomplished placingoverhead Assigning lane usage for given hourly periods.However, with this signs indicating to for thereis a tendency somemotorists pull out for left turnsinto arrangement traffic in the oppositedirection.It is betterto place a lane that is signedfor control signalsat intervalsover each lane.This methodis separate lane-use to parricularlyadaptable lorrg bridgesand sectionsof streetswithout side Furtlrer efficiency is gained in the predominantdirection by connecrions. signals system, With a three-dial interconnected progressive tirningof signals. a in thepeakperiods: third of aresettbr properprogression themajormovement thc Sometirnes periocls. serringis usedto fit the traffic tlow during off-peak during611'-peak are .srgnats thecenterlancttr latres setred in both tlirc-ctions litr areatbr sat'ety. way into a ntr'dian hours.thusconvcrtingthe unuscdtraveled opcration alsoappliclbleto dividedarterials. is of Theprincipte reversc-ilow' is but the arrangenlent more dil'ficultwith a medianon I dividedhighwaythan tuntingtratfic,the cross ancl The difficultvof handling highway. on rn undividcd tacility of and suitabilitv an at-grade tbr confusicln pedestrians. thequestionable thc For nlavmakcotherhilhway typespret'erlble. cxample. fttr thehigh volumcs of with sccti()n threc-lw()-thrcc cxpres.sr.vav I rcvc'rsc-tlorv of capacitv anat-qrade to l t o r t h r e c - t h r c c - t h r clc n e sl e c l u i v a l e n t a l 0 - l a n c t l r l l - l a n c c o n v e n t i o n a l d d o o s c c t i o n ) m u y e c o m p a r a b lte t h ec a p a c i t y f a s i x - l a n e e p r c s s eo r e l c v l t t e d b to likely volumeswould bc -1.5(Xl J0(X)vph in onc frecway.Fttr thcser.vidths. tilr vc'hicles. which a to of directittn. two-wilv .,\DT volurnes -50.(XX) 60.(XX) or rnay not rctnaln Furlhernrore. traft'ic in sotllc casL's t'rccrvly is warrantecl. operaliontilr et^grldc in rrratcriilllvunbulanced future years.Reverse-fl6rv

Figure Vll-19.

Divided arterial street with two'way

frontage road'

F'rontage Roads and Outer Scparations Frontagc roads are sonlctimes uscrl on lrtcrial strccts to contr()l ilcccss. lls 'fhrough G c o r t t c t r i cf ) t : s i g n " i n t l r i s i d i s c u s S c dn t h c s c c t i o n " A c c e s s C t l n t r o l ()[)drirtl()ll.\ Othcr inrportan( tlnctions ol'liontagc n;ltls rtrc to lrrcilitrrtc chaptc'r. pr()Pcrtics. Filrtlatlt lancs and to providc lcccss l() ahuttin!.1 on thL'through-trat't'ic rciL'r lo rln widths tnd othcr tclturcs ol'tl'ontagc rrlutls arrd outcr scpltr:ltitrtts. t C h a p t c ' r sV . t X . l n r l X . r i F i g u r e V I I - l t ) i s t r n e x u n r p l c o f r r t r r o - r v u v l ' r ( ) n l i l s c o ; t i l . t l t r t l St t l i v i d c t l rrtcrirl.

is+int
highrvl-Ys'

AASHTO--Ceometic Design of Highwavsand Streets

Rurul and Ltrburt Artet'iul.s

Grade Separationsand Interchanges are and many of and interchanges coveredin other chapters 6rade separations are applicableto arterial streets.Although grade the principlesdiscussed are they may be and separations interchanges not often usedon arterialstreets, the only meansavailablefor providing sufficientcapacitlrat some critical intersections. can be constructed some caseswithin the existing in Grade separations are: wheregradeseparations shouldbe considered Locations right-of-way. l. 2. principalarterials. between At very high-volumeintersections having more than four approachlegs. At high-volume intersections At high-type arterial street intersectionswhere all other prineipal intersections gradeseparated. are At all railroadcrossings. of At siteswhere terrain conditionsfavor separation grades.

Erosion Control ' W h e na n u r b a n r t e r i ailsd c s i s n c d. ti t ha no p e n l i t c h r o s s c c l i o nr.u r a l r o s i o n s e c c a s c o n t r o l r n c a \ u r c \s h o u l d b e a p p l i c da n d u a t c r q u a l i t l i r n p a c t s h o u l db e tt u n i c o n s i d e r e d . u r b . ' tc r ( ) \ \ \ c c t i o n s s u a l l rr c t l u i r c r t r r c n t . ' n : i r et r L ' r t m e n o C l p r e \ e n t d u m a g ct t r r r t l j a c e np r o p e r l va n d s i l t a t i o ni n ' c ' , r c r sa n d d r a i n a g e t a e s v s t e m s S e c d i n g m u l c h i n g .a n d s o c l d i n q r L 'u s u i . l l l v m p l o r c dt o p r o t e c t . . s a r e e sI r o m e r o s i o n .L a n d s c a p i n t ' e a t u r c s .u c h a s g r o u n dc o v e r g disturbed p l a n t i n g s , u s h c sa n d t r c c s a r ea l s oc ' n t p l o l ' etc l c o n t r c le r o s i o ne n h a n c t h e o l . e b , . pror,icle roadsidc. souncl beauty. and controlot'the

Lighting The is to operation an urbanarterial. of li_qhtin-sverv important saf'e Adequate rvith and requirethe driver to make correctdecisions higher volunre.s speeds withoutcreating unduecontlictin time to nrakethe propermaneuvers adequate Iightingis Sudden brakingandswervingareminimizedrvhere the traffic lanes. t a t T o a a d e q u a t e .h e v i s i b i t i t y f s i g n i n g n dp a v e m c nm a r k i n g l s oh c ' l p so s m o o t h lightingsystL-rn more important to adequate is designcd. traffic tlorv.A sat'ely . o r o p t i n r u m p e a t i o no f a n u r b a na r t c r i l lt h a na n y o t h c rc i t ) s t r e e tT h e l i g h t i n g tg L i a i s l s h o u l tb ec o n t i n u o ua n r u ne n c r g y - s a v i n1 ' p e . i g h t i n g n l n u r b a n r e a sa l s o l r o f ( e nr r n r l t t t c o t ' c i v i c n r i d ca n i l i s u d c t c n ' c ntto c r i n t c .I n t h c c v c n tt h a ti t i s c rr o i c i n r p o s s i h lte p n r v i r l c o r ) t i n u o ulsg h t i n g , o n s i t l c r a t i os h o u l r l[ t g i v c ' nI o

4. 5.

is Normally, where a gradeseparation provided,it is provided as part of an type wherethereare four legs.Other types usually of the diamond interchange, haveappticationwheremore than four legsare involved.These of interchanges in typesarediscussed ChapterX. including to It is desirable carry the entireroadwaywidth of the approach, However,in across underthe gradeseparation. or parkinglanesor shoulders, to the with restricted right-of-wayit will be necessary reduce width. somecases becausc as on streets on freeways is This reduction not asobjectionable arterial plus width of thetrafiic lanes speeds. a minimum,the tull approach As oJTower The across underthestructure. reductiorr or 0.6 m on eachsideshouldbe carried rvith a taper.Sce or in parking-lane shoulderwidth should be accomplished ChrpterX tbr taperdesignelements. valucs streets may havelowerdimensional for Interchange elements arterial with tieeways.Desirably. loopsshouldhaveradii no smallerthan as compared -1,5 Diamond-type as rampsmay havelengths shortas theminimumdistance m. at the between tlvo roadways the in to necessary overcome dif'ference eievation speed. with thedesign Ianes gradients. mustbeconsistcnt Speed-change suitable and Chapter givescriteriatbr designof interchanges grlde separations. X built to eliminatebottlestructures FigureVII-20 showsgradeseparation artcrial the Connections providedbetrveen ma.itlr are areas. necksin congested street system. and the local street

structureon arterialstreet. FigureVll-20. Gradeseparated

( A r t e r i a l sU r b a n )

547

546

AASHT}-Geomelrit.DesignofHighu'atsandStreets

and as intersections ramp at lighting such intermittent providing ,locations Lighting is recom(5) Guitle Roadv'ay TheAASHi'O'tiJ,,,,-riu,i"n J'or ian .,ini. information' lighting of as mended a source
BikewaYs for measures enhancing shouldbe givento possible consideration Appropriate b i c y c l e t r a v e l ' l f ' O t t i u f b i c y c l e f a c i l i t i e s a r e d e s i r ethe AASHTO n t o a d e q u a t e with d ' i n a d d i t i o Glide be stroutO in accordance be roadway width, their Jesign (2)' Chaptersll and IV also should f* Development;;i;;:;;i"citities consulted'

wiilhave operation an,:ffili: il:::lffit,'J,::ll'illl c a l l i n gf o r a c o m P r o m t

Location of Bus StoPs

versa' vice thus

will be location' thespecific of location busstops'.^."|p:S^t-:,j: routes transfer.potnts' The general or bus Uy unO intersecting Uy dicnted pu"onugt bedesignated lareely unott'tiign*uy should are Th-ese functions l;tl'"';';;nJt'' ConveniencJis consideration' a prime "f withthen"Jio' seruice' also ro conform to byconvenienceparronsbut i tocatlon iinutnttO notonly Thespecific the highway' of opt'utionalconsiderations tn"'o"t'i"it'-*J by the design

i'^..p,*r,.i.:,?:::T::':':',,:.1;*"S'**"*;!T.:'ffi :::*L"::t:rt'[J;
of employat are concentratedplaces bus longor where patrons locations exceptionally midblock *i''ou"O fromintersections' 'n"t or residence "" *"it ment alternate' maybe a moresuitable side ;;; ;; stops (approach) or the on be located thenear ut and stops int""tttiJ;';"t Bus situation' to anddisadvantageseach (exit)side'There#;;;;;d themost far made adetermination asto u".^u,iiilo r.p"r""rv "nd to shouro case as each to suchthings sen'ice given *it"'t""'ioti"'ion u"ing location' Far-side suitable in op"ration general' effici"ntyorttti'"';;;;;;;"t' "nitiurit patrons.

PublicTransitFacilities
traffic' there is for highwayst" :::"'t a:Itom:'bile Wherever there is a demand eliminationof t'uo'io'ottn y.itl"]1:::rotal likewise a demandfor public fixed-railtransitvehiclesfrom.,u.tu..,t,"etsandtheincreaseduseoffree-wheeled with otherhighway in.r.uringry compatible public transiris becoming buses, for provisions them in antJ ;;;;;;;;menti traffic' with properrecognition "f thedcsrgrrancloperationo|highwaystheycanbecomeevcnmorecompatiblein - ---the future' taxicab'and vehiclessuch as the minibus' Other high-volumcpassenger l i m o u s i n e n r u y r r t e r i t s e r i t l u , . o n . ' u . , n . i o n i n t h e o v e r a l l p l a n n i n g o fwithg l r - v o l u m c automobilea l r i it n''o" tti'itient than tn: l:l,ltt" arterial'J'he rransitVehicle rega'ut"'i'"titpaceoccupied.versuspassenger-canying'capactty' rvhenthe transit but affects il"tks trtffic in that lane bc p","ng"''tnoJing' tbr t*a"'ptt'.nol""rv of interferencc .le.sirabi';;;;it and othertbrms operrrioni;;;ll t;".. It is measures'

ilX1,1:TJ::::!"-:::;::"::":,X,:T ilT:',,:::fi

op' t1"-lJffi *' u ::":" J ;j ffiffi* *:Xi:'fi :[::[Tl"'J "'9

and the direcrion.(2) turnrng right tums' (3) t'o" :t"lf: l:::111' are heavy.O;r"."i,i,t, when the consiclerecl duringperiods '"""'t' i' *tatO fo' sto'ugt have as well t' stops curb lane. Far-side "in"' meetat theinterJection' and(4) signalis red. accidents' ";;;;;ts to reducepedestrian at also proven to be an #;;;t"sure bus stops'especially favor far-side tclrrait'n' generally Sight distanc" on.thethrough u t'ott ,n,.r*".rlnnJ.'l ?riu., upp-u.rring "'"tt stopsthe unsignarized with near-side 'nt''igr"' ts anv cansec lanes bus' Where the intersectton "tn;;i;;;;oaching'tiom by stopped may be Utcrctea a view to rhe right heads' the uie* of one of the signal the signalized. bus rn^'i[tu Aifficulty of vehicles Uu' *npt is tfre of near-sitie the Anotherdisadvantage around busto swing' Driversfrequentiy when iti'-i' loading' the makingturns rhebusas it lc'aves then " ii"t *iift ntht' t"tlitund way from right to turn right. *t''ittt lntt't'J"' is street one stop.This ai*"ttu"nt"gi"i"iirni"rrtttrl:.'Y"tt

-cu"v g'upo'"' r' the le Floweve vehic in traffic use:J]Tjl':.'-:l lll':,ffi ffii;l the samelanel and other vehicle

ing' destt" *9 tlilt].i-control minimi'"'i titougi t"" tut plann :bcconsidered thcdevelopmcnt in
traisitmust for thc Thercquirements public during Intimltiol sathered i*p'out*ti;';;;s;;;: highwav ano an urban of turns vefric-t11-lincluding on process the.'out'nf"of l'"n'it planning

( d u l sr i trrnre ponts)antheotu*" oilu" i i:'-1".i.:T'::.Tl:' operationr :ll:"i*:ili gn w il;;;;;. l'l . . ,hirgh. ,avpDesi( randl b f m a t t o n ::ilit;:'::H[TiT"ilJ' :. .^ L fh l'^r.'o inp in

llili;il: :l'l Hll::;L'i;":'il,[:', ;;:"";; ie'n".t L'i"''"' pcc s iiic.ai

g, in and sp,rc

ot ctrnsistsl.one-wav pattern rhe tefi where strcet ili:*1tj'lllli[;:-|]:i.,':il

crtlss in having \tops at itllcrnlte right to lcft.

i:i,'il :fil:".::i,:i :fi i::, I*ll lJli 5', il

Rural and Urban Arterials (Urban)

oneblockbefore at rum left,thebusstopshouldbe located least where buses the with this anangement bus must crossall traffic lanesto reach ttretur.n.Even under the.se rhe left lane for the turn. Midblock stopsare usedoccasionally is maneuver much more difficult' but circumstances, the bus onhighlyclevelopedarterialswithampterights.of.way.bustumouts'and stop.as to lanes,thereis a definitetraffic advantage the far-side speed-change lanes with speed-change canbe combined sho*n in Figurevll-2 I A. Suchstops on where the stop is located the near enteringthe arterial. tbr tuming vehicles of turningright fiom thethroughlanes the anerialcannotusethe side,vehicles would maneuvehicle, andinstead by lane deceleration whenoccupied a transit bus stop is locatedon the far side. ver aroundit on the through lanes.where the -.. - --traffie tuming right frorn the anerial doesso freely. The stopshouldbe situated tums onto so a shortdistancebeyondthe intersection that vehiclesmaking right area'and so laneas a maneuvering fhe arterialcan usea part ofthe acceleration busesare permittedto stop without blocking the crossstreet. that succeeding shouldbe locatedand anangedso that transferring Bus stopson crossstreets ofthe direction they wish ridersare not requiredto crossthe arterial,regardless to travel.FigureVII-2lA showssuchan arrangement' (Figure In another fbrm of bus stop for an arterial with frontage roads in the outer openings by leaveand returnto the arterial special VII-2lB), buses has This arrangement the ofand beyondthe intersection. in advance separation advantageofbusesstoppinginapositionwellremovedfromthethroughlanes. traffic to anJ from the arterialstreetmay also use thesespecial Right-turning openings.tlrerebyreducingcontlictsattheintersectionproper,Inirlternatc :arr,rngem.nts is of the slot in advance the intersection not provided.and buses proper. Bothslotsmay be eliminated at theintersection road to cross thefrontage because streets croSS successive between wherethe tiontageroadis continuous road and lanesat one intersection usethe frontage can leavethe through buses is This type of operation fitting where street. at to recnter the next intersecting bus stopsare widelYsPaced. ln stops overnear-side havean advantase stops. like tar-side lv{idtlockstops, antl tbr is intersection madeavailable storage rharrhetltl roadwry width at the Howevcr. as as and turningmaneuvers maintaining high a capacity prlcticable' whereparkingis permitted' on streets not midblockstopsarc generally suitable asmightbethecase0nsonleanerialsduringo|f-peakhours.Usua|Iy.a side of thc to to crclsswllkis necessary provideaccess bus stopsfrom either treffic' In tbr orherpedestrian crosswalk errtlto serveasan intcrnterliate arrcrial In pc'destrians. con.;uncto sat'eguard signalcontrolmay be necessary rhisca.se may be wananted. gredescparatiott

---------lh ur sto---r'f|J,
ilf
On A.ol.ntlon L|n.

O{r F od.Cf

Ro.at

to certain Vll'21. Bus stoPsat speciallocationsadiacent Figure arterials.

Rural and UrbonArterials(UrbQn)

BusTurnouts
and betweenbuses othertraffic can be considerably reducedby The interference providing stopsclear of the lanesfor throughtraffic. The foregoingdiscussion for on and Figure VII-21 have methods reducingsuch interference high-type arterials.It is somewhat rare that sufficient nght-of-way is available on the lower-typearterial streetsto permit turnoutsin the border area.but advantage should be taken of every opportunityto do so. For geometricdetails,see"Bus Tumouts" in ChaoterIV.

Reserved Bus Lanes Someimprovementin transitservicecan be realizedby excluding other traffic The success ofsuch a regulatorymeasure from the curb lane ofarterial streets. however,for the very practicalreasonthat is rather limited in most instances; vehiclesmaking right turns must occupy this lane, it is not feasibleto exclude them, even for a distanceup to a block or two in advanceof the tum. Vehicles preparing to turn right cannot be distinguished from through traffic, and with the regulation largelyon a voluntarybasis.Nevertheless, is compliance of thereare certaincombinations conditionsunderwhich a modestimproveor Theseconditionsare not always apparent ment, at least,can be achieved. conclusively thattherewill be overall deflnable, the only way to determine and in preliminaryinvestigation wherever benefitis to test the regulation practice jndicates likelihoodof success. wherein exclusive of thereserved laneby buses use Thereis onearrangement with very littlepolicing. This usage accomplished offsetting by is canbeensured the division line on a multilanestreetso that thereis only one lane in the one with the for directionof travel.which is reserved this exclusiveuseof buses. for remaininglanesbeing available the normal traffic to tlow in the opposite is direction. Ref'erence made to the current MUTCD (1) tbr directions for traffic in the two directionsof travel. marking the division line separating turthertlte tlexiblestanchions may be usedto accentuate Permanently installed VII-22 the divisionbetween bus laneandthe lanesfbr ordinarytratfic.Figures usedin this manner. The laneon the leti of are and VII-2-1 photographs a street Ls for is reserved busestravelingtowardthe viewer.The fbregoingarrangement sometirncs rettrred to as a "contra-flow" system.This system has shown busmovements trafllc conditions. underhigh-density in rdvantages tacilitating Rcservedbus lanesof the type.justdescribedmay be iustitied for rclirtively fcw busc's. Bccausethe canying capacityof a bus is many times that of a as can passcnger a small numberof buses servethesamenumberof people car, ttf passenqer cars. a larqenuntber

bus lane. F,;;r" vtt-22. Exclusive

bus Vll-23. Exclusive lane. Figure

552

553

The detailed discussion busfacilitiesis not intended indicate of to rhatother types mass of transitfacilitiesshouldnot be considered. moresophisticated The means,including fixed rail, presenr problemsas variedas the types.Therefore, this discussion concentrated the means has on thatmostaffectroadwaydesign. Othertypesrequirespecificstudies the type employed. for

REFERENCES I. Federal HighwayAdministration' of U. S. Department Transportation. D. Washington, C': U. S. Manual on UniformTraffic Control Devices. PrintingOffice, i988. Government Washington' of AASHTO. Guidefor Det'elopment BicvcleFat'ilities. D . C . : A A S H T O ,1 9 9 1 . "Union Committee UniformTraffic Laws andOrdinances. Narional form VehicleCode." "Model NationalCommitteeon Uniform Traffic Laws andOrdinances. Traffic Ordinance." AASHTO. Informarional Guidefor RoadwayLighting. Washington. D. C.: AASHTO, 1984. AASHTO. RoadsideDesign Guide. Washington,D' C.: AASHTO' 1989. The Stateof The Jens,S. N. "Design of Urban Highway Drainage' Office of Hi Art." FHWA -T S-79 -225.Federal ghwayAdministration, Division. Washington' Implementation and Development, Research D. C.: 1979. ResearchBoard.Highu'ay CapacitvManual. Special Transportation Board. Research D. No. 209. Washington, C.: Transportation Report

)
Traffic Control Measures Traffic control deviceson arterialstreets usually installedwith the intent of are favoring automobile traffic, with only secondaryconsiderationto transit vehicles.For express-bus operationthe control measures that are most favorable -ior one mode will generally be equally well suited for the other. Where local t:rvice is provided by buses, however, with frequent stops to pick up and chscharge passengers, signal system that provides for good progressive a movementof privately operated vehiclesmay actuallyresultin reverse progression for buses.The resulting slow travel speedfor busestends to discourage patronage, further adding to the alreadyheavy volume of automobiletraffic. Limited effort hasbeendevotedto development traffic controlsysrems of that $'ould be more favorableto bus servicewithout seriousadverse eff'ects other on traffic.This approach holdssomepromise improvingtravelspee6s buses of for andmakingpublictransit moreattractive. This result canbe achieved only at the expense reduced of travelspeedfor passenger cars,but in sonteinstances this solution may be themostbeneficial from theoverallpoint view. Development of ofa suitable signalsystem requires carefulinvestigation those possessing by the propertechnical skillsandshouldbea partof thearterial improvemenr program, involvingthejoint effbrtsof trafficspecialists, transit the industry, thedesign and team. Althoughthemajoremphasis rheapplication trafficcontrolmeasures in of is in minimizingdelay.thecontrolmeasures be usedto facilitate operation can bus in other respects. panicularlywherebusesturn from the arterialonto a cross street. Busesmaking right turns mav createa problem where the cros.s streetls narrow and the adjoining propeny is develope<l intensivelythat it is nor so p r u c t i c a b lr o p r o v i d ea c u r y eo t ' s u f i f i c i e n t l y n g r a d i u s . u * e st u r n i n gr i g h r e o B from the curb lanemay encroach beyondthe centerline the crossstreet. of Ar sirrnalizcd intersections, spacebeyondthe centerline the would normally bt occupied vehicles bv stopped rheredlight.Undersuch by conditions stoplinc the on thecross street shouldbe relocated providesutficient to soace therunr.and for rt nccessrry. auxiliarysignalheadshouldbe placedat therelocated an sroplinc
to obtlin cttmpliancc-

3.

5. 6. 7.

[ I

6.

r9 8 5 .
9. TransportationResearch Board. Roadu'av WidthsJ'ttr Low-TraJJ'ic D . l ' o l u n t eR o a t l sN C H R Pp r o j e c t l,5 - 1 2 .W a s h i n g t o n , . C . : T r a n s p o r Council,1993' Board,NationalResearch tationRe.search

J55

ChapterVIII

FREEWAYS
INTRODUCTION of The highestt,vpe arterialhighway is the freeway.which is definedas an with full controlof access' expresswav of or is Controlof access the conditionwherethe right of owners occupants a abuttingland to access highway is fully or partiallycontrolledby public authoriry.Full control of accessmeansthat the authority to control accessis connections to to exercised give preference throughtraffic by providing access at publicroadsonly and by prohibitingcrossings gradeor direct with selected privatedrivewayconnections. of of The principal advantages control of accessare the preservation the to safety highway and of thehighway,higherspeed, improved capacity as-built at users.Highways with fully controlledaccesshave gradeseparations all public crossroads. at or gradeseparations interchanges selected and railroacls or are crossroad-s interconnected terminated. The remaining at include medians.grade separations cross l'reewayelerncnts Essential to entrilnce andexit from the throughpavements. lbr rampconnections streets. roads. frontage cases) anci(in sonre for are Freervavs selected principalarterialcorridorsthat are intcndedto of andefficiencyin themovement highvolumes provitle highlcvclsrtf satety for of tral'fic;lt high sPceds. . c h a p t c r sl l . I I I . a n d I V c o v c r i n d e t a i l t h o s ed e s i g ne l e m e n t sc o n t r o l s . This cla.s'ses. applicable all highrvay to elements criteria.lnd cross-sectional t-eatures. selected emphasizes typesof freeways. the idcntifics variotts chapter typcs' lreewa-v" othcrdcsigndctailsuniqucto these tliscusscs ;.rrrtl

(; Fl:,iER'\IDESI(;NCONSIDERATIONS
DesignSpeed shtluldreflect of the ..\sa sc'nertlconsiticnttittn. designspeed urbanfrecrvavs s u r r n gn o n - p e o s t h r ' d e s i r e t l: t f c p c r a t i n u
h h i g h t h l r t i t c . r c r - . e dts c l i m i t s o f p r u d e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n . r i g h t - o f - w l v . l n t l I h s p c i p c c g n 6 r r r ic r t s t s c C l t u s c l a r g Cp r o p o n i o n o f v t ' h i c l c sa r e l C C O m m o { a t c ' t l c

AASHTO--Geontetric' Design of Highu,av.s and Streets

of rhe m a i n l i n e m a y a l s o b e r e l a t i v e l y : i t r a i g h a.n d t t h e c h a r a c t e a n d l o c a t i o no f r interchanges ay permit high-speed esign. m d u n d e r r h e s ec o n d i t i o n s ,a d e s i g ns p e e do f l r 0 k m / h i s d e s i r a b r e e c a u s e b thehigherdesrgn peeds re s a c l o s e l yr e r a t e do r h eo v e r a t q u a l i t ya n ds a f e t y t o f t h ef l c i r i t y . a d e s i g n p e e d s o f I l 0 k m / h s h o u r d e u s e df o r r u r a rf r e e w a y s . b w h e r e r e r r a i ns m o u n t a i n o u s , i a d e s i g n s p e e do f 1 0 0 k m / h o r g 0 k m / h , w h i c h is consistenwith driver r expectancy, may be used.

so.ad Iinritandroenforce speed during p."r,;;;i;'lir?"i;; the rimit orr urban freeways. particurarry indeveroping a a.rign areasr ,0..0 ,ooin..,) h o r h i g h e rc a n b e p r o v i d e dw i r h I i t t r ea d d i t i o n a r . o r t . } h . c o r r"t o r id

d u r i n gp e r i o d so f p e a kf l o w s w h e n r o w e rs p e e d s a r e n e c e s s a r y .h e d e s i g n T s p e e d h o u l dn o t b e l e s st h a ng 0 k m / h .W h e r e v e r s h i sm i n i m u m d e s i g n p e e d s are 1".."j1;_l:^r:p."_rl""j safety conside.rarions ro have a property posred

c o n d i t i o n sm a y n e c e s s i t a tte e u s e o f l e v e l - o f - s e r v i cD . I n r u r a l a r e a s , h e l e v e l - o f - s e r v i cB i s d e s i r a b l e o r t h r o u g ha n d a u x i r i a r yl a n e s ,a l t h o u g h e f level-of-service may be acceptable auxiliaryfacilitiescarryingunusually c on hish volumes.

Pavementand Shoulders Freeways should havea minimumof two through-traffic lanes foreachdirecrion of travel.Through-traffic lanes shouldbe 3.6 m wide.pavements shouldhavea high-type surfacewith adequateskid resistance and provide a high degreeof structuraladequacy. cross slopesshould rangebetween 1.5 and 2 percenton tangentsectionsconsistingof two lanesin each direction with a crown at the centerlineof the pavement.The higher value is recommended for areasof moderate rainfall. For areas heavyrainfall a crossslopeof 2.5 percent of may be necessary provide adequate to pavementdrainage.Appropriateratesof cross slopeare discussed chapter IV. For elevated in freewayson viaducts,two-lane pavements usually are slopedto clrainthe full width of the roadway.on wider facilities, particularly areas heavyrainfall,surface in of drainage may be two wayson each'traveled thecrown beinglocated thelaneline at one-third way, on orone-halfthe totalwidth from oneedge, snowareas, In surface drainage should betwo wayson eachtraveled way so thatsnowstored themedian in will notmelt anddrainacross traveled the way, or the medianshouldbe designed prevent to this occurrence. There.should conrinuous be pavedshouLjers borh rhe right and the lefr on s i d e so f a l l f r e e r v a ya c i l i r i e sT h e u s a b l e a v e cw i d t h o f t h e r i g h t s h o u l d e r f . p l s h o u l db e a t l e a s t . 0 r n a n d w h e r er r u c kt r a f f i ce x c e e d s - 5 0 D H V i t s h o u l d J 2 D pret'erably 3.6 nr. on tbur-lane freeways.the me<iian be shoulderor left s h o u l d eirs n o r m a l l y1 . 2 t o 2 . 4m w i d e .A t l e a s t1 . 2m s h o u l d ep a v e da n dt h e . b remainder shouldbe surthced somee:(tent. freeways six or morelanes. to on of t h e u s a b l ep a v e dw i d t h o f t h e m e d i a ns h o u l d e r h o u l da l s o b e 3 . 0 m a n d s pret'crably m rvhere truck traffic exceeds i.6 the 250 DDHV. Rampshoulder widthsareusuallyconstructed adjacent acceleration deceleration to and lanes w i t h t r a n s i r i o nrs t h ef r e e w a y h o u l d ew i d t ha t t h et a p e r n d . s . h o u l d ec r o s s o s r e S r slopcshouldrangcbetwecn and6 percent couldbc ar lea-st pcrccnt 2 und I more t h l n t h e p a v e m ! ' nc r o s ss l o p eo n r a n q e ns c c t i o n so f a c i l i t a t c r a i n a g cI.t i s t t t d d e s i r a b l t h l t t h c ' c o l oo r r c x t u r e f t h es h o u l d e rb c d i f t ' e r e n r o mt h a to n t h e e r o s f t h r o u g hl a n e s o n v i a d u c t sd i t t b r e n t i a t i o b e t w e c n r a v c ' l c d a v a n d s h o u l . . n t w depressions.

I I

i t

Design Traffic Volumes

General guidancetoward the serection appropriate of highwaydesignperiods and design traffic is provided in ChapterII. Both urban and rurar fieeways, especiallyon new rocation,are normalrydesigned to accommodate traffic projectionsfor a 20-yearperiod.Someelemenr, Jf,fr..ruoy reconstruction may be basedon a less.er designperiod.Specificcapacity,"qui..rn.n,, shoul. be determined from directionar design hourryvolumes t6oHvl tbr theappropriatc designperiod.In largemetroporitan areas, serection approprrate the of <.resign traffic and designperiodsmay be infruencecr by systempranning. Segnrenrs 'r. freewaysma-ybe constructed reconstructed or to Lre cornnensuratewith either intermediate traftrcdernands trafficbased thc co'plcte or on d systems, whichever may be nrostappropriate.

Levelsof Service Techniques and pr.cedureskrr acrjusting rperati.nar antrhighwrrvt.uct.rstrl compensate condirions tirr othcrthanidcaluretirundin rhelliql,rr d t.()u1tttt,tt.t, l v l a n u a l( H C i v { ) ( l ) . w h i c h a r . s o r e s e n t s p a r h o r o u q hd i s c u s s i o no t r h c l e v e l - o f - s e r v i c e n c e p tA l r h o u q h h o i c e f t h c co . c o designcr.eof scrvicc .scf.r l l i l t o t h eu s c 'o f t h eH C i v t( l ) . t l e s i g n e rs h . u r ds t r i v c r s t . p r o ' r d c r h ch i g h c . s c v c r lt o f . s e r v i c t ' e u s i b la n d c o n . s i s t c n ri t h l n t i c i p a t c ( r e e w c o n d i t i o n sR c t i . rr o T l b l c . I I - 5 t b r I e v e l - o t ' - s e r v ic h a r a c t c r i s t i cF o r ce s . a c c e p r a b ld c g r c c s . r . c . n g c s t r t l n . c t i c e w a y s n dt h e i r a u x i l i a r va c i l i r i e \ i e r , , , - ^ " m . r r n . . , . ..,. . . - . . . . : . . a f r andC-D roadsi' urbananddcvcroping area.s. shourd gencrailvbc dc.-signctl tilr l e v e l - o f - s c r v i c e ' l n h e a v i r y d e v c i o p c ds c c t i . n s c . f r n e r r o p , l i r a ,. r c a . \ ,

AASHTO-Ceometric Desi

and Streets

Freen'avs(Ceneral)

Curbs
Banier curbsshouldnot be usedon freeways, ifprovided in special but cases, the curb shouldnot be closerthan the outeredgeof shoulder. Mountable curbs,if used. shouldalsobe placed theouteredgeof shoulder. at Referto thediscussion on curb placement ChapterIV. rn

DesignSpeed(km/h)

80 Typeof Terrain
Level Rolling Mountainous
o
4 5 6

90
4 5 6

100
Grades (Vo)
a

ll0

120

Superelevation The full superelevation ratesusedon depressed, ground level, or embankment freewaysgenerallyarenot applicable elevated to freeways viaducts. on Appear-''---=--rnce and adjacent development somewhat limit the difference in elevation betweentheedgesof multilanepavements. Superelevation ratesof 6 to 8 percent are generally the maximum on viaducts.The lower value may be used where freezing and thawing are likely, becausebridge decks generallyfreezemore rapidly than other roadway sections. Combinations designspeedand curvaof turethatrequiresuperelevation ratesgreater thanthese valuesshouldbeavoided. Wherefreewaysareintermittentlyelevatedon viaducts, lowersuperelevation the rates should be used throughout to promote consistentlysafe operation. In developingareas, urbanandruraldesigncriteriamay beconsidered freeways. for Maximum superelevation ratesof 8 to l2 percentare applicablefor these facilitiesif snow and ice are not factors.

crades I 7csteeper than the value shown may be usedfor extremecases urbanareas in where developmentprecludesthe use of flatter gradesand for one-way downgrades exceptin mountainous tenain.

gradesfor urbanand ruralfreeways." TableVlll-l. Maximum

The clear width on bridgescarrying freewaytraffic shouldbe as wide as the approach roadwayas discussed ChapterX. On long bridges,someeconomy in in substructure costs maybegained buildinga single by structure rather thantwin parallel structures. suchcases, sameshoulder In the widthsareprovidedand a medianbarrier is carriedacrossthe bridge. Structures canying rampsshouldprovidea clear width equalto the ramp width andpavedshoulders. Clearwidthsfor structures carryingauxiliarylanes arediscussed ChapterX. in width andlateral The structure clearance highways streets of and overpassing or underpass thefreewayaredependent thefunctionalclassification the i ng on of highrvay stre!'t discussed Chapters VI, and VIL or as in V,

Grades Gradeson urban fieeways should be comparableto thoseon rural freewaysof the samedesignspeed. Steeper grades may be tolerated urbanareas, thc in but closerspacingof interchange facilitiesand the needfor tiequentchanges in speedmake it desirableto use flat gradeswhereverpossible.lvlaximumgradcs asa tunctionof design.speed typeof terrainaregiven in TableVIII- L Wherc and sustained upgrades required, needtbr climbinc lanes.as discussed are the in ChapterIII, shouldbe investigated.

Vertical Clearance .1.9 The vertical clearance structures t() passing overfieewavs shouldbe at least m overtheentireroadwaywidth,includingauxiliarylanes width andtheusable of shoulders. highly developed In urbanareas, whereattainment the 4.9 m of clearance wouldbe unreasonably costly,a minimumclearance .1.3 may bc of m uscdif thereis an alternate tieewaytacility with the minirnum.l.gm clearance (with lllowancefbr any futureresurtacing). Bccausc thcir lcsscrresistance impacts. venicalclearlnceto sign ol to the trusses pedestrian and overpasses shouldbe 5. I m. The venicalclearance from the deck to the cross bracins of h-trussstructures should also be a minimum f 5.l m. o An allowanceof l-50 mm should be added to all verticalclesrance.s ro ltccommotletc' futureresurtacig. n

Structures The designof bridges, culvens,walls,tunnels. otherstructures shouldbe in and prrncrpleso[ the curent Standard :ttur)ns (2). Itithu'avBridgr,.s Structures carryingfreeway trafficshouldprovidcan MSl 8 d c s i e nl o a d i n g .

560

AASHTO--Ceometric Design of Hig

561

Horizontal Clearanceto Obstructions Urbanfreewaysat groundlevelandrural freewaysshouldhaveclearzonewidths underhorizonas and with theiroperating speed sideslopes discussed consistent within the obstacles in IV. to tal clearance obstructions Chapter Non-traversable clear zone should be shielded by an appropriate barrier when the barrier less accidentseveritypotential.Fixed objects which cannot be represents by or relocated beyondthe clearzoneshouldbe made"breakaway" protected shouldbe locatedas nearto Bridge piersand abutments barriersor attenuators. the clear zoneedgeaspractical.Where the width of the medianis not twice that of the clear zone, shielding of median piers may be required dependingon -----median width and traffic volumes. freewaysin urban areashave more restrictiveright-of-way and Depressed wallsorbridgepierswithintheclearzone. retaining theplacementof may require Suchpiersandwalls shouldnot be locatedcloserthantheouteredgeof shoulder and preferably 0.6 m beyond. Retaining walls and pier crash walls should incorporatean integralconcretebarriershapeor they shouldbe offset from the underlateralclearances shoulderto permit shieldingwith a banier as discussed walls arelocatedbeyondthe clearzoneor arenot required, in ChapterX. Where should and back slopesshouldbe traversable fixed objectswithin the clearzcine shielded' design"or be ofa "breakaway barriers roadside will require on freeways embankments generally Elevated areabeyondthe toe of sloperemaining than l:3. or the are when slopes steeper The tops of retainingwalls used in -withinthe clear zone is not traversable. thantheoutcr no should located closer be sections with embankment conjunction or baniershape the andthe walls shouldincorporate concrete edgeof shoulder shielded. be appropriately

along urban refened to as the border. Becauseof the densedevelopment serviceand to to freeways,frontageroads are often necessary maintain local where the and leavingthe freeway. ramp traffic entering collectanddistribute are streets usuallyretained parallel the a freewayoccupies full bLock, adjacent IV' in which are discussed Chapter roads, as frontage drainage' sideslopes' for or The outerseparation borderprovides shoulders, The outer wallsandramps. retaining in urbanareas and fencing, access-control in mcasures sensitive abatement may alsoprovidefor noise or separation border is the most flexible elementof an urban Usually,the outer separation areas. be necessary freeway section.Adjustment in width of right-of-way' as may throughdevelopedareas'ordinarilyismadebyvaryingthewidthoftheouter separatlon. economior The outerseparation bordershouldbe aswide as canbe attained freewayand the adjacentarea'The cally to provide a buffer zone betweenthe limits wherepossibleto facilitate bordershouldextendbeyondthe construction also permit a high operationsand safety.wide outer separations maintenance standardoframpdesignbetweenthefreewayandthefrontageroad.Thetypical widthsmay is in range widthsof outerseparations 25 to 45 m, butmuchnarrower In rural cut sections. be usedin urbanareasif retainingwalls are employed. drainageiscaniedinasideditch.Theforeslope'backslope,andditchconfigulosecontroland drivers in area case recovery an provide aCceptable rationJhould tieeway ts run off the traveledway. Where the right-of-wayon a depressed instrfficienttoprovidefbraswale'thedrainageisusuallycaniedinagutter are Detailsof guttersectlons of along the outsideeclge the shoulder. sc,ction curbsin ChapterlV' uncler covered

URBAN FREEWAYS General Characteristics high traffic volumes'They rnav hlve of are []rban lreeways capable carr-ling ilre casL's thcrctrtorc only in unusual although lanes, from.l to l6 rhrough-tratfic direction' thln tbur throughlanesin one elevatcd'ground-level'or An urbln freew:rymay be either depressed' lbr conditions' as tlf combinations thesc. is appropriate

Ramps and Terminals for The designof rampsand connections all typesof freewaysis covercdin ChaoterX.

Borders, and Frontage Roads Outer Separations, The guter separationis the area between the traveled ways of 1 roadway for throughtrafhc and a frontageroador street.The borderis the areabetweenI alongthe road.Whcretherc way and theprivatedevelopment traveled adjacent functioningas frontageroads.thc arcl no frontageroadsor local streets are

and mtlre comtbrtable for the mtltorists.and theretbre ..\ rvidc scpilriltiotlis sal-cr Extrlt s r l r , ' r n , ' , l i : r l ( r n l l r h r l r tf r r ' c r v : t t ' s h t l t t l i l b c a s w i d e l r n t l l l a t l s t c l s i h l c ' r

AASHTOI;contetri( Desi,grt Hi,qhu'av.s Streets rf uncl

(Urhan) Freeu'uS's

563

r t t a ll m e d i a n v i d t ha l s oc a nb e u s e df o r m a s s r a n s io r t o p r o v i d e c l d i t i o n aa n e s f i i . i d d w m o r ec a p a c i t ys n e e d e dn t h ef u t u r eH o w e v e ri.n d e n s e l y e v e l o p ea r e a s i t h the right-of'-way, rvidthavailable a medianis usuallyrestricted. fbr expensive The minimum medianwidth lbr a fbur-laneurban freeway is 3.0 m. which and with provides two 1.2m shoulders a 0.6 m medianbarrier. tbr For f reeways ly s i x o r m o r el a n e st.h em i n i m u mw i d t hi s 6 . 6m . a n dp r e i ' e r a b 7 . 8m w h e nt r u c k 250 DDHV to accommodate wider rnedianshoulder. the For trafllc exoeeds w , b i r . m t h e s e i n i m u mr n e d i a n i d t h s a m e d i a n a r r i e rs a l w a y s e q u i r e dA d d i t i o n a l to sightdistance alongthe clearance may be required pror ideminimumstopping curves.The narrow meclians should median lane on relativelyshort-radius which is contrastin-u color in generally pavedfor thef ull width with a material be or texlure. tacilities of wanantedon urbanfreeways due to the closespacing interchange development the abuttinsstreet of network. and the extensive

and Walls Slopes Sideslopes a depressed of freewayaredesigned thesame in manner thosefor as 'anv cut slopes, except that restrictionin width is more likely to control. Foreslopes. usedbeyondthe shoulder. if shouldbe safelytraversable. w N o r m a l l yf o r e s l o p e s i l l n o r b e u s e db e y o n dr h es h o u l d e r n d e p r e s s e d o f r e e w a y s n d i n s u c h c a s e sb a c k s l o p e s h o u l dn o t b e s t e e p e r h a n l : 3 . I n a s t a , d e v e l o p e d r e a s s p a c em a y n o t b e a v a i l a b l ef o r d e s i r a b l e l o p e s , a r t i c u p s l a r l y w h e r e r a m p sa r e p r e s e n t , n d f u l l - o r p a r t i a l - h e i g hrre t a i n i n gw a l l s a m a y b e n e c e s s a r yV a r i o u s f o r m s o f r e t a i n i n gw a l l s a r e a p p r o p r i a t e o r . f d e p r e s s efd e e w a y sW a l l s m a y b e c o n s t r u c l e d f s o l i d m a s o n r y c o n c r e t e , r . o , p t s t o n e , r e c a s p a n e l s o r m e t a l .T y p e so f w a l l s i n c l u d ec a n t i l e v e r e d ,r i b o r , c b i n w a l l s ,r e i n f o r c e d a r t h ,o r s h e e tp i l i n g . W h e r er e t a i n i n g a l l s a r e u s e d e w i n c o m b i n a t i o nw i t h e a r t h s l o p e s ,r h e w a l l s m a y b e l o c a t e de i t h e r a t t h e r o a d w a y l e v e l a d j a c e n tt o t h e s h o u l d e r o r o n t h e o u t e r p o r t i o n o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n b o v et h e d e p r e s s e do a d w a y .R e t a i n i n gw a l l s a b o v et h e r o a d a r way aredesirablefrom the driver's viewpoint, because they providea more o p e nf e e l i n ga t t h e r o a d w a yl e v e l .T h i s a r r a n g e m e n tl s op r o v i d e s p a c e o r a s f t h e s t o r a g e f s n o w p l o w e d f r o m t h e f r e e w a yt r a v e l l a n e sa n d s h o u l d e r s . o H o w e v e r ,i t m a y b e m o r e a d v a n t a g e o ufs r t h e o v e r a l lp l a n i n i t s r e l a t i o n o t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g e i g h b o r h o o df t h e w a l l i s l o c a t e d t t h e r o a d w a yl e v e l n i a a n d a s l o p e i s l o c a t e do n t h e u p p e r p o r t i o n o f t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n .T h i . s a r r a n g e m e n te r m i t sp l a n t i n gt o b e u s e dm o r ee f f ' e c t i v e l yo r s c r e e n i n gh e p f t s u r r o u n d i n g r o p e r t i e s r o m t h e v e h i c u l a rt r a f f i c . I t a l s o p e r r n i t s a i n t e p f m n a n c e f t h es l o p e s o b e p e r f o r m e d o r es a t e l y .a n dt h ea b a t e m e no f n o i s e o t m t r n a v b e m o r e e f l ' e c t i v eB o t h d e s i g n ss h o u l db e e v a l u u t e do d e t c r m i n c . t r v h i c hi s b e t t e r o r t h c p a r t i c u l a s i t u a t i o n . r f w F u l l -o r p a r t i a l - h e i g h ta l l ss h o u l d o t b e I o c a t e d l o s e r h a nr h eo u t e re d g e n c t of shoulder and prettrably0.6 m beyond.Wherethe wall is located or near at t h es h o u l d ee d g e b r i d g e o l u m n s l,i g h t f i x t u r e sa n ds i g ns u p p o r t s h o u l d o r r . c . n protrude from thelowerportionof the wall andthecontour rhelowerportion of of the wall shouldhavethe "sat'ety shape"usedon concrete medianbarricrs as shorvn FigureX--5B. in Wheresuchan arransemenr used. base thc wtll is of the -1.5 shouldnot be placedfartherthan approximately m tiom rhe edgc of rhe t r a f f i cl a n et o m i n i m i z et h e a n g l eo f i m p a c r . Whercthetop of the rctaining wall is at rhelevelof a tionragc road.the tace of the parapct rlil shouldbe a normalshoulder or width or ar lcasr [.2 m and prc't'erably m tiom the edgeof the rraveled I .8 wav. Wherea rcraining wall is adjaccnt an auxiliarylaneor ramp.it shouldbepleced provide to ro nrtrmal ramp shoulder widthr S i g h td i s t a n cs h o u l d ec h c c k e d h e nd e s i g n i ns l o p c s n dr e t l i n i n g a l l s . c b w g a w On curvedalinerncnr. slopes. the walls. and othersidc. obslrucrions shouldbe

:
i I

Depressed Freeways A depressedfreeway nray occupy a full-block width and be parallel to the grid street systenr lbr rnost of its length. The freeway through roaclways are a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 . 9 r r rp l u s t h e c l e a r a n c ef b r s t r u c t u r a lc l e p t hb e k r w t h e s u r f i r c e 'of the acljacentstrcets.Thcy are ofte n tlanked on ()neor both sides by frontagc r o a d s a t t h c s t r c e t l e v e l . A l l i r n p o r t a n ts t r e c t sp a s so v c r t h e t h r o u g h r o a d r v a y s . O t h c r s t r c c t s a r e i n t c r c c p t c d h y ' t h e f ' r o n t a g er o a t l s r l r t c r r t t i t r u t c dl t t t h c r i g h t - o l - w l y l i n e. I n t c r c h a n g cr v i t h t h c s u r l l c e s t r c c t si s u s u a l l l ' u c c o r t t p l i s h c t l b v r l n r p s t l u t t c o n n c c t d i r c c t l r , ' r i t h t h c l i 1 ) n t l t c r o a t l s o r b v t l i u r t t o n di n t c r l c h a n g c s r v h c r c t h c r c u r c n o f r o n l a g c n l l r l s . H i g h c r t r p c s o f i n t c r c h i l l t g c st r c l r u s u r r l l p r o v i t l c t l a t t h c i n t cf s c ct i o n s o f ' c c r t u i r r n a . j oirr r l c r i a l s .l n t c r c h u n s c s r c y il tlisctrssctn Chlptcr X. arc Deprcsscrll'reervays tlcsintble in thut thcy rcducc'thc irrtpactsort lttl.iaccnt pcrtnit arc lessconspicuousthan grountl lcvcl or clcvatcd f)'ccrvavs. arcas.They surflrcc slrccts to cross at thcir norntal grade. and rcrlucc l'rccwltv tttli';c. llorvcvcr, thc udvuntagcs havc ttl lrc balanccd against thc incrcasctl cost tll W l s p r o v i t l i n g t i r r t l r a i n a g c . h i l c s r a v i t v d r l i n a g e t a c i l i t i e i r r cs o n r c t i n l c s c l s i b l c withttut inundating the trlvclcd wily, rl t() lcconlnlodate thc dcsign storm 1 l 1g p u r r r p i n g t a t i ( ) n n u y b c r c q u i r c t l .F t l r d c s i g ng u i d a n c co n p n 1 1 1 1 1 s t1 t i t l t t sr c t c r s r to tlrc r\r\SFITO ,lltxlcl l)ruitttt.qe,lld,tudl (3\. Structurcs pussinrlovcr thc dcpressedfrccwav lnd rctilining rvulls, locutctl ttr closc proxintity t() trilllic larres,should ttc tcnccd t() prcvcr)t tltc drtry1rttt{tlr t h n r w i n g o l ' o b i c c t s o n t o p i t s s i n uv c l r i c l c s .

565

stopping edgeto providethe required sufficientlyremovedfrom the pavement the fbr sishtdistance a vehiclein the traffic lanenearest obstruction.
n ' l l l

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a dar)t La,a ?':AJ

Typical Cross Section through urban and freewaysvary considerably Cross sectionsof depressed primarilyby the needto accommodate the areas. They are influenced suburban requirednumber of traffic lanes,but an importantfactor is availabilityof right-of-way, which dependson such factors as the type and value of urban topography,soil and drainageconditions,and the frequencyand development, required.The designof the crosssectionshould be liberal, of interchanges :-,.-,---iy+ of to but sometimesit is necessary compromiseon certain elementsbecause physicaland economiclimitationsto fit the crosssectionwithin a relatively cross narrow right-of-way. FiguresVIII- I through VIII-3 illustrate depressed for various conditions and the approximaterange of widths of the sections elements. cross-sectional nor to it In urbanareas is oftennot practical, is it necessary, maintaina uniform depressed freeways.Changesin street pattern,costly right-of-way width on variations in in are andcurvature the freewayalinement apt to cause buildings, widthsneceschanges right-of-way in right-of-waywidths.In someinstances, In section. suchcas^es, adjustment thehighwaycross in or sitate, makedesirable, among the variouscross-sectional a balancein width should be maintained widths of laneandshoulder In elements. theconstruction newfreewayfacilities. . -ar-not subject to adjustment.Adjustment may be feasible in the widths of within the must be accomplished medianand borders,but most adjustments w i d t h o f t h eo u t e rs e p a r a t i o n . a by crossstrects. continuous Where the freewayis brid-eed closelyspaced are crossroads full-depthsectionresults.In outlying areaswhere separated and economical adjustthe protile to to it widely spaced, usually is possible an the depth of cut betweenstructures. approachresulting in a decrease and ground-level-type tieewav. By so doing, thc combinationof depressed cln quantities reduced. sideslopes excavation are designof rampsis simplified, at be flatter,and wider marginalareas streetlevel may be providedrvithinthc the Generally, resultis a more ple;tsinttieeway. right-of-way. tieeways.Thc Figure VIII-l shows a typical cross sectiontbr depresscd 3.6 tbr in secrion FigureVIII- I provides a 3.0 to 6.6 m median. m traflic lanes. roadplusborder. The minimummedianwidth of 3.() antJl5 m tbr eachfrontage width is providedin whereatlditional initially.However. is section constructed of in the tbr construction. medianshouldbe widened multiplcs nredian stage the (widthof a traffic lane). thc Whererampsarenot rerluircd. unitrlrm-width 3.6m
^r'"c! | [ pLAf:rrrr vA rlR

freeways' FigureVlll-1. Typicalcross sectionlor depressed

within theavailable as to be should graded provideslopes flat aspossible section right-of-way.

RestrictedCrossSection to sections depressed thatenables FigureVIll-2A showsa typicalcrosssection without rampsbut that requires at locations with earthslopes be constructed in retainingwalls at ramps.The crosssections Figure vlll-2 includea l2 m Figure anda 3.0 to 6.6 m median. lanes. 3.6 tiontageroadplusborder, m traffic . within the sameright-of-rva1 developed ai a VIII-28 shorvs section the ramps.
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freeways. cross sectionsfor depressed Figurevlll-2. Restricted

I
AASHTO--GeometricDesign of Highways and Streets at suchas adjacent to Ygll_t-oy be located variouspointsin thecrosssection, adjacent the ramp shoulder at the top of slopes, to shoulder, or or the freeway variouscombinationsof theselocations.Somevariationsin wall ;urangements on may be necessary the left and right sidesof FigureVIII-2B.

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567

R,O,W.

R .O .w ,
FRONTAGE ROAO

R THROUCH OADVJAYS

Walled Cross Section Figure VIII-3 shows walled cross sections that are feasible for depressed freeways. The freewayis continuouslywalled,andtherampsareomitted.Figure VIII-3A showsa walledcrosssectionwith no overhang. funher consolidatedby an overhangingsectionwith part of the frontageroad width, asshownin FigureVIII-3B. While over thefreewayshoulder cantilevered a the value will vary dependingon the restrictionsand designselected, typical overhangdistancewill range tiom 3.0 to 4.2 m. This type of design may be wherelarge cannot instances buildings in orotherobstructions applicable special in of be avoided.A specialf'eature this designis its effectiveness containing from suchnoise. highway noisewithin the roadwayand shieldingabuttingareas they shouldbe crosssections shownareacceptable, Atthoughthe restricted of right-of-wayrvouidbe extremely usedonly wherethe purchase additional the is to costlyor wherethis typeofcross section needed preserve surrounding cnvironment. -A-

R THROUGH OAOY{AYS

-B-

Freerva.vs E,ramples Depressed of depressed tieewayin theclttwntorvn VIII--l is an aerialview of a six-lane Fi-eure systenl. The freewayfits in well with the existingstreet districtof a largecity. interchange the uppercenterof the photoin Thereis a tbur-leveldirectional portion (lower right). the lieeway has gruph.In the rnoredenselydeveloped walls and frontage roads.In thc centerof thc photogritph iull-heightretaining t i i s u f f i c i e nr i g h t - o f - w a ys a v a i l a b l eo u s es l o p e sn l i e u o f r e t a i n i n g ' " v u l l s . t oi arcrt fieervay a lully developed in residentiirl FigureVIII-5 i.sa depre.s.secl throughout. is to crossscctit'rtt a largecity. Right-of-way sufticient usea sloped The diagonalrampsare two laneswide exceptat the tiecway tcrnlinlls. Tlris arc storage theoff ramp.Highwayoverpasscs spltccd for provides configuration at tbur- or five-blockinlervals. depressed FigureVlll-6 is a tbur-lane t'reeway the downtowndisirictol-lt in Thc and are largccity.Thc shoulders ranrps a diff'erent colortiom themain lancs. and tc.\turcand color of thc.shouldL'r ramps.in conjunctionwith thc diffc'rent
, 1.. , ',-i,-;,,,, l-,'.r1..,,..,.r.,-i. r -l-1....,.,'rl. a ; 1 1 . .| ' . . ' , . - . , r . . ' . . . . . 1 i "' l. 'rri,'r

walls on depressed FigureVlll-3' Grosssectionswith retaining withoutramPs' freewaYs

of appearance the freewa-vcontainsplantingswhich can improve the aesthetic plantingshouldbe restricted andreducethe problemof headlilht glare.lvledian of salt spray enhance to locationswhere climatic conJitions and the absence pr*.,u*i""lwithaminimumofmaintenance.Unhealthyplantmateria|isntlr lttracrivelndperiodicmaintenanceactivitieswhichrequirevehiclestobe The bridge piers arc disrupr tratfic operations. f"rr..o along the barrier can cnclosedinsidetheconcretemedianbanier.Theattractivebridges,textured to all plantingon the earthslopes contribute lrn walls' and landscape retaining next to rhe roadwa-''. are tacility.No luminaires situated pleasing eesthetiJ.rlly 'Ihe wall andcantilevered on on thenght is io'tated topof theretaining luminaire rthemlinroadway.Thelocationoftheluminairesimprove.sthcsat.etymd tlf appeilrance the tiecwaY. t)ll streets surtacc tlankcdby nra'ior frccueyFiqureVlll-7 shtlwsa.lcpressetl t h c r i g h t s i d cl r c o strcct n o r t r cu i p e r l c r c l . T h c a u x i l i i r y l a n e s f t h e s u r h c c

AASHTO-Ceometri(

hn,ays and Streets

(Urban) Freev'ays

Fiorrrp Vlll-4

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freeway' FigureVlll-5. Depressed

AASt-tTO--Ceometric De.sig,n Highv'aysand Steet.s rf

(Urban) Freeu'ays

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Figure Vlll-6. Depressedfreeway.

freeway. FigureVlll-7. Depressed

572

AASHTO-Ceometric Desi

Hi hwa

Freeways(Urban) and Streets iVledians

s73

over the shoulderof the freeway. The cross srreets lartially cantilevered overpassthe freeway wjth level grarJes, thus facilitatingoperations the on slmaturesand at the adjacentintersections.

Elevated Freeways General Characteristics An elevated freewaymay beon eithera viaductor an embankment. continuous elevation of the freeway may be appropriatein level tenain where restricted

Wherethefreewayis on continuous viaductthemedianwidth will generally be the minimum necessary accommodate medianshoulders to the and a barrier. Wherethefreeway on embankment themedian is and widthis approximarely 9.0 m or less,to prevent vehicles fiom entering mediananddropping rhe down to a stream roadway or below,consideration shouldbe _eiven deckingthe median to Wherea medianbarrieris used. at intermittent structures. deckinsalsopermits continuityof the barrier.

Ramps and Terminals The designof rampsand connections all typesof freeways coveredin f,or is Chapter X, but some details and controls peculiar to elevatedsectionsare discussed herein. Freeways viaductsaregenerallylocatedin denselydeveloped on where areas propertyvaluesare high and spaceis limited. However,the variousforms of rampconnections, suchas loops,diagonal ramps,and semidirect connections. areas adaptable elevated as to treeways to depressed otherfreewaytypes. or Despite highcostof elevated the freeways, lengths speed-change the of lanes shouldnot be reduced. The lengthof acceleration dece'leration and lanes.should conformto therequirernents in discussed Chapter Longacceleration X. lancs are especially needed a because ramp leadineto an elevated structure usuallyon is a relativcly steep upgrade.Trucks require a considcrilblc distanceto galn highwayspeed. Goreareas exitsfrom an elcvated at structure havea highaccitlent potu-ntial. Thereappears be no practical to wav to dcsigntheparapet rtil at thcse tnd gorcs t h a tc o m p l e t e l y l i r n i n a t eh e p o s s i b i l i t y 'i b e i n gs t r u c kb y a n o u r - o l - c o n r r o l t e o vehicle. Therefore. designshouldprovidcas muchspace thegorerrca irs the in practical. only fbr recovery also to permitthe installation an intpact not but of attenuating devicc.

Severaltypesofstructuresare usedfor viaducrscarryingelevatedfreeways. The designof rhese viaductsis influencedby traffic requirements, right-of-way, topography,foundation conditions,characterof urban deveropment, requirementsfor interchange, availability materials, of and economicconsiderations. viaducts are perhapsthe most difficult of all freewaytypesto fit harmoniously into the environment. The supportingcolumns for viaductsare locatedto provide reasonrble clearance eachside and to leavemuch of the grouncl-level on areafree for other use. This designhasadvantages that( I ) practically cross in all streets be left can openwith little or no added expense, existingutilitiesthatcrossthe treeway (2) right-of-way are hardly disturbed, and (3) surfacetraffic on cros.s streets u.sually canbe maintainecl duringconstruction with few, if any.detours. The space uncler thestructure beusedfor surface-street can traffic,tbr parking, for a transitline. or Ifnot needed these for purposes, areaunderthe viaducthasa high potenrial the valueto thecommunityfor someform ofjoint <levelopment This-use u.se. may be any of a wide varietyof types. rangingfrom playgrounds major buildings. to conversely, disadvantages thedesign thehighcosts maintaining the of are of the structure and irs closeddrainage sysrern. susceptibility icing. difficulty in to obtaininga plca.sanr appearance. possibre and poticingof uncicveroped spacc beneath structure. the An elevated highwayon an eanhembankment mustbe of sufficientheightto permitintersecting surf'ace roads pas.s to uncler Freeways embankments it. on are tea.sible suburban in areas wherecrossing streets widely spaced are and where wide right-ot'-way and fill materialare available.Usually, an embankment scctron occurson a combination-type freewayin rolling terrainwhereexcavalt()n nlitlcnill Ir(|nl portrons usedfbrembankment. rs Wherc neccs.sary, thc tlll rnavhc confincd bv partial- full-height or wallson oneor borhsides. Thc sloped lrcus urcavailablc planting improvethc' firr to appearancc thefrce*ay. of

l'rontage Roads Ncw tiontagc roads adjacentto viaduct tieeways gencrllly arc not ncccssan because ltx'alstreet the networkis usually disturbed.'lhe not cxisring parallcl :rnd cross are streets usually adcquate provide to ltxal circulation uccess: and howevcr. roads bc needcdtbr use with embanknrcntfrecwavsto orttvidc rdequate localcirculationandaccess. Frontage nradsarc discusscd ChaptcrlV in whcrethcir general are t'eatures givenand thcirdesignvllucs arcdevelof^-d.

574

AASHTO--GeometricDesign of t{i.ghu,a,-.s Streets and

(Urban) Freeu'a,-s

575

C l e a r a n c e o t s u i l d i n gL i n e t The minimunrlateralclearance between freervay a viaductand adjacent build_ ing,smay bea significant cross-sectionar eremenr. Major facrors wherebuildings arecloseto the roadway_are working space (r,) formaintenance reparrs and of structure buildines.(2) spaceto preventsalt and warerspray or damage,(3) protecrive space a_eainst possible damage. (4t space fire and tbitajdersandother tire-fightingequipmentro reach upper floors of buildings from the srreet. Buildingoffsetsshouldbe sutTicient ensure ro a.requate sightdistance slgns io wherethe alinement curvilinear. is All of thesespace requirements rea.sonably satisfied a crearance are welr by of 4.5 to 6.0 m. Suchcrearance provides reasonable near-minimum a but space for maintenance, repair, construction. reconstruction buildings viaduct; or of and pree'tudes damagero rhe structurefrom a buitding fire or ro uuitaings from a vehicle fire; and permits radders and somefire-fighting equipmentto"beraised and used. without suchclearance, useof someiire-fighiing the equipment, such as that with mechanically raisedladders, would be tramperea. Some of these unitsmight be operable from the elevated freeway. Roadways directlyunderthestructure usuaily needed accommodation are tbr of surface traffic, but the elements theircrosssection not considered on are as controlswhereexistingright-of-waydetermines structure the section.

to as Initialconstruction and cost advantaseous havetheviaduct low asfeasible. affected thecostandease ofoperation ofvehiclesusingtherampsarefavorably Thesecombined factorsmay justify a rolling freewayprofile by low viaducts. whereit canbe developed gracefully; however, rollercoaster a effectshouldbe wouldprofilea clearance less Wherea viaduct avoided. of thanabout m from 3.0 theunderside thestructure theground,it wouldusually betterto alterthe of to be walls and fill unless underneath the could be designto provideretaining space parking. suchas off-street usedfor otherpurposes

Viaduct Freewa.vs Without Ramps

:
of FigureVIII-8 showstypical crosssections elevatedfreewayswithout ramps apply to all crosssections: on structures. followingassumptions The structure available is forsurface All space underthe streets orotheruse by the community. 2 . Lanewidth is 3.6 m. width is 0.6 m. Parapet /l T. width for four lanesis 3.0 m right and 1.2m left: for six and Shoulder width is 3.0 m right and leti. shoulder eight lanes, width is 3.0 m ior four lanes and6.6 m for six andeightlanes. 5. Ivledian e s e l 6 . M i n i m u mc l e a r a n cb e t w e e n t r u c t u r a n db u i l d i n g i n ei s 4 . 5 m . F o r b F i g u r eV I I I - 8 B ,t h em i n i m u mc l e a r a n cs h o u l d e 6 . 0 m . e l. roads beprovided outside ln FisureVIll-8A. theoverhangenables surtace to vehicular and the canbe used for thelinesof colunrns. theareabetween columns traffic,publictransit. parking. or Whereit is inrpractical obtainthe necessary right-of-waywidths,it miry be to rt structure oneof two levels. to t'easible conve thenormaltwo-way,one-level to in Thedouble-deck design FigureVIII-88 is nota commontype,but is adaptable particularlywheret'ewrampsarerequired. Double-<icck to narrowrights-of-rvay. of structures havethc disadvantagc long structuralrampsto make thc neccssary Doublc-deck change elevation in tiom the top roadwayto the localcity street.\. whcreit is not t'casible continuc tieeway the ls structures may beadaptable llso to of or Conversion structure becluse largebuildings fbr otherrelsons. a single-deck through such area.s bc thconlv solution. may todouble-deck construction contlned structures. as tiecwayis constructed two.one-wav on Sometimcs elevatcd an VIII-UCand VIII-8D. The structures may be separlted one by shownin Figures V V s F i g u r e I I I - l t C ,o r a s i n g l c - c o l u m n l.n t i l e v c r c d c c t i o nt.s i n F i c u r e I I I - 8 D . c strects othercontrols whichdcpcnds thcurrungemcnts undcrstructurc of lnd on

Typical Cross Section w i d t h s o f e l c v a t c c f i ' c c w u ys c c t i ' ' s ' a r ] . c . n s i d c r a b l , r , l as do widrhsol. ri-i-rt-ol'-rvay which they rnav be cle'elopcd.Fur cle'atcrl in frcewayson embankrnents. totallviclths the required aboutthesunre thosc are as t6rdepressed freervays. Elevated tieeways on structures rnay be cantilevercti ovcr side roadways side,'valks. sideroatlways sitiervalks or but or llso m.v becantirevered overdepresscd tieervlvs.one advantage ofelevated freervuvs viaductis that on thespace underthe structure may be usecl streets. tbr parking. othcrpurposcs. or Space r a dcprcssed ove frccwlrvrnavals. bc dc-voted thr.sc t. purp()scs. .nly bur ot con.sidcrabddirional \pcnsc. llc c Thediff'crcncc clcvatittn in betrveen lrlcalstrcct rhc rrntl elevatcd rhe l'recrvay, ! ' , . c e p ti n F i g u r e v l l l - l ' l B . i s a p p r o x i m u t c l v . 0 r n . T h c ' c r t i c a l 6 clcarancc between localstrect thc freewly bridgevaries the ilnd rvithrhelcqalreeuircmenrs of rhc variousstatcs.but usuallyranges tiorn -1.3 to.5.0nr. \!'icre a nrilroatiis 'vgs-p155cd usually a 6.6 m vertical clearanccis rcquired rvhich nrakcs it nccessarv hlrvethc tradclineclf the clevatetl ro ficeu.aveb0utli.-l rn abovcthc

AASHTO--Ceomerric r{ De.ri,gtr Hi,qhu,ats and Streets

( Freewavs Urhan)

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'l'llo-!Va1, Viaduct Freew:rys With Ramps
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Freeu'avs(Urbanl

e r i g h t - o f - w a y i d r hc a nv a r yc o n s i d e r a b l T . e m o s tf l e x i b l e l e m e nits w yh e t h e o u t e rs e p a r a t i o n . An elevated section structure greatflexibilitvin rieht-of-way on has arrangements.In tight locations whererampsare not provided. tiontageroadscan the be curvedin undera cantilevered sectionof the structure. shown in Figure as V I I I - 9 8 . A t t h e s e o c a t i o n s . em i n i m u mb u i l d i n g - l i nc l e a r a n cm a y p r o v i d e l th e e sufficientspacefbr the frontage roads. Whereit is not necessary narrowtheright-of-way to width betbre andbeyond ramps, is possible obtainliberal it to clearance between structure buil<Jing rhe and line. As a result,theremay be space a greenbelr.srrip, for parkingspace olTthe frontageroad, or a wider borderand the frontageroacl.

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Freeways on Earth Embankment Elevated f'reeways embankments suftlcient on of heightto permitsurface cross streetsto pass under them are fitting where the rerrain is rolling and the right-of-wayis sufficientlywide for slopes thatcan be pleasingly landscaped. FigureVIII- l0 showstypicalandrestricted sections. left halves cross The of thesections illustrate outerseparations without ramps withinthesame righr-ot'-way width. The difl'erence elevationbetween liontageroad and the rhrough in the roadrvay approximately m. The section is 6.0 provicles medianwiclths fbr ol'3.0 t o 6 . 6 m . l a n ew i d t h so f 3 . 6 r n ,a n dr i g h ts h o u l c l e r i d t h so f - 1 . 0 r . w n T h c o u t e r s e p a r a t i o n a yp e r n r itth eu s t ' o fe a r t hs l o p c s t l o c a t i o n w i t h o u r nr a s '"valls ranrps. ralnps'but it requires rctaining at Enrbanknrent slopes ercatcrthan - ' I3 will gencrallyrequirea roadsidc barrier.Bv ornission frontage oi roacls ancl u s co f w a l l c ds c c t i o n sw i d t h sr n a vb c r e d u c e do v a l u e s p p r o a c h i ntth o s cl i l r , t a e l c v a t c d t r t l c t u r eo n v i a d u c t sS p c c i ar v a l lt r c a t r n c n tr p l a n t i n g r f t r e e s n 6 s s . l o t a .shrubs may hc'nccL's.sitry m;rkc' rctainingwallsac-.sthctically to the plca.sing.

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AASHTO--CeomatricDe.si,qn Highu,av-s of ancl Streets

Freeways(Urban)

Figure Vlll-12. Viaduct freeway.

AASHTO--GeomctricDc.sign Hi,qhu,ays of ancl Streets

(Urbun) Freev'a;-s

FigureVIII- I 3 shows two-rever a viaductfreeway a densery in deveroped area of a largecity. continuou.s frontage roadsare not providedarongthis ir."*oy segment. The freewayis constructed a minimum amountof right-of-way. on FigurevIII- l4 showS eight-rane an embankment freewaypurringthrough a residential areaof a largecity. The shoulders, medians, and rampscontrast in color from the main lanes. The interchange the left centerof the photograph in consists rampsotfsetfrom the crossstreet, of sometimes calledlateralramps. The useof offset lateralrampssaves right-of-wayat themajor crossstreet the and movestherampconnections awayf rom thc majordirectional interchange partly shownat theupperleft of thephorograph. offset ramps, however, be subiect can

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FigureVlll-13. Two-levelviaduct freeway. FigureVlll-14. Freewayon embankment.

AASHTO--{}eometri(. Design of Highways

and Sffeets

Freeu'ays(Urban)

i:#::1;::lJil:ff.n's

on theexitramps when connecredrwo-way to

Figure vtr-r5 showsan embankment freewayconstructed with minimum -arth slopesin a predominantry residentiar of a rarge area city. Access uiu.urp, on frontage roadsis notprovided thisfreeway on segment minimizedisruption to to the neighborhood. Figure vrII-r6 is a view of the underside of a singre-structure viaduct freewav' The smooth Iines of rhe underside or ,n. viaductare aestheticary pleasin-e' The tapered piers'as we, as the naturar vegetation the roadside. at contribute the appearance. thetime to At of thephotograph, construction still is beingcompleted. Figure vtr- r 7 is a side view of an entrance ramp to an elevated freeway.The ,1p:"d piers, smooth ofrhe rines strucrure .. ..-btend in llll'-l.l...Jl!qlantine, ::::':: well with the adjacent,esidential and d.".1;;;;;;

Ground-Level Freeways
General Characteristics Many tieeways have substantiar 'engthsthat are constructed essentia,yat ground ,ever'This designis often used in flat terrainand arongrairroads and watercourses' Ground-level fieeways alsosuitable suburban are in areas where cross streets widcryspaced. majorfeature are A is thatof profire.t ung. on .".t',

n-* rn lny | | lq ly o :i.;x":f :: :i:: : r: :.: rural"::',i., Substanriar of thc characlcristic.s :: :.1rieeways. of lengths of g.oun.t-l.u"t Fc'c-ways gencrall.v arc not.f'easible t"auity-O.veloped in areasbecause the P r r r l ' i l c s . l ' c r , s s r . ac . n r t l t b ea r t c r e w i t h o u s e v e r em p a c t rls d t -l'hc i o n t h ec o m m u n i t y . pr.filc changesof cross streetsare further discussedin the section "Conrbination-Type Freeways.. this chapter. in \vherc the sr'und-reverfrec'wuy tbtows the grid of the city. it is usualry tle'sirrblc providecont!nuous to one-wevfiontageroadsto seryeas a mean.s of connectionfirr strcctstrrat are not canied across.However, there wi, bc srtuutrorls rvhcrctwo-wa-v trontage roadsmav be the onry meansto rnaintain .cal scrvicc'c:vcn thoughthevlre ress desiralrethanone-wavfiontageroad.s. crrlund-lcvcrt'rccw'ai-s usuailr,are empr.vedin theoutryingsections mcrro_ of p . l i t a n a r c a s h c r er i g h t - o f - w a y. w i n o t a se x p e n . s i v e i t i s i n t h ed o w n r o w n as arcus' u rcsurt' variabrc itrtheremenrs the u of medians, "\s outersepararions, and brlrdc'rs rvidcned increasc saf-cty rrrc kl thc lnd appearance ot.thefieew.v.

thefree rhese way, way. free

FigureVlll-15. Freewayon embankment.

AASHTO--CeometricDesign of Highw,avs and Srreets

Freewav's(Urban)

T1'picalCrossSection fl s V F i g u r e s I I I - 1 8 a n d V I I I - 1 9 s h o wt y p i c a ls e c t i o n f o r g r o u n d - l e v e r e e w a y s r.',ithout frontageroads.Where only four or six lanesare provided with and widthasproposed right-of-wa.v to initialll'.it may'bedesirable providethe.same the In thesesituations medianshouldbe construction. for six- and eight-lane lanes. of of widened multiptes 3.6 m in anticipation a needfor theadditional b-u. o f a d d i t i o n al a n e s T h e c o s t w o u l d b e t T h i s s r e ps i m p l i f i e s h e i n s t a l l a t i o n t r n o m i n l l .a n d t h e r ew o u l db e a m i n i m u mo f d i s r u p t i o no t r a f f c . freeways. for ground-level Figure VIll-18 shows typical cross sections V r o a d sa n dF i g u r e I I I - l 8 B , w V s F i g u r e l l l - l 8 A i l l u s t r a t ea s e c t i o n i t h f r o n t a g e right-of-way is shows a section without frontageroads.Where additional and bordersshould be widenedto provide available.the outer separations from thesulroundthe green beltsandto insulate freeway pleasing aestheticallv are ing area.In areaswhere ramp connections made to the fiontageroads.the to for shouldbe increased allow space liberaldesign width ofouter separations of the rampand ramp terminals. to is andthe width of cross.section sutTicient Wheretill materialis available in an slopes, earthbermmaybedesirable thenledian. lraversable sately construct or outer separation. border.The earth berm shieldsthe freewayfrom view. glare. and minimizesheadlight areas. hiehri'aynoisesin the adjacent lessens to provisionsntust be made tor drainage ensurethat water is not i\<iequate area. nondcdon thc shoul(ler

FigureVlll-16. Underside viewof viaductfreeway.

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freeways. FigureVlll-18. Typicalcross sectionsfor ground-level

AASHTHeometric

Design of Highwaysand Streets Freewa (UrbanS

B A R R I E RW I T H GLARE FENCE___r

THROUGH ROADWAYS FRONTACE ROAD

g o F i g u r eV I I I - 2 0 i s a n e x a m p l e f a s i x - l a n e r o u n d - l e v eflr e e w a yw i t h o u t roadson restricted right-of-way.The narrowmedianconsists two frontage of and a concretebarrier.The barier hasbeenwidened 3.0 m pavedshoulders lisht fixtures which illuminate both roadto accommodate double-masted ways.

Combination-TypeFreeways
WITH TWO-WAY RONTACE OAD F R

-A-

General Characteristics urbanfreewaysare, in part, depressed, elevated, and at ground In many cases, level.The variationsand combinations thesetypesaretreatedin this section. of in free and Combination-type waysresultfrom variations profileorcrosssection, the following discussionis grouped on the basis of these two controlling conditions.

E A R RE R M A Y 8 E R E O UB E D I I
R.

R . O .W . THROUGH OADWAYS R

Profile Control freeway Rolling terrain. The typicalplanandprofileof a combination-type in rollingterrain shownin FigureVIII-21. Theprofileis developed thebest are to some crossstreets and overpassing others.The by advantage underpassing generally although shortlengths it facilityis neither depressed elevated, nor tbr for or highways. the embodies designprinciples fully depressed t'ullyelevated at at on For instance, A andC the tacility is depressed, B it is elevatcd an earth it a and embankment. at eachend of the illustration approaches ground-level section. is section with a narrowmedian. Between andC theroadway of tlxedcross A by necessitated lateralrestrictionsand cost of earthwork.Near eachend of the section variedto fit cross are tenainand illustration, protileandcross the sloping with an independently designed and profile tbr lessrigid controls. centerline thc each one-wayroadway.This generaltype of design.which approaches shouldbe considered rolling terrainrvhcrevcr in of character a rural treeway. right-of-way available. is freewayin llat tcrrain is Flat terrain. A variationof a combination-type grlde separltion strucin illustrated diagrammatically FigureVIII-ll. Betwcen tures.the highwav protile closely follows the existingground.The freewav by to important street.s rollingthegradcline therequired hcight overpasses cross su irsrhle. cross streets are crfTl strccls.or frecwayas lt A

WI T H O U T F R O N T A G E O A D R

-BFigurevlll-19. Restricted crosssectionsforground-level freeways.

RestrictedCross Section Figurevlll-I9 illustrates restricted crosssecti()ns ground-levcl filr tiecways. Specifically. FigureVIII-l94 showsa restricted crosssecti()n rvith a twr_rvay frontage roadwhile FigurcVIII- l98 showsthe restncrL,d crosssection withour trontageroads. with restrictedcross sections,both the median and ourcr separation should be paved.on thesenarrow medians.a nredianbarrier is required. wirh two-way riontageroads.it is also dcsirablc providca barricr to in theouterscparation placeof an access in preterably. barricr controlt'ence. thc shouldbe located clclse the frontage to roadio allow e.\trarccgverysDace out.srtJc

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AASHTO--4;eometri(Design of Highways and Streets

(Urhan) Freen'ov.s

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w or d e s i g n i t s f l a t t e r r a i n h e r es o i l a n ds r o u n d$ ' a t e r c o n d i t i o n s h c a v r f p t c tu on u n d e r g r o u nu t i l i t i e s r e c l u d e l c p r e s s i n h c f r e c w a Vo a n \ f d concentratio ! g r o u n do r w h e r e o n l i n u o uv i a d u cc ( ) n s l r u c t l o n , c s t s r e a e x t e n b e l o wt h ee x i . s t i n g t permitsplrallel or The arrangement objectionable. is too costly or otherwise Wherc several diagonalrampsto be providedbetweenthe gradeseparation\. at i a c s u c c e s s i v eo s s t r e e ta r eo v e r p a s s e d c l o s e n t e r v a l s .r o l l e r o a s t ctrr p eo i cr s s pa v s p r o f i l er e s u l t sw h i c h i s o b j e c t i o n a b l e , r t i c u l a r l w h e r et h e h i r : h r v a i1 t r n ; . i . o r r t a n g e n lO n c u r v i l i n e a h i g h w a y st.h e o b j e c t i o n t ' a r t l l l c rc o a s t e p r o f i l ei s . see driverscannot lnorethanorteor t\!o gri.ide lo alleviated someextentbecause r t i t s e p a r a t i o n s e a dI.n a d d i t i o n o p o o ra p p e a r a n c e s u l t i n g' r o n v i s u l l d i s l o r ah w c g of t i o n .a s u c c e s s i o n s u c hh i g ha n dl o w p o i n t s a nb c d i s t u r b i n t o d r i v c r s h e n ahead.A moving vehiclelhead can they see two or more gradeseparations again. The profile should be into theseblind dips and reappear disappear sight distance. designed eliminatedips that would limit the recommended to a in Cautionshouldalsobe exercised designing rolling profilegradeto ensure Wheretrucktrirffic to vertical sightdistance exit rampsis obtained. thatadequate queuirttat to 2 are of is heavy,grades approximately percent desirablc prL'vcnt the base ofgradechanges. * on overa crossstreet an earthentbankntcnt ith The freervay may be carried (as gradeseparation structure at B of Figurc Vlll-12) or ()tl i.l a conventional o l l e r e l a t i v e l l ' l o ns t r u c t u r( a sa t C ) . A v a i l a b i l i t y l ' l ' i l lm a t c r i aa r r ts o i l c o n d i t i o n : g t h s r v o u l d o n t r o l . c p r e s s i ntg c c r o s s i n g t r e e t s c v e r l l f c c t b c l r l r v h c g r o u n t l D c grade sevcral f cct abovc tltc grtlurttllcrcl unclraisinq thc f'recrvay surfacc u c b c t w c c n c p a m t i o n s, i l ln r i n i r n i z t h co v e r a l lr i s ci t n t lt l l l u n r ln l t k c t l t cr o l l i r t g s h l p r o n o u n c c d'.h c p r o fi l c r n a yt r c f i r r t h c r r t t p r o r c t l r n t i s i t t ls o n t c l p r o fi l c l c s s ( ) \ ' c r p i r s h e l ' r c e w a rM i n i n r u r rg t t v c ' r n i ntgi s t u r t c c is r g r u r l e s l r r l t '. t c r ( ) s s t r c c t s( ) X n s c p a r a t i otnc s i r na r ct l i s c u s s cid C h l p t e ' r . l

'fhis

(-'ross-Section Control -l'hc highconsidcrctl corrtbittutit)n-tvpc as in cx;.rnrples FigureVIll-2.1also;.tre sltciltl tln inllucncc tlcsillnis tltcero.s\cctl()n.l'ltcse uuvs.['rut hcrcthc prirnlrrv s t t r a t l c s i g r rL t s u l l l r p p l vt o r c l l l t i v c l v h t l nl c n g t h s( )t t t c c \ p c c t l i c { ) l l r l t t i ( ) t ) \ . s r t r F i g u r c ' \ ' l l l - 1 . i . 'i\l l t r s t r a t ca t i e s i r r n, " h c r ct t t cr o l t t l r r l t ( r l l h c l . l ' c d \ \ l lt\\ s q i In c ; r l r r l vlc n t lt h co t h c rb c l o r v x i s t i n g r < l u n d . c f l c c t .i t i s r to t t c - r r l l r l e ; r r c s s c t l r s t I r | r tllr r r n c - r r l rc l c r t r t c dl r c i l i t y c p l l n l t c i(rl rc l c l u t i o nt ( )I r c n r l ttti l cer ( ) \ \\ t r c c t \ r o ts t ( )p l . \ st h r o u g h n t h c i n t e r n r c d i l r ( c u r t l c c ) l c v c l .l ' l r i s : t r r : t l t ! c | t t ct|tltlr t rh e : i u ivi l p p r o p r i l t c h c r ct h cr i g h t - o i - w a . s n o t s u t ' l ' i c i c n t*l ri't l cl t r rc i t l t c r l I \ r( ) - \ \ l \
\ r r r j i r c r u r ct h o r c t h c g r t t u t t d r r o u l t l b c t r h j c c t i t r r t r t b l c\ i t l c r r i u . h r i - t i l - r i r l r. r r c r rcquircrl rr hcre r;lrupsltrc providcd.

+
o

.9
]l.

hu' s H7' AAS O-_{) e()meI r i ( D csi g rt of H i,q a.v and Str eet.t

(Urban) Freeu'ttv-s

595

i tHF.ti)aH F.JADil L I

I
I

FR,_rjiA._,E
i rll'.lf - ilA i t-aa

I I i

-Yl
i HFr-lljtl il

i n ,-l't,i ,1 -1L
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tl

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c ll , d e lw a o n e - l e v e t . o - w a y e c ks t r u c t u ro r a o n e - l e vle t w o - w a y u t - a n d - f i S e c t l o n o o s d T r e r a i n eb y w a l l s . h ed e s i g n e l e c t e w o u l dd e p e n d n t h es l o p e f t h eg r o u n d ' d at and soil conditions. right-oi-waywidth.Difficulty may be encountered cross usually of grades. areas suchtopo-eraphy but that streets arelikely to havesteep havefew crossstreets. of freewayconsisting one through of Anothervariation a combination-type is structure shownin Figure levelandtheotheron anelevated at roadway surthce VIII-23C. This designmay apply along a waterfiontor a railroadwherethe Accessto and right-of-wayis relativelynarrowand thereare no crossstreets. at the one-waythroughpavement surfacelevel on the rig|t is provided from that crossthe frontagestreetat the leti. Accessto and tiom the at <iirectly streets roadon the rampsoverpassing frontage by is roadway provided lateral elevated the left.

:
I

.
I
I

R'- ADWAi

r o | ] [ - w A Y )i

_A

TH R O U C H ROA WA D Y (ONEWAY ) THROUGH Y ROADWA ( O N E . W A)Y OR R. R. r)TH[R U. r].w. CONIROL

-tL--'-,--' -ll-

Examplesof Combination-TypeFreeways freewayin a densely combination-type Figure VIII-24 shows an eight-lane, changes profilesmoothly The freeway area residential of a largecity. developed system. profile blendswith the localstreet so from fill to cut sections that the a freewavthrough clevelcombination-type FigureVIII-25 showsa six-lane, Vertical and horizontal oping suburbanarea (freeway not open to traffic). in At are alinemcnts of high stanclards. the interchange thc lowcr center of thc strcetat sroundlevel.Tltc the photograph, freewayprofilc rolls over the cross w a il Th a n l n l p s r el i b e r . r l l l ' d e s i g n c d .c c n t r a n c e n dc x i t r a n ) p s r ct w ( )l a n e s i r l cl t t irnprovcoperatlnll to the crossstrer-t provide tbr additionalcapacityand lo conditions. FigureVill-26 showsa six-lanetieewavrvithina verYnilrrowright-of-rvltl structurc areaof a largecity. The four-levelccntilever developed in a densely c d i p r o v i d e d s s i m i l a rt o F i g u r eV I I I - 2 - l B .T h e . s e c o na n d t h i r d l e v e l s a r r yt h c which directionalroadwavsof the ticewal'. The top level is a promenade, trafficnrlisc. lnd shields the cnhances vulucof thcadjlccntlpilrtnlcntbuildings 1'hcgroundlevcl scrvcslttcaltraffic.

--- B .'-_

_C

Figure

freeway. Crosssectioncontrolcombination-type

Designs SpecialFreewa.vRoadways Reverse-Florv

l : t l h c c a u s co l ' c r t r c t n c l v s t c c t r q r t l t r t t r t t t i { h l tirr icrrt a.\li lilrsilrlc.lt'rcation u scctitln ot'frccwlv. .\ spccill tlcsign w ith ptrtly i c l c v t r t c t ll r r t l p u r t l v u l r l l c t l s c c t i ( ) n s l t s t l g g c r c ( l l c r . c l s c l t t l l r c c t t t p l t l l c t l . ; t s , h p r v r r i r i t r i q r r r c V l l l - l . l\l r l r r i c t r o l ' r r t h c r r l c s i g n s n l i \ ; t l s t r l r c r r s c t l . i r t c l t r r l i t r t l.

Specialcondtttonsnlay suggestthe usc o[ 1lrcverse-

y i|.l

i i br J t l r c c r v a vl c s i r l nr.rh i c hi s u s u t r l l y c c ( ) l n p l i s h c ( l p l ; r en g r r\c pilriltc r c v c r sb l t '1il \ l i . \ Thcrc ltrc l r u i t l r i n h cn t t r n t t t l t n c t l i al nc : ti.l \ s h o w titt t [ : i q t r r c t ro:rtlrtltv

)vo

AASHTOlie0nrctri(

vs (Urhan)
.it.q/l /

597

roadReverse-flow roadways' of and advantages disadvantages reverse-flow but for operation motorists. theyma'"for waysprovidean opportunity smoother of numbers points of time because thelimitecl .opoiiiy muchof the t aueunusea for and maintenance, operation a freewav The of access. costsof construction. withareverse.flowroadwayalsomaydifferconsiderablyfromthoseofa roadwayshouldbe considered reverse-t'low a freeway. separate conventional unbalpeakhoursis substantially during disiribution when6) rhe directional volumesrequirea conventional anced(e.g..a 65:35 percentsplit) and traffic and right-of-way facility riore than .igt,t tuntt wide' t2) design controls

freeway. FioureVlll-24. Combination-tvpe

freeway' Vllt-25. Combination-type Figure

AASH'f O--C eo nt et ri c D e.sg tt i

H i,qhn'avs nd St reet.s a

Freeways(Urban)

limitationsaresuchthatprovidingtwoormoreparallelfacilitiesonseparate rights-of-wayisnotfeasible,and(3)asizableportionoftrafficinthepredominantdirectiondu;ingpeakhoursisdestinedforanareabetweenthecentral and the outlying development portionof thecity or anothrareaof concentrated between a long distance ofpeak-hourtraffic travels -and area;i.e.,a largepercentage needfor intermediate with little or no destinarion prlncipotpoinl of origin interchange. Insomelargemetropolitanareas,demandmaybesufficientlygreattojustify other high-occupancy rhe useof a reversibleroadwayexclusivelyfor busesor vehicles. freeway is not The right-of-way width required for a reverse-flow-type freewayservingan greatlydiiferent from that requiredfor a conventional-type shownin Figurevlll-27B, Jquioul"ntt uffic volume.In fact,wirh thedimensions theright.of-wayrequiredforathree-two.threereversiblefreewayisthesameas witha-r-.2mmedian.The cross that rlquired for a conventionall0-lane freeway on full right and left shoulders the reverse-flow sectionin Figure vlll-l'tBuses traffic in different directionsat different it roadway because canies one-way times. to provide a separate In the central businessdistrict, it may be desirable roadwayon radial freeways' thereversible collectionanddistributionsystemfor throughtrafficandfreeway-freeway wouldserve roadways Thenormaldirectional

r 'r. )i t t n P t ' i N81lr:NC :klt | .r'

--,)Rl .rN[i .it ,aRS I BLi 'clt, li

ll)Rq LANS t'lJ.q9-tr,!-0

C R O S SS E C i I O N A T U N O E R P A S S

1, {)m
; < -

1. {l,n

|,]e 5 'I,oml

ri
-.:::r:=-#J N L ] R M A L i E . ' I O N ) F R E V E R SI 8 L --B NOADWAY

FigureVlll-26. Four-level cantilevered freeway.

FigureV||l.2T.Typicalcrosssectionsforreverse.||owoperation.

AASHTOlieometric' De.sign Highu,ay-s of and Streets

Freeways(Urban)

i n t e r c h a n g eo n l y t h er e v e r s i b lr o a d w a y o u l dc o n n e cd i r e c t l y o t h ed o w n _ s. e w t t t o w ns t r e e t s . h i s a n a n g e m e n t o u l de n h a n c eh e u s e f u l n e s sf t h e r e v e r s i b l e T w t o roadwaylirr express bus operation. Entrance exit rampson thereverse-flow and roadway shouldbe well spaced. and the enteringtrafflc volume should be balancedwirh roadwa-v .opo.ity. where rhere majorconnecrors, design are the shourd providefbr rampsgoing io and from the reverse-frow roadwayand separated grade from the outer in freewayroadways. cases date, In to veryfew intermediate crossover connections (slip ramps) betweenthe inner roadway and the outer roadway have been provided. Suchconnections entailsubstantial widthandlengthfbrproperdesign, usuallyin areas whereneeded space not available. is Furthermore, resultant the weavesand lefi-side exits or entrances are operationallyundesirable a on

along one leg of the fork. This lanesshouldbe extended used,the reversible lanesto the from the reversible access weavingbut denies designeliminates the with trafficdesires. compatible is otherleg.Wheresuchan arrangement not the and designing *eauing can be eliminatedby providinganotherstructure terminalas shownin FigureVIII-28C.

Common Tcfmhel -A-

u r n r r r g c r n c nrtn i r r i m i z c s o n g c s t i o na n d c l i r n i n t r c s r v c a v i r . rc : t n l l i c r s . c rt \\'hcrc thc rcvcrsiblc lrtncs lcnttiniltc ut i.rnrajor tilrk on thc I'rcc\\rrv, tllc \ r l l ! l c - s l r u c l t l r ci l r r l t t t g c t l t c nsth o $ n i n F i g u r e V I I I - l t t B w o u l r l r c t l u i r cr r c a V i n r . t l i r r t r u l l ' i cc ' l c l , l S o r c r i ttr>t tk'rtr;rl.lc il:rr,t'lr.ing nl()\'cllrcntsltrc.hclrrr.. SuL.hilcsi_ilSllill.\,Tifa lisc l() c r r t t s i r l c r l t h ltc l l c r ; t r i o n r tp r o h l c n t s .W h c n t h c s i n g l c - s t r u c t r l r cl r r i u l ! . ! c n l c n t\ t l r i

Adequatereverse-flowroadway terminalsare necessary transfertratTic to between sectionof highwaywith reverse-flow the lanesand the conventional freeway sectionor the local streetsystem.A reversible roadway sectionis usuallyterminated transitioning threeroadways by the into two normaldirec_ tional roadways, shown in Figurevlll-28A. In somecases, reversible as the section terminates a majorfork, and theterminal at arrangement rnaybe similar t o t h a ts h o w r r n F i g u r eV I I I - 2 8 8 o r F i g u r eV I I I _ 2 U C . i A s i l l u s t r a t c c n F i g u r e v l l l - 2 l t A , t h c e n q lo f t h e r c v e r s i b l e o a d w a yr s il r Y - s h , p c r a n t lh a st h ec n t r a n c e n de x i t c o n n e c t i o no n t h er n e d i a n i d co f ' t h c l a s s norrnalroadivays. cntrance Thc connection leadinginto the rcver\rngr6iulwuv is rclativclyeilsyt()providc. andthere usually opcrationul are no prolrlcnrs this ar p o i r t t f { o " v e c r 't h ec x i t c o n n e c t i ofn o mt h er e v c r s i n r o l r d r v ac u l l st i r r c a r c t i r l . v r g y c o n s i t l c r a t i r on ' n u r n yl j r c t t l r s ( ) p r c v c n tu n t l c s i r a b ln r c r g i n g i t u a t i o n l r r r t l lt t c s s backups tlurirrg pcakl'lorvs. a rninirnurn. conncctions r\s the shouldbc dc,sisncrt asntalorfilrks'l-50 6(X) lontI.Prct'erably. to rn atlditional lancs shouldbc provitlcrl t l t t l l t c t t t l r t t t t r l t u t l r ' , t r -c v O n dh c p p i n to t ' j u p C t i 6 t o t l . l c c x tC r i t r l r c x i t s6 r tt hy t p n tirr l d istuncc 7.50 I ()(x) Such lanes ill proviric fbr adcquatc of to nr. w rncrling. W h c r et h c r ci s l t p r < t t n i n c c x i t f r o n rt h c t h r o u g h a n c s n t l r cv i c i r r i t .r,l l ' r h c nt l i t c r t t l i t t a l l ' t l t c ev c r s i h l c o a d * ; l r 't.h cr c v c r s i b l c : " t x r d w a v u l tb c r c r n r i n u t c r l t r r sho i b c ) r ' r t t t h l t t c \ i t . C o n v c r s c ' l vv h c r ct h c r c i s a p r o n r i n c nc n t r u n c c t j l r rl h c ll l. t n l c n t l i t l l t ll.l t c | c v c r s i b l c c r m i n l l s h o u l db e l o c a t c dn : . r i l v a n c c ' t h cc n t r a n c c . t i of -l'his

ilalor Foik T6rmlnal wlth llbavlng

Mllor Fork Tcrmhrl - $/o.vlng Ellmlnal.d

Notc: Oottld lkrcr reproeont Emovablc blrtlart

terminals' roadway reverse FigureVltl-28. Diagrammatic

AASHTO--<;eometric Design of Highwalts

anc! Streets

(Urban) Freev'av's

The devices usedfor controring traffic at rerminar.s a reverse-fl of ow ro adw ay inCtuae variablemessage signs,lauementmarkings, waming lights,and me_

**'jl'nd

erecrronicalry operated barricades each-terminat rhe ar of

Figurevlll-29 showsa freeway havingfburtrafficranes eachdirection in and two reversible ranes themiddle.During rhemomingand in eveningrushhours, thefheway hasrhecapacity a r 2-rane of r*itity. on therightsideof]ne freeway, thereis a tlvo-rane exit from the normalroadwayrocated in advance theexit of terminalon thereversibre roadway. The heavyexit movement from thenorma.l roadwaylightenstraffic at thereversibre roadwayterminar. the refi sideof the on thereis a two-laneentrance thenormalroadway to ,.!jt*uy downstream f-rom the eniiance to the reversible roadway. Thus, the reversibreroadway removes considerablethrough traffic from the normal roadway, and this decreasein trafficresults aneasiermerge thetwo-lane in at entrance. reversible The terminal in themiddleof thepho.tographanexampre is of thecommony-shaped terminar, similarto that showndiagrammatically Figure in VIII_2gA. Figure vlll-3O shows a three-two-thre. ron. reverse-flowsection in a suburban area. The reverse-flow roacrwav 7.2m wide andhas3.0 m shoultrers is on both sides. The normaldirectional roadwayis l0.g m wide and hasa 3.0 m s h . u l d e r o nr h er i g h ta n d a r . g m s h o u r d e r o n t h e l e f t .E a c hs e p a r a t o rc t w e e n b the reverse-flow roadwayancr normarroadwayis r.2 wicre. the m within each scparator a barrier0.6 m wide. is

Figure Vlll-29. A 4'2-4 reverseflow freeway'

to rvidcnirrg t m D u a l - t l i v i d c t lc ( ) n s t r u c l i o n a 1 ' b c t h c t t r 1 l sp r a c t i c a ls o l t t t i o r t u ' h c r c t h c p r c s c l l t r r a l ' t i c v t l l r t t r l c sl t r c s o g r c l t t l h a t t l t c Irn cristing frcc*lt-v n o t l ' r ct o l c r r t t c t l ' c t d r s r u p t i o ni n t r a t ' t ' i c l u r i r t g c t l t l r p l c t c r e c o n s t r u c t i o t t p u l t l be anticipatcd llnd thc llcccssar\ right-ot-rvov crln \!'hcrc rhc futurc nccrl carr ln t\\'ostegcs' t r c r c s c r r c r i .i t i s p o s s i b l c t o t l c v e l o p a d u l i l - d i v i d c d t ' a c i l i t \ ancl tllaitttcgrcat tlexibility in thcir tlpcrlltit.rn Dual-tliviticri llcilities have l nlrncc.:rrrctlrtttplc.tltrrirttlllitill(cllitllcc()rrcc()llslrucliottrrllcr:llitrtts'ttttcol-tltc olt"pclrk lttlttrs'-l-ltc t l i r c c t i o n a lr t l l t t l u l t l ' s , , , " 1 'l - , at c n l p o r a r i l r c l t l s c t l t l u r i t t g * b r c l i r t t i t t l t t i l s t l ' r t l l i cc o t t l . l i e t s i t l t t h c p ; . r c c i r l c n t( ) t c l l t i x li s g r c a t l y r c d u c c d rs ttt'tlurtl-,jiritlctl tlcsrSrr j()ttr)r lltililttctllulccw'rlrk. ..\tttlthcrlttlv:tttlagu rjr)lt.\tru{-'t itt crtsc tll-;ttt 'tccttlcttl ttr otltcr thlt thc ut'tcCtcdrtlittlwa', catt llstl bc Closctl c c n l c r ' g c t l c \ t l r t r st i l c i I i t l r t i t l g l c l t l t u 1(r) p c l l l t i ( ) l l 5 ' . l'llc $ttlc cxpatlscrll D u a l - J i r . i d c t lt ' l c i l i t i c s a l s ( ) l l r c s c n t t l i s r t t l v r t l l t r t ! c s .

I ) u a l - l ) i v i d e dF r e e w a y s where nrorcthane ightthrough lancs rcquircd thetlirectional are and clistributi'n is suftlciently barancecr that a revcrsibrc so roadrvavis not appricabre. a dual-divided freervay r1q:^up of rrvoone_way roadwavs eachdirecrion in nray be thcoptimurrr rircility. four roadwa-v.s within thec.ntror_ot._access All are rincs. This tvpe 'f cross sectionis sornetirn.'s rctl'rretrto as duar-trual. Thc ourcr lreu'rvuv roiltlwavs usuallyscrveall the irrrerchangc trat'tic. but thcy r,ry.rs. s c r \ c i l s u b s r a n t i a r n i o n . t ' t h et h r ' u g h po t r a i ' f i cF - r le x l m p r e , r r , r " . - t , , i g r r i . r 'c' rcquircdt. usctheoutcrroadwarsrlnly. Vlrirus ilrrangcrncnt.s possibrc. are dcpcnding thc charactcr trat'fic ,n of antrcr.ssrradconditi'ns. t i c c w a y s s u a t vf u n c r i ' ns m r o t h r yT h e vc r n y u . .Duul-tividct e x r r c m c rh i g h y r,lurrrcs,f tr.llic efticicntry.furotorists usingthe rnncrroadways rc''vctr arc

t rortt thc \ /a',r 1

h r t n r v c r s i n u r n i n i m u m u n r b c o l .l a n c s . g n r

pi.ri-t.," -,":; ;;;,],.,,r.r",

r t t l t lr l s : ' t i r , i r i , , l - i . r , r , . i rs , srr c . nr c t l u c r -i'h i ' l l l i i l r i l i r i ' a ) l ' l r i i l ' il c t o t l t s t r i h t t t c ' *ii

lrt ct|crtcttcctl' Ilceltttsctlt t r e ' u l l . u r r c l c t l t r r l l ' l ' i c l i s t r i l r r l t i r l r li l l l l o l l ! l ; t t t c s t t t l t , t

AASHTO--{;eometri(. Design of Highw,a-vs and Street.s

(Urban) Freewavs

FigureVlll-3O. A 3-2-3reverseflow freeway.

, -

the requiremcnts other medians,median barriers, for and acrditionar paved shoulders a dual-divided on fircility,thecosts right-ot'-wily, lor constructien. untl nraintenance be greater may thanthose a normaldividecl on tircilitywith arr eclual numher f lancs. o Roltdwaylrransclncntfbr a dual-dividcd lic.ew;t-y lirur-lirur-lirur,lirur. lre thrc'c-thrcr-'-threc-thrcc.thrcc-tw.o-two-thrcc,rwo_thrcic_thrcc_t\\,o,,rrn,r,.r_ri,_ ablectlnrhinations cll'lancs. Typicalcross sections woulclbeconrparahlc. thosc t6 prcvitluslv dcs.cribed varioustypcsof fieeu,avs fbr rvith fronragc' roads. e\ccpt fhat rhc'rc'ltre lrltrr.ratherthantrvo,main roaclway.s. Eachof'the gutcr nrcciiuns would ha'c a mecrian barrierand ruil shourders cachsicrc. on Figurc' VIII-3 I shorvs tiiagrlmmaticlayouttbr a clual-tlividerl a ticcw.v. ;\ll intcrchilngc connccti()ns mltdcto thc outerrorrdwavs. rmcdirttc ltrc Inte tmnsfur c0nttcctitlns:trc shtlwnhc(',vcctr inncr ilnd ()utL.r thc r.-)rdruauli thatrrnl'f'ic so on thc itrncr rtlatlrvlt-t's usc thc intcrchlngcs.Thc nunrl-.'cr cltn rlf suc6 tlrnslcr c ( ) n n c c l l ( ) n st o u l db c k c p t t o a n r i n i m u r l ) .) n Ls c t s c r v l n g sl ( scvcrasucccssivc l i n t c r c h u n g cT h c r cs h o u l d c a s p u c i n gl f . 7 - 5r0 ( ) rn l o r c s. b r n i . , r u . . n t h ct c r n r i n a l tlf':t lrltnsl'crc()nllccti()n lrncxit rlrmp.The lrlcqu.cv lttttl ot'lll wcavinglengths
lllust hc chcckctl'

: :

{rr*ev hlorc: snglrlinoon

trpt-'ntt a dircstional rordwry of 2 to 4 Lni

Figurc vlll--11 is urr cxar.plc ol'l

d u l l - t ti v i r l e d l . r c , c r v u \ . \ \ . r t h

@(,nhse n,.rrh. R,ritnlpnt pcdcsrri,rns rrrnsit ircrnic(li,r nrdi.rn. rhc have:tcccss transir r.r ric *:rri,rr tronr thcct,)ss !l.ccr. r\llrirnp cr)nnccti$rs mndc rncoorrrroxdwrvs. irc to

dual'dlvidedfreeway. FigureVlll.3l. Diagrammalic

AASHTO-{;eome tri( Desi,qn Highv,at.sand Steets of

Freeways(Urban)

Collector-DistributorRoads similar to the dual-divided elements having cross-sectional An arrangement -is ( C - D ) s y s t e m ' T h e p u r p o s eo f a the collector-distributor f r e ew a y road is to eliminate weaving and reducethe number of collector-distributor pointson the throughroadwayswhile satisfyingthe demand ingressand egress roadsmay be provided foi acces,to andfrom the freeway.Collector-distributor X). throughtwo adjacent (as in within a single interchange discussed Chapter segof or interchanges, continuouslythrough severalinterchanges a freeway frontage to continuous roadsare similar ment. co;tinuous collector-distributor to roadsexceptthat access abutting propertyis not permitted' throughroadwaysare identifiedascoreroads,and the The insidehigh-speed roads' ourside slower ip"eA roaO*ays are identified as collector-distributor less than systemare usually, the traffic volumes on the collector-distributor encounteredon the dual-divided freeway, and there are fewer lanes' The those systemis two c-D, two minimum lane combinationon a collector-distributor as core, two core, two C-D although other combinationsmay be developed be roadsshould collector-distributor warrant.Continuous capacityrequirements a basic lane design to develop an overall system.Capacity integraied into shouldbeperformedfor theoverallsystem andbasiclanedetermination analysis roadways. ratherthan for the separate roadsare the core roadwaysand collector-distributor between Connections Transferroadsmay beeitheronelaneor two lanesin width' roads. calledtransfer both and the principle of lanebalanceappliesto the designof transferroadson roadways'Both transferroads collector-distributor the core roadwaysand the equalin width to thoseof roadsshouldhaveshoulders and collector-disrributor with an shouldbe as wide as practical separation The outer the coreroadways. transferroads should be designedin accorappropriatebarrier.Terminals of X' in of dancewith the discussion ramp terminals Chapter thanthatof less is roadways usually of speed collector-distributor The design by caused weavingoccurson turbulence most of the the core roadwaysbecause is the collector-distributorroadways.A 20 km/tr reduction in design speed sVstems. collector-distributor the pret'erably maximumtor continuous

1::ll-'., ",$,:T;X'"11Tfffi
General Considerations

ided freeway with a 4-3-3-4 roadway arrangernent.

les I,||/ll vehiele(HOV) Combiningmasstransitor high-oecupancy c larger ities in services freewavmay be a meansfor optimum transporlillion

AAS HTO--C eometr i (. D esi pn

hu'a

and Streets

(Urban) Freeu'a\.s

--

ii.s improvementcan be accomplished the joint use of right-of-way to by jnclude rail transit or.separate roadwayfacilities for busesand other hieh occupancy vehicles suchascar poolsandvanpools.The totalright-of-way cost not only will be lessthanthosefor two separate landstripsbut thecombination alsowill preserve taxableproperty, reduce displacement businesses the of and persons. and lessenimpacton neighborhoods. somecases, In masstransitcan be incorporated into existingfreewaysystems. Reverse-flow roadways the in median and reservedlanes will work well for exclusivebus and Hov use d u r i n gr u s hh o u r s . When transit, eitherbusor rail, occurswithin the freewaymedian, access to the transit vehicles is generally obtained from the crossroadat interchange locations. Such an arrangementdoes not lend itself to intermodal transfer. ilransfer to and from busor privateautoaddscongestion the interchange to area, and off-street parking is usually so remorc from interchangeareas that it discourages some transitridership.Bus roadwayswithin the median,as shown in Figure vlll-33A, essentially restrictoperations the rine-haul express to or type, becauseramps that would permit collection and distribution from the medianareaareexpensiveoroperationally undesirable. when freeways undergo major repairor reconstruction, is frequentlynecessary construct it to crossovers andtemporarily shiftall trafflcontooneroadway. where transit located is within the median, suchstaging not possible is wirhouta complete disruption transit of operations. when thetransit facilityis parallel thefreeway locared onesiderather to but to thanin the nredian area.these objections overcome. are Figurevlll-33B sho,vs a bus roadw:rylocatedbetweenthe freewayanda parallelfrontageroad.Acces.s to thc bus roadwayis obtained from the fronta-qe road.The stationis removed fronrthecongestion theinterchange of area, adequate for space available auto is or busturnouts. and space off-street fbr parkingmay be morereadilyavailable. All lactorscombine to enhance intermodal transfer. slip rampsfrom the bus^ roadwayto the fiontageroad permitcollectionand distribution. additionto in line-haulor cxpressoperation, without disruptionof freewayoperations. A similar arrangement would servefixed-rail transitexceptthat the slip ramp w o u l db e o m i t t c d .
FRONTiG

bus roadway' FigureVlll-33A. Exclusive

aOA0

Buses
| >r{ii

.\ truly rlpid transitserviceby bus has had only limited application because n o r n r l l b u s s e r v i c e u s u a l l y c o m b i n e sc o l l e c t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o nw i t h .stttrurb.to.citytransponation moststreet highwrv facilitiesfor suc and or roulcsarc not udaptable high-speed to operation. havc Ivlany tropolitan areas me non-stopl'rccrvavcxpressbusesthat operateon the freeway svstcm from

PARK]NG

__J

arrangement' out Fig;;; vlll-338. rreewai'iransit paiaflel

6t0

AAS|ITO--Ceontetrit.Design of Highwavs and Street.s

Freev'avs (Urbatt)

6tl

suburban pickuppointsnearlhe freewayto rocations within thecentrar business district or to other heavy traffic generators. The numberof busesoperating

traffic.,i#i busoperation with few. if any,stops alongthefreeway, rheotherhand,gives on superiortransitservicefor theouterurban-area andaffectsfreewayoperationthe least. Exclusive HOV lanes. In addition to expressservice,other operational means shourd considered reduce travei be to the timeof thepubrictransportation

of busrurnouts ,Y:.,::li-T[|:j^.. determine effic.iency busoperatir" the of ;;I; .ffr;; ;;;;;;#;: ** andfreq uentpi.r,,p' discharge points ,lS;; ::.:::::,::i"::::.I,9 at thestopi arelikely ro accumurate ""a and inrerfere with through

y:i"c

oi bu.s stops, thedesign and

times.sotely rr.orurr.,orbusesandorher forthe _lfyil^.fi:1i1'.:-':,1,:oarall igh-occupancy vehicles.

This facilityoir.tr u*..'.J*ou, a high levelof service decreases traver and the time for theusers. discussion Hov A of ranes and roadwaysis conrained the AASHT' in crii"-t", the Design of High-Oc'cupanc'y Vehicle Fac.ilities A discu*i""-"i (a). the park_and_ride facirities which ofren are provided Hov run.,ir.ontuJned with -" in theAASHTo Guide theDesil4n oJ-pork_and_Ride for Fac.itities (5i.Busstops. spacing busstops The of largely determines overa,speed the of buses' stops freeways Bus on shourd ,pi."i ,o p..ri, lu.es rooperate u" at or near prevairing the speed trafficon thehighw,y This of attowance normary requires spacing 3.5km or more. of

userwhenthe demand warrants. exctusivlHot;;;;;;""';;: An

Bus stopsalong fieewaysare usually locatedat intersecting streets whcrc pil'ssengers transl'ertoorfiorn otherlines orautornobile.s. turnouts Bus shoulcl bc rocated rvhere conditions favorabre sile are -the and,if possibre, wheregradients on acceleration lanelrrc flat or ciov be rocated rhestreer ar rever tharbuiesreachby way ot.interchange ranrps. The designof busrumoutsis discussed in ChapterIV. stairs. ramps, and escarators. with bus stopsat the freewayrever. stairs, ramps. escarators. combinations these or of are necessary p"rr"ngar r..r* f'* betwecn lieervav,ndloc:rlstreer the levers. Tr,,n.iii;-;;;.ir"nrur, bc acccs.siblc t o p e r s o n sv i t hd i s a b i l i t i c s . t a i r - o n r y r S access t trrn.irrtop. ls not pcrmittcd. a Stairwayslnd rnmpsat transitstopsshourd be eusv ro crimo an<lprescnr an inviringappcrrcncr'. This cit'ecr partiuily,..,r-frirt.,tly is pr,ruiaing rairings andantplclightingb<lth da.v rnd nightand bv providinglandings lt everv l.!,1 rrl f'-l m changcin ercvation. covciing A on the stairwavs, remps,rna pratromrs nrav arsobe desirabre. Srairways shourabe locatedrvhcrerhc climb wi, be l nrrnrmunt. prettrablynot lnorethan5.-l to 6.0 m. W uu!rqirqw l,vunderrhcstrucrure might be r.aised rtr | .2 m b), reduCihgrarriaal 0.6 clcarancc abrlut-r.llrn. bccausc to onry buses tr bc. lre servctr. rvrost intr:r-crrv

free Ie, rrbw ichsta ; r1r: :1. il:"n T:'J":.: way e r h irs. :: :, . il:Jlff ;l;

f t a a b u s e s r el e s s h a n3 . 0n r h i g h .W h e nt h es t a i r s r el o c a t e d l i t t l ed i s t a n c er o m a a a h -' ' t h ep o i n to f l o a d i n g n du n l o a d i n -ts ,ec o n n e c t i n uea l k w a lm a y b e i n c l i n e d t grade.and another to 0.6 nl ma)' be gainedin elevation. 0.-3 abouta .1percent s i t o o T h u s .i t m a ; -b e p o s s i b l en s o m ei n s t u n c ets r e d u c eh eh e i g h t f s t a i r w a y t o 4.5m or less. d a i a S t a i r s n d r a m p sa r e l i k e l y t o b e i n s t a l l e d t b u s s t o p s n b u i l t - u p i s t r i c t s . a o a n P e d e s t r i arn m p s r eu e l l a c l a p t etd b u ss t o p si n s u b u r b a o r p a r k - l i k e r e a s . a n v a o R a i l i n g s r ed e s i r a b la n du s u a l l y e c e s s a rC.o m b i n a t i o n sf r a m p s n ds t a i r s a e p of Il s f a m a y ' b e i t t i n ga t s o m el o c a t i o n s , t h e b u s l i n e e r v e s l a r g e e r c e n t a g e t h e p o p u l a t i o ni.s e x t r e m e l y u s y .o r t h e c l i m b i s e x t r al o n g . t h e u s eo f b elderly Provisions persons with disabilities to be are be fbr escalators should considered. and ramps,elevators, wideningof passageways included.such as the use of (6) provide of IV Chapter andreference doors. theelimination otherbarriers. and with disabilities. lbr for guidance the designof facilities persons on With busstops thefreeway consume at Ievel.buses Bus stoparrangements. however, loading, starting: and littleadditional timeotherthanthatfbr stopping. extraspans separations and mustbe provided. at tumouts. stairways, sometimes With bus stopsat street level,lessspecial Passengers must usestairsor ramps. and is do construction necessary passengers not have to use stairsor ramps. and roads. haveto rnix with traffic on the rampsand frontage Buses. however. Wheretrafficon thesurtltcc the street gracle. generally mustcross intersectinc at 0 ee , s t r e e t ss l i g h t .t h e s c ' d i s a d v a n t l ga rs n o t s e r i o u sb u t w h e r ct h c s t r e c t s r c i t , c t c o p e r a t i n a t o r n c i i rc a p i l c i t yb u s c s r o s s i n gh c r nr v i l le x p e r i e n cs o n r c l c l a t ' . t a di n n s' L'o a G en c - r a l l 1 t,r c r ' t - l c v s t l p s r cl l p p r o p r i a ti c u r r c i c a r t l o \ \ ' l l t r ) w ns t r i c t s . n d strlpslrreappropriutc suburbun in anclotrtlving or eitherstlc'r't- frcc'"r'av-lcvcl ntav hc uscdon an! orrcI't'ccwuy. ttt'tlrclwir tvpr:s arcas. Conrtrinlrti()ns c (l S t o p sa t f r e e n a l ' l e v e l .B u s s t o p sl o t i c a l l v a r c l o c u t L -a t s t r e c t r o s s i n g s cithc'r passcngL'rs usethc untdc-scparation structurc rcccsst'rrtnr r.vhcrc clul tirr sh0us an arrrtngclncnt an:)vcrcr()ssillg ut FigurcVIII-.-i-1r\ sideot'thc l'rcc$'ar'. ',vithout intcrchunqe thc arc . Thc turnouts anil loatlincplattbnns undt-'r ;rn street shttuld grcate spans additional or opcrtinls.Eachstairwlty re'quiring r structure. strect d bv nrostpasse ldditirlnll on use nsL'rs.-l'wo he krcutetl thcsidcof thccross ri r c s s b s t l i r u ' l ns c l n c l i n r i n a t ct r t v r o s s i n go f s u r l i r c c l r c c t s v t n t t t s t c r r i r t gt l c r s . V s r r l r f " i g u r c I l l - - i J I ls h o w sl n i r r r a n g c l n ein ta n u n t l c r c r o s s i r ttg c c t v i t h t t ul t t . i t o i n t c r c h a n g c-.\ s n r l i c a t c ult t h el o p l c t ' t f ' F i s u r cV I l l - l - l B . p l l t l i l n n e r i t s r t t r r l l o t tr t c u . n t r l u l c r ln L r r . bc ( ) n n c c t ctdi r c c t l "tv "a d . i o i r r i n ltc v c l o p n t c nss r c lr t sp u h l i c s r l n b u i l t l i n g sr n t t l c p l t r t t t t c s t o r c s . l s S o r n c t i r r r crs l n s i t t o p su r c n e c d c rllt l o c u t i t l r ttst l t c rt l u t nr t tt l v c r c r o s s i n g t i w o t s t r c c r s , si n o u t l l i n g u r c l r s r i n b u i l t - u p i s t r i c t s h c r Li't i s n c i t h c r c ' l s i b l c ' n o r d ;r
rld bc ltrclitctl (jpl()sitc cr()ss strccts intcrcL'ptc(lhv thc l'ront;rgcroatls rtr lrtlt.ior s o p l r s \ c n g c r* l i k r i l r r s . . - \ p c t l c s t r i r t n \ c r ? l l s s i s r l c c c s s l r vt o r n . , 1 at h c b L t s t o l ' r s

6t2

AASLITO-{;con(rri( Dcsi.qtr Hi,qltwat's tf und Streets

(Urban) Freewa,-s

6t3

-)rREtI CROS-)

\i

two likely illustrates usablefrom eitherside of the freeway.Figurevlll-34c in is situated thelowerhalf under level The turnoutat express\4'ay layoutplans. the or by and structure is reached stairs a ramp'In the upperhalf' thepedestrian the road.obviating needfor riders ro is rurnout ramped rhelevelof the fiontage to climb stairsor ramPs. shows bus stopsat freewavlevel on a Figure VIII-35 diagrammatically connectramps interchange with diamond-type streets at section cross depre.ssed to entrance the turnout roads.In Figurevlll-35A. the ing to one,wayfrontage in located beyondthe exit ramp noseand the exit from the turnoutis isiocated usethe freeway ramp nose.In Figurevlll-358, buses of advance the entrance througha to enterthe turnout.The latterbus stopis usuallylocated rampexit ,.pururastructureopening.suchconsolidationofaccesspointsimprovesthe to themselves efiiciency of throughand ramp traffic. Bus driversreadily-adapt the same use The bu.ses to the reversepath necessary use the bus turnout. leavingthe bus turnout' when maneuver and the loop the FigureVIII-36 showsa bus stopbetween outerconnection so roadis desirable thatthe or A interchange. collector distributor ofa cioverleaf connectdirectly to the throughroadway'The bus turnout bus turnoutswill not when to beyondthe structure minimizeconflicts. be shouldpreferably located traffic mustmergewith buses of in thetumoutis located advance the structure, for weavewith traffic destined the exit loop' Also loop and from the entrance roadthatconnecls driveof a frontage service tumouton a nearby a showni.s bu.s Parking or underpass overpass. by a pedestrian to the freewaybus turnout Figurevlll-37 showsltn existinginterchange facilitiesmay alsobe provided. the streetbetween but rvith a similar arTangement with turnoutson the cross ancl rhc loop. The circuitouspedestrian terminalsof the outer connectioR of crossings rarnps' avoidgrade ptattbnns) (whitelinesfrom loacling walkways is rvalkway rnade butif thepcdcstrian is crossings desirable. of Elimination grade decreusc' ma1' bus patronage thanabout200 m' too long.e.g.,greater stopsatstreet|eve|.Street-levelbussropscanbeprovidedatinterchanges. ondiamond-typeranlps.thebusstopmayconsisttrfawidenedshoulderarea Generally. roildway. to adjacent the ranrproadwayanclmay be on a separat(' prct'errccl' bus stopsadjacentto on-rampsarc street-level FigureVIII.3SshtrwsseveraIexamplesofstreet-lcvclbusstops()ndlamono tbra busstop:tl locations two Figurcvlll--1llA illusrrares possiblc inr..c*hanges. roads'Thc bus stop can be without tiontage a simple diamondintcrchange thc rilmp'Thc decision on eithertheon-ram! or off-rampby wittcning providcd of on clepends an analysis the turningctlnt'licts' oi which is berrcr FigureVlll.3SBillustratcsastreet-levclbusstoponlonc-wJv|rrlntageroad
. r:..-^-'{ i6rar^hnndF Rrrst'.r nttr the off-rlmO ttl rcach thc surtaCe level'

-AO I R E CE N T R Y T TOBU;LD1NCT

,, r ,,,

PLAIFORM /-LOADINC

R.qr +

-\t---llllll
rHRoucH THROLIH

/_aJrArRS./RAMps
RoADwAy ROADWAY + +

PLATFORM::

FRONTACI ROAO

PEOISTRIAN OVERPASS

FR(lNfAL,g lilAo i -CROSS WALK

FigureVlll-34. Bus stops at freewa level.

vru lnc arthe cross strc't.lnd procescl diahtige anit ltjctJlhcia passeRgeTs on thc crossstrcctis Addctltrlvcl disianccis small.and whcrctrlffic on-ramp.

AASHTO-{;eometri( Design of Highu,avs ancl StreeB

(Urban) Freew'ctys

o o) c (E t o o

r (,
F

;g

!t

.o o o
I

E
FigureV|||.36.Freeway.|eve|busstopatc|overleafinterchange.

(g

! o o o at o. o
q

o :l ql

o o

(Y, j

rt
o

o z o

iT

ot

interchange. bus Figurev|||.37. Freeway:|ev| stop at c|overleaf

6t6

AASHTO-<;eometri('Design of Highways and

Streets

Freeways(Urhan)

6t7

light,little tirneis rost;however, where cross-street trafficis heavyandbuses are n,merous, operationmay be difficurt because busesmust weave with the roadtraffic roreachrhesidewark, cross cross lhe street, thenweave and !91togr street-level stops difficurrto provideeffectivery bus are within cloverreaf .. or directional-type inrerchanges. srops Bus shourd omittedat suchinrercnanges be or be locatedon the crossstreer beyondthe rimitsof the interchanee.

Rail Transit

varlous arrangemenrs rhejoint freeway-transit alrangements the of right-of-way. right_of_way. "ut:T i Rail transit instailations sounique are andtheirdesign so highlyspecialized is . thatdiscussion only a f'ewgenerar of itemsis in orderherein.Locationandd;;;; i ofarailtransitfacilityarejointundertakingsinvorvingseverarspeciarizedfields

tlsh,:"f-way. Figure Vrrr-39 iltustrates aiugru.rnoiiJuli; .,^-*:1.,!^111

several metropolitan areas have incorporated, pran incorporate, transit or to rair

) rr
lt I

A-

must consicteredthe be rrom standpoint *;;;s';;#ffiilr"ilffi srreeis. whereraitand travellanes conrisuous. enrire are "f rhe
most common arrangement to place the transitline is
f ^:^ ..t

ofinteresr. tocarion design statlons, The and of termiiars, il

llp

;;;;ffi;il;;

i
----..-"-..------;-___--gs

i I f .i
;'

--

e x a m p l e i . s s h o w n i n'! irxrrz v I I I . 3 2 . mrtImnsrt i | t r a n s i t | i n e i s p l a c e d i n t h e - - - - l > | l l l l | | F g u r e wnena W h e n a r a

ora depresseo o, r,o,nll'i:i:,TJJ*:;::f,'r""'l:',T?:Xjff#il]!fT:.1:l

highwaydesign is affected design rhe should ensurc saferv;f highway rhe $e rhe and hnsiruser . I ne
within the median

I liH H.
STol

ili Hti l).,.3.!;-;=-; F R O N T A G E R O A D :l ::+-

trne ptaced rhe is in m i d d I e o f a f r e e w a y . i t b e c o m e s a ' i s I a n d s e p a f a t e d f r o . i l " p u * . " , , g " , . t y i u n | " f f i l s F | - =-. lreeway, accessibility therransir' ' J | l r I P l | t l g U | but.thegconsrrucdonf l n t e r . . d . : . to l U o is simptified. u | 1 I l c o n S t r u c l l o nof interbecomes,morel r J 1r.' ssomel t u a t l o n sanalternareo l u t i o n m a y v.),,,u,LLv c.ostly. o m e ssituarions a l t e r n a t e s In an solution may :li:i::1llt: thetreeway betostack lanesv v , v ' rthetransit , a s s n o w n l n 1 in Figure l l l _ J 9 t s , abo'r,er d r r ) r r r r line, shownl g u r e vuI-39B, s ll s . as v

r|no(.GH

, , ^^'^(,
llttJtll__-

#jli:j:f1::1,,ff"fin1i:::ffi"Hm:r.:l:l*:ni: #Ev,w

Foao = FRoNrad

- *
i Lg Ii g I : I lf ![ 1 iI " " il.e E, Al
I ll

/'ry=

3sthedveronrherighr, prcsenlsnatural n delerrcni devetopmenr onesidc. ro on Thetnmsir is pl.rced rheinside line on foreasier.rccess ro$community. Where rhcffcr h.rs sccnic v.riuc. thii rnngemenr prcsenrs moronsts anopcn wilh vicw. Typicclsecrions. Fi8ure vrtr-+if'rrrr"ri"r"* ifpicor,ecrions whh mit rransir providcd rhefrr:cway in mcdi.ln. dimensionrgiven illustriiivenndarc The & not.robe considcred srandllrd. mitrransir !s Ttre dirnensions andcleannces !rl: rypiLrlofsuidc dimeniio* ,t" in,ti.rte,t" .p... S-"-, f;" "q"i*.";n,
c r i t c r i ; t i l r r l i l r v a v d i r n e t r s i o n s d c l e a r a n c e s .i c u r e an F VIII--l0A i l l u s t r a t c;s r

t o u s e a m i n i m r r m o f r i g h t - o t ' - w a y . A n a d d i t l e v e ll f o r c r o s s t r a f f i c o f v e h i c l e s iona vlr.rlrer ann *^J^^r-:^-.and pedestrians- r . L - neededu completer r r s movements - - - " " * -' . - be may to L u r r p r s r s the r n ( J v e m e n K to be handletj. r " to De handled. FigureVIII-39C illustrates arrangement an wherea topographic t-eature. such

a_

;ir a

I ll

Figure Vlll-38. Bus stop3 at slreel l6vel on dlamond

's (Urban)

619

minimumsectionrvithoutpiers.FigureVlll-40Billustratesamlnlmumsectlon u'ithonemedianpier'Thepiersshouldbeprovitledwithcrashr''"'allstodeflect on shouldbemounted or adjacent A of .,,n,i..u,, in theevent a derailment' tence tothebarrlertopreventpedestriansfromenteringtherailarea.Ascreenorience mayalsobeneededtoscreenthemotoristsfromtheheadlightsofthemasstransir vehicle'Ifasemingidbarrierisutilizeciattheshoulderedge.thedynamtc shown' the dimensions of deflection the banrershouldbe addedto
-A-

-. 17.4 m

Joint Fery Rldrt{t-Ybv Tr.Eftr.y coub comrin dlffrrm

- Trnd! F ary

9m

modcotmrtndt.

aa
:Tnrdtwry

,
l<-----

4.2 m

I Y T Y PI C A L R O A D W AS E C T O N

--a-

14. I m

lB,9 m

6. 1m 0.6m1

8. 7 m

10.5 m

5.7

AI

W UNDERPASS ITH PIER

FigureVlll-39. Jointfreeway-transit right-of-way.

-BAR o r M E N lS t l S A N O C L T A R A N C E S E NSIT I I L I .U S ' T R A I V E . A N D A

FioureV||l-40.Typicalseciionswithrailtransitinfreewaymedian.

AASfffo-lieometri(

De.sl3n t'{i,qlu'ut,.s Srre tl and et.s

'av.sRura[) (

-where

t h er a i l l i n e i s p l a c e d l o n gr h eo u t s i c lo l ' r h ef r e e w a _rv , f e r e n cc a n a e e e l b em a d et o t l l cs e c t i o n t t" H o r i z o n t aC l e a r a n cte ( J b s t r u c t i o n i n t h i sc h a D t e r s" o o toradditional inlbrrnation clearances. on s t a t i o n s . h e r r a n s i s t a t i o no c a t i o n n t is p a c i n e h o u l cb e i n k e e p i n g i r h T r l a s j w t h ee n v i r o n m e n t n dp a s . \ c n g el r w . F r e q u e ns t a r i o n m a y b e r e q u i r e d i t h i n a l o t s w thecentralbusiness districtandotherheavytrailic senerators. f'ewstations but would be requiredin the outl.v-ing suburban or areas. The downtown stations s h o u l d e w i r h i ne a s vr v a l k i n -d i s t a n c o l t h c b u s i n e sa n d r v o r k i n s e n t e r s r b g c s c o a t ' c e d eb u s s v s t e m T h e o u r l l i n g s t a r i o n s h o u l dp r o v i d ea n r p l e a r k i n - a n d r . p u s t o r a g f o r w a i r i n g a r s : a c c e s o I o c a lb u s c s n dt a x i sa l s os h o u l d e a v a i l a b l e . e c ts a b Two gene layoutstbr a rail transit ral stationat a localcrossstreet pedcstrian or o v e r c r o s s i n sr es h o w ni n F i g u r e l l l - l l r v i r ht y p i c a c o n r r o d i m e n s i o n s .h e a v l l T nsionsgiven are illustrative and are not to be considered stan<hr<1. as The stationshown in Figure vlll-4 lB makesbetteruse of the requiredspaceby allowingmoreseparation between transit the passensers thefieeway. and andby still maintaining ampledistance berween train and rhetraveled the way. Examplesof rail transit combinedwith freeway.Figurevlll-.12 shorvs an ei-tht-lane clepressed freewayrvith rail rapid transitin a meclian minimunr of width.A .single stationis providedbetween pc'destnan two majorcrossstreets. r a m p w a vc o n n c ctto t h ec r o s s t r e e t s h es h e l t e rb e i n g t t h cc r o s s - s t r c lc tv c l . s s t, s a e T h e t r l f f i c c l c n s i t y n t h e n e a r c r o s s t r e e s h o w st h c g e n e r au n d c s i r a l r i l i t yl ' o t l o pcdcstrian acccss a crossstrcctthat l'urrctions lr purt <tl'ficcrvlt rallps. on as F i g u r c V l l l - ' 1 3 s h t l r v s t s i x - l a n ct n u j < l r t r c c to V c r l t a s s i r ag r c i g h t - l a r r c t s ]r t l c P r c s s clr r ' c ' c r v w i t h r a i l t r a n s i t n t h c n r c r l i l n .A s h c l r c r c t ll n l r ) \ \ , a \ . a t c 'l ly i r th r i g h tl c u t l s o u r r i l t r a ' s i t s t a t i . ni n t h c r r r c t l i . r.rl ' r h c t l . c c r r , a ' t

l.6m

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I.:m

Drj.rL5il:t,lft5
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3,9n l.Am 5.4m

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FigureVlll-41. Exampleof transit stalion layout.

R I R,\1.FRIi,lllv.\\'s

I)esitn(-'onsirlcrrrt ions
R r r l l t l l l ' e c r r ' : t vls r c s i r r r i l : t r r r c o r t c c l l ti o r r r l l r r tg r . o 1 1 1 1 1 g-ll g l r i i r r l r r r c r r r r nl r n t l c r o s s - s c c t i o n : rc l c r n c n t s l r c n ) ( ) r c l i l . c r t l r n l g ( ) n u t ) c n s r . r n lrt'e t h t l r c h i g h c r , l c s i ! . l n l t c c r lu n t i . r : c r r c n r l l r . "i s l u rr r i l l r l r i t ) ' t r l r i g l t t- r l l- i r ; r r . I \ \ . l t c r c t c r n r i t rp e r r r t r t sl.r t l c s i g n s P c c t lt t t ' l l ( ) k r t r i l rs h o u l t l l t c L r s c rrlt r rr r r n r l l l ' c c t i r t r : . . ' \t l c s i g t ts l l c e t lo l ' l l 0 k n r i h r v i l l r c s u l t i n u : l l i ' r l l ' c c r r : r ,l r r r r o n c h t . l c s l g t t e t l i r r t t l t l r v c r s l r c c t l .I r r \ ( ) p ] d ei l s e s .i l r . r l l l t l s p r c r p r i r . c c r r c r l : r r t c st t l i I . t e o t l t t t t o t l l l t ; t ! . l i v c t v t t l u l t t co l ' t n r l ' l ' i c t t h c d c s i r c r ll c r c l o l s c r r . i c c . h i c h l i l r c c t u s i l n ( l r ' i r l ) i l ! t t \ .l i r r ; 1 g 1 t " t r l c r c l o l . s c r r c c l r i g h c r t l c s i r l ns P 1 , g 1r1 5 s r r litr r . l n t ( ) r c i .c c r r r n l i l r t l r l l l r ' t l r r r t g u r r V i r o r t r r r cl nn t lr c t l u c eb 0 t h l i r c l ! ( ) n \ u n l l ) t i ( ) lilU l ( l( ) l ) c r : i l . rt

with railraoidtransitin the median. freeway Depressed Vlll-42. Fioure

AASI'ITO--4eometri( Design of Highv,ays and Streets

Freeways(Rursl)

''%

/'

shouldbe takenof favorabletopoof aspects freeways.Advantage aesthetic goals'Changingmedianwidths on to graphicconditions achievethe desired appearance. to wherepossible avoida distorted iung.n, shouldbe avoide<t thanits urbancounterpart' networkhasa wider spacing the Because rural road near ground level with smooth and rural freewaysare usually constructed and considerations and by drainage earthwork ilat relatively profilescontrolled If and separations interchanges. the needfor lessby ttr. neeofor frequentgrade for shouldoccur,the guidelines urbanfieeways sections or elevaied depressed are appropriate. EventhoughtheprofilemaySatis|yallthedesigncontrols,thefinished are used. verlical alinementmay appearforcedand angularif minimum criteria plottingscan help avoid an Checkingof profile aerigns in long conrinuous in alinement rolling terrain' rollercoaster undesirable simultaThe relationof horizontaland venical alinementshouldbe studied combination' to neously obtaina desirable

FigureVllt-43. Depressed freeway with rail rapidtransitin the median.

ingcosts. Frceways initiallydesigned accommodate are to anticipatecl trafficf ur about20 yearsand remainin sen,ice a nruchlongertintc.Any cost-savings tbr r e a l i z e b y i n i t i a l l y o n s t r u c t i nfg r l o w e r d c s i g n p c e c l s a yb eo u t w c i g h c d y d c b s rn b t h eh i g hc o s t sd i s r u p t i o no t h cc n v i r o n n r c na,n d i n c o n v c n i c n c et t r a f l ' i c h u t , t t ti r aceompany reconstruction nrljor-fncilities. the of Althoughlevel-of-service is desirable rural freeways, B lbr levcl-ot'-scrvicc C r r t a yb c n c c e s s a ro n a u x i l i a r y a c i l i t i e s h c r ev o l u n r c s r e u n u s u a l l y i g h . y t w a h Ruralfreewlys generally havetbur through-traffic lancscxcepton approuclrcs to nretropolitan areas wheresix or morelanes may beprovided. Interchanges arc usuallyprovidedwith intersecting highwaysclassificd collectorsand highcr. Locrtlroadsmay be terminated the tieewav,connected tiontagcroatlsor at to otherkrcalrtludstilr continuity trlvcl. or carricdoveror underthc t'rcervay of hy with or rvithoutinterchangc. trade sepuration

Medians The l5 m Medianwidthsof about l5 to 30 m arecommonon rural freeways' and shoulders for shownin Figurevlll-44A provides 1.8m graded dimension providedfor is space with a 1.0m medianditchdepth.Adequate l:6 fbreslopes however,medianpiers may requireshietdingfor heavier vehicle recovery: traf|icl,olunresinaccorclancewithChapterlV.The30mdimensionshownin protiles in rolling to Figure vlll-4-lB permitsthe clesigner use independent rvhile with lhe environment teirain t., blcnd rhc frceway more appropriately the 30 m medianis In llat rnaintaining slopeslbr vehiclerecovery. t'latterrain' the requires additionof two future3'6 m c6nstruction whepstaqe llso suitable traffic llnes. for rollingor thelandis notsuitable cultivatton where therenainis extremely of havingan average 45 m or more' median variable or or grazing. both.a wide the Sucha width permits useof FigureVIII-.l.lC,may be attainable. .,, Ihnrun-in and vertically'to its best txrth horizontally roirdwavalincment. intlependcnt and Foreslopes topographv' the in advantlge blentling tieewayinto thenatural Thc shouldprovidctilr vehiclerecovery. z-one usedwithin thc clear backsloies trces'and statcof vegctation' witith may be lcii in its natural nrcdian rcrnaining to interest passlng andaddscenic costs maintenance to rockoutcroppings retluce and :r naturalpark-likc alinement of Tlre combination independent motgrists. the For driver reassurance. opposing mediln is most pleasingto motorists. dictateor in rnountainous whcre ngfrt-l'-ww rest-rrctftm's ,rrc,r-t i,r .ruburb,in widthsin thcrlnqe of -l'0to 9'0 m ma)rs rcrrlin whcrclocuttttn diftlcult.ntccliln

\linement and Profile B c i n r e c n c r l l l y designc'dtbr h i s h - v o l u m e n d high-speed c opcration,rurlll rli ctttntiinatiixis tllllaurvafure-hdrtcrtangenG.gentl.grad.s.laiiablc mddi-rn r r i t l t l i sa t t t ls c p a r l t tr o : t d r v ac l c " l t t i o n sr l lc o r n l r i n co c r r l r a r r ch c s l r l i ' t v ; t t t t l . c l l lc t

(Rural) rech'uys

625

provided where are on Emergencl'crossovers rural freerva-u.,s norrnallv l trar'elbr emergenc}, adverse treme eX 8 spac interchange lngeXceeds km to avoid andlaw,enforcementvehicles.Betweeninterchanges.emergencvcrossoverSare spacedat5to6..5kmintervals'Maintenancecrossoversma!'berequiredatone orbothentjsofinterchangefaciliries.dependintoninterchanget}-p:'fbrthe purposeolsnowremovalandatotherlocationstofaciIitatemalntenance should not be generallV or Nlaintenance emergencvcrossovcrs operations. taperot.arampor to an) closerthan450 m to theendof a speed-change located s w h e r ea h o v e - m i n i m u mt o p p i n g o c s t r u c t u r e .r o s s o v e r s h o u l db e l o c a t e d n l y sightdistanceisprovidedandpreferablyshouldnotbelocatedwithincurves suPerelevation. requiring should be sufircientto providesaf'etuming The width of the crossover anrJshould have a surtacecapableof supportingthe malRtenance movements ievel to be be shoulcl depressed low shoulder .quip*.n, usedon it. The crossover b.in.on,pi.uoustotrafflcandshouldhavel:l0orflattersideslopestominimize not should be placed Crossovers vehicles. to itsetfectasan obstacle uncontrolled to widthis sufflcient accommodate the unless median medians in restricted-width thevehiclelength,sayT.5mormore.Wheremedianbarriersareernployed'each a require crash*orthl tcnninal'Ret'erence at endof thebarrier the openingma,v Guidc l7)' Design Rtxulsitle lo shouldbe ntade the AASHTO

O E P R E S S E P A R A L L E LA L I N M E N T O -A-

I
I T D E P R E S S E O ,I N D E P E N D E N P R O F L E

-84 5 mI

SidesloPes
, S E P A R A T ER O A D W A Y S N A T U R A LM E D I A N

-c-

l. Om to

9.0m
I

$ith a\'ililantl consistL.nt Flat. rounttctl sidesltlpcs'fitting u,ith the toptryrlrphl, Ijorcslrlpcsol l:(r or llilttt'r llre rcconllutrlcright-ot-,,vay.should bc provitlcd. h c i g l r t r r st l i s c t t s s c ti ln c h a p t c r a n r e n d c di n c u t s c c t r o r t s n d t b r t ' i l l so t ' n t o t l c r a r e lV.Whcrc|illhcightsareintermcdiatc'I-rr<rkctlbacklilrcslrlllc\Jllilvbcttsctlto fills' stL'cpcrslopt's protcctctl lrl providc a vehiclc rccovery arca' For high pcrntit ttontraIlltntlscrtpguardt.lril nllrv bc rlcccssafy.Backslopcstlf I :J rlr ll lttcr ()pcrllti()ns. lrighlr In .rnrinn control practices ancl case maintenltncc u.lg ,,,r,1 hc ttsctl.ltttl tltc cotnbittlttiort nlltv pr,l,luctrvc egricultuftrl ,raar, rt"ap",'sltlpcs pcrtrtitr chiclc rcco!cr\ ' backslrtpc.and tlitch cont'iguratitlnshottltl of'lirrcslopc. backslopcsntltr bc ncltrlv vcrlicltl' \\'hcrc rock rlr ktcssdcpositsore cnc()untcred. rcc()\'crvilftlll t()r prol'itlc ltrt lttlcqtrlttc l.rutshould bc locltctl wherc practical ttl c r r a n tv c l t i c l c s .

lnl
| ,W

I P A V E D F L U S H WI T i l B A R R [ R

-0-

FigureVlll-44. Typicalruralmedlans.
the VIII-4^lD. such instances medianis In as bc necessary, shown tn Figure are paved and where the roadways crowned, undergrounddrainagc usually

I rontagr.Rrtads
.-\ltlttltlglrrlrcncctlltlrItlcitlscrviecltcrtlss:ttttllt|.'ttSrttI'ltl||.c('\\ll}e()rri(l()rsl5 scrr l.g lllrrrl! ltrtltlr ticr tlrr|ctl ttrb:ttl i,rnri.l.l,.rlrlr lcss thrrrr thc rtcctl lirr

a areas, medianbarrier is in mounainous w e l l a s opcitaibnal.haracteristicS warrantedas a safetymeasure. usually

AASHTO--IJeomerri(Dcsi,qnof Highv'avsand Streets

627

ays' thereis nevertheless certaindemanil.Usually,frontage a roadsare intermittentand relativelyshort, providing accessto one or more severed properties provideconlinuityof a local roa<J relocarion to by alongthe freeway to a connection with a erade-separated crossroad. where a ruralfreewavis located parallel andin closeproximityto a major to highwa,v, manycases majorhiehwayis convenetl a continuous in the to two-way tiontageroadand serves a collectortacility. as Because the lack of continuityand the type of servicebeingprovided, of newlv constructed fiontageroads normallytwo-wayfacilities ruralareas. are in S i n c e t r a f f i c o p e r a t i o n sa t t w o - w a y f r o n t a g e r o a d i n t e r s e c t i o n sw i t h grade-separated crossroads morecomple suchintersections generally are x. are located tar as practicable as fiom grade-separation structures interchanse and terminals. Rural frontage roads are generally outside the control-of-access line but within the right-of-waylimits. Designdetailsfor rural frontage roadsaresimilarto thoseusedfbr localroads. as discussed Chapters and V. in III

ChapterIX

INTERSECTIONS AT-GRADE
INTRODUCTION join areawheretwo or morehighways as is An intersection defined the general facilitiesfor traffic movements or cross,includingthe roadwayand roadside and fiom an intersection formingpartof it is within it. Eachhighwayradiating an intersectionleg. The common intersectionof two highwayscrossingeach have more than that an intersection other has four legs.It is not recommended four legs. partof a highwaybecause, a greatextent. to is An intersection an important and depend itsdesign. on speed, ofoperation, capacity cost safety, theefficiency, on or movements oneor more involves through- cross-traffic Eachintersection between these and concerned may involvetuming movements of thehighways on depending by may be handled variousmeans, Thesemovements highways. the type of intersection. intersections grade,grade at typesof intersections: Thereare threegeneral sepaThe and interchanges. lasttwo arediscussed *ithout ranrps. separations primarily those designelernents, Certainintcrsection ratelyin otherchapters. are of eoncerning accommodation tuntingmovements, commonand applithe n sh lt r ' l r h l r ' t r irn l t ' r s c c t i o n st g n t t l cl t n t !i n t c r c h a n g c T . e l c i i g n c l c ' t n e n tis t h c i s ap l i l l l o w i n g c l i s c u s s i o n s p l v t O a t - g r a d en t e r s c c t i o na n d t h e i r a p p u r t e n a n t lcat rcs. u

-'t

i
I

REFERENCES
l.

2.

TransportationResearch Board. I-{i glu'u1'CoytL'it1, Munuu[.Special Report 209. Washingron,D. C.: Transporrarion RescarchBoard, NationalResearch Council. I c)lJ-5. AASt{TO- StundunlSpet,iJ'it utiort.s.fitr. t! iglnut' Ilt.irl,gc.s. Washington,

D .c . :, c R strro .e 9 2 . 1

-5 (r.

r\r\SFII'O.Mttdel DruitrugerVldnudl. Washinston. D. I991. AASHTO. Guide.fbr the De.rignof'tli,qh-Ot'cupdn('\, l chic!eFucilit i i ' . i .W a s h i n g t o n , . C . : A A S H T O . 1 9 9 2 . D AASHTO. GuideJor rhe Designrf' Park-ond-Ritlc W Fucilitic.s. a s h i n s t o n .D . C . : , . \ A S H T O . 9 9 1 . 1 ,\trrL'ri&t u'it D is'rltilit rt.s h ic.r.'l. r'r'c.s.r'i/tilitt'o 1..! uidelitrc.r. n itcdStatcs u .'\rclrtcctura and'lrlnsponationBarricrsConrpl i I ianccBoard. I 992. '\.'\SllTO. Rttod.tilr Dt:;i.gtt Gttirlc.Wushingrorr. C.: ,\,\SHTO, D. I9 u 9 .

( ; E N E R A L D E S I G N C O N S I D E R A T I O N SA N D O B J E C T I V E S 'fhc'rnain d o b j e c t i v co t ' i n t e r s e c t i o n e s i g ni s t o r e d u c ct h c s e v e r i t yo t ' v e h i c l e sb u s e st,r u c k s . i c y c l e sp e d c s t r l . b . m p o t e n t i ac o n t l i c t s e t " v c c n o t o r l b a e.a s e . n d c o m t b r t o l ; r n s . n d f a c i l i t i e sw ' h i l ef l c i l i t l t i n g t h e c o n v e n i e n c e a s b T p L - ( ) p t cr v e r s i n g h ei n t c r s e c t i o n s .h e d e s i g n h t l u l d e f i t t e dc l o s e l yt o t h c ' lr t of l n l l u r a l t r l n s i t i o n r t p a t h sa n d o p c r r t i n gc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h e u s e r s . oi F o u r b a s i ce l e m e n t e n t e ri n t o d e s i g nc o n s i d e r a t i o n s a t - t r a d ei n t e r s secilons.

and Str

ions At -Grade I ntersect

629

Human Factors l. 2. 3. 1. 5. 6. '7. Drivinghabits A b i l i t y t o m a k ed e c i s i o n s Driver expectancy t a D e c i s i o n n d r e a c t i o ni m e pathsof movemenl to Conformance natural use Pedestrian and habits Bicycle traffic useand habits

INTERSECTIONS OF TYPESAND EXAMPLES AT-GRADE

General Considerations Thebasictypesofat-gradeintersecrionsaretheTintersection(withmultiple and the multileg intersection' variationsof angularapproach)'the four-leg pnmarily by the case,the type is determined In intersections. eachparticular andthe desired the legs,the topography' traffic pattern' numberof intersecting typeof oPeration. of type can vary greatlyin scope'shape'and degree A basic intersection and the once tne iype is estabLished, designconrrols _criteria channelization. designgiven in Chapter elementsof intersection coveredin Chaptertt and tire plan' geometric to mustbe applied arriveat a suitable III aswellasin thischapter and likely is discussedseparately, In this section each type of intenicrion variationsofeacharedemonstrated.Itisnotpracticaltoshowallpossible variations,butthetypesdemonstratedaresufficienttocoverthegeneral design' Many other variationsof typesand afplication of at-graia intersection treatmentmaybefoundintheNCHRP2Tg(|)'whichshowsexamplesindetail thatarenot includedin this policy manual' involved the t^urnplt* arein urbanareas' principles Althoughmanyof these occurwith different minorvariations Some in to applyequa-lly design ruralareas' lo themselves cautionery oi tr.inc control.but all of thetypesshownlend Linar; ornon-stopcontrol,stopcontrolforminortrafficvolumes'tbur.waystop Right turns and traffic actuated. conrrol.and signalcontiol, both fixed time rvithoutstoporyielclcontrolaresometimesprovidedatchanneliz,edintersec. tions.Thesefreetlorvingrightturnsshouldorrlybeusedwhe'nanatlequate'merge or bicyclistsare anticipated. is provided.where .onfli.t. wiih pedestrians b c l d d i t i o n a l a r es h o u l d e u s e d ' followedby themorecomplextypes' are intersectrons firstpresented. Simple someofwhicharespecialadaptations.Trafficvolume.speed.andthecharacter in considered thedetermination factors are or of highway highways theprincipal typemay be intersection type.The conditionfbr which each of the intersection n i s u i t e d s d i s c u s s cid t h c f o l l o w i n us c c t l o n '

B . Traffic Considerations
l. l D e s i g na n da c t u a c a p a c i t i e s

2 . Design-hour turning movements

ofvehicle characteristics Size and operating (diverging, merging,weaving'and crossing) Variety of movements Vehicle speeds 6. Transit involvement a Accidentexperience 8 . Bicycle movements
+.

C.

PhysicalElements
I l.

2. -). 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
il.

r2.
D.

and useof abuttingproperty Character V e r t i c a la l i n e m e n ta t l h e i n t e r s e c t i o n s Sight distance Angle of the intersection Conflict area lanes Speed-change Geometricfeatures Traffic controldevices Lighting equipment Sat'etyteatures Bicyclc traffic factors Environmental

EconomicFactors
l.

Three-Leg I ntersections of Ilasic TYPes Intersections n l l u s t r a t eid F i

I ls we ll tts

Cost of improvements r y g o E f t e c t s f c o n t r o l l i n o r l i m i t i n gr i g h t s - o f - w ao n a b u t t i n ge s i d c n o rc.s!ricls r nelization

Fntlriltirr!-elricuinuuvemEnrrconsumplion .1. EncrSy

AASHTO--CeomerricDe.rignof Highv,aysand Streets

At -Grade I nter sections

The most common type of r intersection shown in FigureIX-55A. The is normalpavement wiclths bothhighways of shouldbe maintained excepr the for pavedreturnsor where wideningis requiredfor the ry'peof designvehicle anticipated. This type of unchannelized intersection junctionsof rn,no,o, fits Iocalroadsand generally junctionsof minor roadswith more imponanthighwayswheretheroadwayintersection notgenerally is morethan30 degrees from normal. This would allow theangleof intersection rangefrom approximarely to 60 degrees I 20 degrees. ruralareas to In this type is usuallyusedin conjunctron with two-lane highwayscarryinglight traffic.In suburban urbanareas may or it be satisfactory highervolumes for and multilaneroads. where speeds tuming movemenrs high,an additional and are areaof surfacing or flaringmay be provided maneuverability, shownin Figures for as IX-558 and IX-56. The useofauxiliary lanesincreases capacityand creates saferconditionfor a tuming vehicles.Left tums from the throughhighwaysareparticularlydifficult because vehiclesmust slow down and perhaps stop bforecompretingthe turn. Intersections with auxiliarylanes enable following throughvehicles maneuto ver around theseslower vehicles.Existing intersections can have an auxiliary lane addedwith minimal difficultiesro provide the types shown in Figuras I X - 5 5 8 a n dI X - 5 6 . Figure IX-558 showsan addedlane,on rhe side of the throughhighway adjacent the intercepted to road,actingas a conrinuous speed-change fbr lane rightoff turns. This arrangemenr applicable is wheretheright-rurning movement from the through highway (movementl) is substanrial anclthe leti-ruminu movementfrom the throughhighway(movement is minor. 2) FigureIX-56,4showsan added laneon thesideopposite intercepted the road. This typeof lacility is commonlyreferred asa "lefi runrlane"or a "right-hlnrl to passing lane."This arrangement applicable is wherethe left-turning movement fiom thethroughhighway(movement andthethrough 2) movernenr (movemcnr 5) aresubstantial, theright-turning and movement (movement is minor.Herc l) the addedlane affords the opportunityfbr rhe fbllowing rhroughdrivers ro pass on the right of the slowermovingor stopped vehicles preparing turn lefi. A to driver turninglett fiom the throughhighwaynarurally edges rowardrhecenrcr. andthrough traific is encouraged pass therightof rhevehicle to on slowingtlown tlr stopping turn left. to Another tlared anangemenr. Figure IX-56B. mav be eft'ectetl adding by auxiliarylanes eachsideof thethrough on highwayapproaching inrerscction, rhe Such ln arrtngement may be appropriate wherethe capacitl, the two_lanc of highwry at thc intersection taxedby thevolumeandwhcresignalcontrolmay is be required. usuallyin developing areas. Forsuchcondirions rural arca.s. rhc in twe-lane highwa.v.preferably. would be eonvertedto a divided .sec-rion through t h e i n l c ' r s e c t i oa s s h o w ni n F i g u r el X - 1 . I n a d c l i r i o r o a d d i n sa u x i l i l r v l a n c s n, n

ISIAND AND ruRNING ROADWAYS WTt| DMSIONAL

high-type"T" Interseclions' FigurelX-1. Channellzed

road may be widenedon one or both to the through highway, the intercepted and sides,as shown at the left in Figure IX-58A, for better maneuverability road. capacityof the intercepted increased

ChannelizedThree-Leg Intersections with supported intersections, FiguresIX-57 and IX-58 depict channelized characteristics. and functional application of discussion general geometvarious indicate in discussed thefbllowingparagraphs, The figures. intersections' at islands three-leg to relative theuseof channelization ric designs when island design requiresa convex section,there should be suftlcient area of the island to ensure its proper function. That is, to cross-sectional area the turningmovements. totalcross-sectional should andseparate channelize turning in considered thedesignwhen it is lessthan7 mr. The undesirable not be shouldbe given with someof the intersections in conjunction pathsdescribed should be design geometrics Unusualor sophisticated parriculararrention. with a right-turn FigureIX-s7A showsan intersection wherepossible. avoided the by This is accomplished increa.sing retum lanelrom the throughroarJway. to dimension permitan individual a two roadways sufficient the between radius wavsby an island. tiom thenormaltraveled which is separated turningroadway may include a sectionof an auxiliary'lanetbr the roadway The approach of is rraffic.suchanaddition I tunction thenumber ionof riehr-rum

AASHTO--CeometricDesign of Highways and Streets

At-Grade I ntersections

FigureIX-57B showsan intersection with a pair of right-turning roadways, wtrictris applicable wherespeeds turningpathsaboueminimum or are to be provided rhese for movements. However, reftturnfrom thethroughhighway the is not helped by this arrangement. Usually, on two_lanehighways where right-turning roadways justified,the flaringof the througt are t,igir*uy atro i, in order,arong the rinesof that shown in Figures IX-58A and IX-5SB. The right-turningroadway for traffic enteringthe through highway shourdbe made asnarrowasfeasibleto discourage driversturningteft from the throughhighway fiom enreringthis. roadwayimproperry, wtriresti, providingwidth fbr anticipatedturning trucks. FigureIX-58A shows channelized a intersection consisting onedivisional of island on rhe inte-rcepted road. Space for the isrand is made by flaring the edgesof the intercepted roadand by using largerthanminimum edge --_Pgl!-Tent radii for right-turningmovements. fit thepaths To ofleft-iurning vehiclestheend of rhe israndis generailyrocatedabout2.4to 3.6 m from the p-uu.r.nt edgeof thethroughhighway.This designis adaptabre to two-lane highways overa wide rangeof volumes,particularrywherespace not is availabre turning roadways fo-r and wheresimplicity is desired.For intermediate-to-heavy vo,|umes (relativeto the capacityof the highways),the rhroughhighway prefeiabry shourdbe flared as shownin FigureIX_38. FigureIX-58B shows intersection a divisional an with island andright-tuming r o a d w a y s ,a d e s i r a b r ep r a n o n i m p o r t a n t t w o - r a n e highways carrying intermediate-to-heavy trafricvorumes, e.g., peak-houruorumes greater than500 vehicreson the through highway with substantial tunring rnovements. Alr movements throughthe intersection accommodated are on ,"pu.ut. ianes. The divisionalislands .shown FigureIX-5g differ in locationwith respect in to thc centerline. Eitherone may be usedon eachplan. FigureIX-2 is a three-leg rurarintersection. rwo-rane The majorhighwayhas beenconverted a dividedhighwaythroughthe to inter.section. inters^ection This is u'elldesigned, with liberar of painted use barsin themetrian. right_turn A lane in the upper ri-ehtquadrantaccommodates non-restricted a exit t'rom the major route.and a separate leti-turnstorage laneserves higherturningvorumes than can be rrccommodated the intersection bv treatment shownin FigureIX_568.A sr'p signorsignarn.rmalrycontrors rraf intersecting the fic thethrough highway.

;
I

"T." ruralIntersectlon, channelized three-leg lX-2. Existing Figure

s s p a v e m e n t sa n d m a n y o f t h e p r e v i o u sd i s c u s s i o n f o r T i n t e r s e c t i o na l s o , a p p l y t o f o u r - l e gi n t e r s e c t i o n s . four-leg the simplestform of an unchannelized Figure IX-3A illustrates for of for suitable crossings minor or localroadsandoftensuitable intersection shouldnot The roadwayintersection of minor roadcrossings major highways. from normal,This would allow theangleof intersection be morethan30 degrees are es Approachpavements 60 to rangefrom approximately degre to I 20 degrees. to and are the through intersection, thecomers rounded accommodate continued tuming vehicles. at havingadditional capacity the intersection a FigureIX-38 illustrates t'lared An andturningmovements. auxiliarylaneon eachside intersection through for enables throughvehiclesto pass at of the normal pavement the intersection preparing tum. to vehicles and standing slow-moving on Depending the relativevolumesof traffic and the typeof trlffic control ' a b u s e d .t l a r i n gi s l c c o m p l i s h e d y p a r a l l e l u x i l i a r yl a n e s a s o n t h e h i g h w a , " " Flaring as tapers. shownon theL^rossroad. or shownhorizontallv, by pavement g e n e r a l l y s s i m i l a ro n o p p o s i t cl e g s .P a r a l l e la u x i l i a r y[ a n e sl r e e s . s e n t i a l i tlow where traffic volume on the major highway is near the uninterrupted capacity the highwavor wherethroughandcrosstraffic is sufficientlyhigh of
+o +e{l+i+e +i{II+c}!

Four-Leg Intersections

Basic Types

T h c o v c r l l l p r i n c i p l e so f d e s i g n .i s l a n d a r r a n g . i . r . n t r . use of auxilirrv

should bc computed as iris for TFci l-glh of addEdpavem=ent condirion.s. o o le . s p e e d - c h a n ga n e sa n dt h e l e n g t h f u n i t b r ml a n ew i d t h .e x c l u s i v e f t a p e r ,

AASHTO---Geometric Design of Highways ond Streets

ions At -Grade I ntersect

'o c o
T' o

t o =

h b s n o r m a l l y h o u l d eg r e a t etrh a n4 5 m o n t h ea p p r o a c s i d ea n d6 0 m o n t h ee x l t s i d eo f t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n . markingareathat with a pavement FigureIX-3C showsa flaredintersection lane for and the dividestrafficapproaching intersection with provision a median are infreare for suitable two-lanehighwayswherespeeds high. intersections a from thehighwaycouldcreate conflict. movements quent, andrheleft-tuming with edge-reverse preferably pavemenr gradually, wideningshouldbe effected taperrates curyeswith radii of 1500m or more or by the use of appropriate marking at the widestpoint The pavement by determined the designspeed. lane the 3.6 shouldbe at least m, ancl through-traffic on eachsideof it shouldbe Nearthe cross 0.5 to I m wider thanthe normallanewidth on the approaches. is the wherethefull wideningis attained, overallwidth of pavement about road, betterprotectionfor vehiclestuming left from the major plan at'fords l2 m. This highway than doesthe anangementin Figure IX-38, which is bettersuitedfor marking is not as positivea requiringsignalcontrol.Pavement iniersections wheresand snow or but island, it is advantageous divisional as separator a curbed problem and where any introducedcurbed island may be an is a maintenance rural highways. as obstruction, on high-speed

ChannelizedFour-Leg Intersections y i o a T h e u s u a l r r a n g e m e n tf t h e s e n t e r s e c t i otn p e sw i t h s i m p l eC h a n n e l i z a t i o n and IX-5. At other than minor intersections. i s s h o w n i n F i g u r e sI X - 4 a.s are roadwa,ys often provided. shown in FigureIX-4A. fbr the right-turning are Iargevehicles to be accommoor rvhere turningmovement ntoreirnportant s i n q u a d r a n tw h er e t h e a n g l co f t u r n g r e a t l y ' a c l a t e d n da t m i n o r i n t e r s e c t i o n s 90 exceeds degrees. a n n F i g u r eI X - . l B s h o w sa n o b l i q u e - a n g lie t e r s e c t i ow i t h a s k e r v n g l eo f 4 ' 5 n r t u r n i n g o a d w a y is t h ea c u t e - a n g l e w d e g r e eo r m o r ea n dw i t h s e p a r a tte o - w a y s q u u d r u n , r .V e h i c l e sc a n t u r n r e a d i i y t o t h e r i g h t o r l e f t . a n d a w k w a r d a ' n a m a n e u v e ra n dc n c r o i l c h m e n t st t h e i n t e r s e c t i op r o p e r r ee l i m i n a t e dT h e s s k c w l n g l c m a v c o m b i n eI t . t a n r u l t i p l ep o i n l s o f i n t e r s e c t i t l n n d t h e l a r g e P , n t n r o k e h i sr y p eo f i n r e r s e c t i ou n d e s i r a b l e .r e f t r a b l y o n c t l r b t l t hh i g h w a y s t t s h c l u l d e r e a l i n c dt o r e d u c ct h e s k e w a n g l c .W h c n r e a l i n c m e nc a n n ( ) b c b i r t n t !s i g n r l c ( ) n t r ( ) l ss o b t a i n e d 'c x t c n s i v ea p p l i c a t i o no f p r o p e r s i g n i n r l recommcnded. i r w a F i g u r c l X - , 5 As h o w ' s c r t l s s i n g i t h r i g h t - t u r n i n q t l i t d w l t v sn a l l f o u r a n turntttg lovcmcnts rc a w i h u u a d r a n tts a ri s s u i t a b l c h c r es p u c es a v a i l a b l e t r t l

-9 lt

I
I
I

<'6
lc.

lg

Figure lX-3. unchannelized four-leg intersecilons, plalnandflared.

W i s n ( ) l c ( ) r n t l l ( l n . h c r c ( ) l l c o r r n t l r e 0 f ' t h c r i g h t - t t r r n i t t qt l t t l r c r t t c n t sr c q u i r c '

AASHTO-Ceometric Design of Highwaysand Streets

At -Grade I ntersections

637

a t s e p a r a r eu r n i n g r o a d w a y s , d d i t i o n a ll a n e sg e n e r a l l ya r e n e e d e df o r t h e . c o m p l e m e n t a r l e f t - t u r n i n gm o v e m e n t s I n t h e l a t t e rc a s et h e h i g h w a y i s y w i d e n e d a s s h o w ni n F i g u r e sI X - 3 B a n d I X - 5 C . , on with divisionalislands thecrossan FigureIX-58 illustrates intersection by its beinggovemed the road.This planfits a wide rangeof volumes. capacity plan.in The widthsprovidedthroughtheintersection. simplicityof the roadway to will make it preferable thatof FigureIX-5A. manycases. for plan,otherthan at a minor crossroad, a FigureIX-5C is an appropriate volumes high at or nearcapacity canyingmoderate highwayoperating two-lane to on approach themajorhighwayis converted a four-lane The speeds. two-lane change, are areas usedfor speed The additional with a divisionalisland. section Crossand tuming volumesand of and maneuvering, storage turningvehicles. on determinethe form of channelization sizesof vehiclesto be accommodated the crossroad. on The simplestform of intersection a divided highway has minimum given to opening conforming designs areas rightturnsanda median for all-paved and volumeof throughand Often thespeed in this chapter. in laterdiscussions to and rurningtrafficjustify a highertypeof channelization details fit predominantmovements. on The FigureIX-6A showsa high-typeintersection. approach theright has l t h a t c a n u t i l i z et h e m e d i a na u x i l i a r y a n ep r o v i d e d . v a h e a v yl e f t - t u r n o l u m e has a significantright turn volurnethat is The lower leg of the intersection a i c h a n n e l i z ew i t h a t r i a n g u l a rs l a n da n d a d d e d u x i l i a r yl a n e . d dividedhigh*'ayintersecttbr a high-speed a FigureIX-68 illustrates design with speedchangelanesand roadways Right-turning ing a major crossroad. and of tbr lanes lefiturnsirfforda highdegree efficicncyin operation high median at the highway to ()peratc reasonablc capacityand permit throughtraffic on i.s useof signalcontrol's required. Proper speed. F i g u r e I X - 7 A s h o w s a d e s i g nw i t h d u a l l e f i - t u r n l a n c s f o r o r t e o f t h e w e l t I. m l e t i - t u r n i n g o v e m e n t s t r e q u i r e sr a f f i cs i g n a c o n t r o l i t h a s e p a r a ts i g n a l rvhere thereis areas in phase the leti turn and is particularlysuitable urban tbr a heavy turning tnovementin otre quadrant.The metlian lancs shtluld llc tlr lts island. sh6rvn. hv sL'parated thethroughlancsby eitherln clongatcd frorn s p u v c t n c n t s . r t t t li g n s ; t p a v e m c nm a r k i n g s P a v c m e n m l r k i n g s .c o n t r i l s t i n g t . nq d h b r s h o u l d eu s e d ot l i s c o u r a gte et h r o u g h r i v c rf r o t ni n a d v e r t c n t l l ' c n t c r i t h c a v l l m e d i a n u n e .L e f t - t u r n i n g e h i c l e sc a v et h et h r < l u g lh n ct o c n t c rt h c t n c d i r t t t t i f l a n ei n s i n g l e i l c b u t .o n c ew i t h i n i t . s t o r e n t w o l t n c s .o n r c c c i v i n g h cg r c c n r s i n d i c a t i o n t u r n i n g i s a c c o m p l i s l t c d i n t u l t a n c t l u s lfv t l r n b t l t h l i t n c s .T l t c ' . v p t a m e d i a no p e n i n g n d t h c c r o s s r o a , l a v e m c n s h o u l db c s u i f i c i c ' n t l " v i t l ct o rer-ci

Figure

IX FigL'rL' ?B is r designfo rnusu.tn\FiittrhrouAh v''lumcrrnd n high Channelizedfour-leg intersections.

n . v t u r n i n g o l u m ci r ro n eq u a d r a n tT h c h c a v yl c t ' t - t u r n i t t u o rc n t c l l ti s r c r n o v c d

I ntersections

I
/

-N/l'
\l

L
N\S

llit

I
I

.,T." Figure lX-5. Four-leg intersections, channelized

(channellzed high'type)' lntersections FlgurelX-6. Four-leg

AASHTMeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

At-GradeI ntersections

roadway diagonal by from the main point of intersection providinga separate A creatingtwo additional intersections. high degreeof efficiency is and and proper traffic signals synchronized of by obtained a system progressively the widthsbetween three and relationto the distance pavement signaltiming in should be at least 60 m' and The three intersections points of conflict. movement preferably m or more,apart.A medianlanefor the left-turning 90 should be two lanes wide. The right-turning onto the diagonal roadway and usingthe diagonalroadwaymay flow continuously, an auxilmovement This designmay may be desirable' iary lanealongeachof the major roadways as is be usedwherea gradeseparation not feasible, in flat tenain with traffic to having a high volume of heavy trucks,or where it is necessary defer the in Wheremovements the otherquadrants of construction a gradeseparation. reach the proponions of through movements,additional diagonal roadways in but might be providedto advantage, with major turningmovements more Beforeusingthe generally imperative. is a thanonequadrant, gradeseparation should be given to design shown in Figure IX-7B, careful consideration two additional sincethis design,in effect,creates characteristics operational intersections.

IU

Multileg Intersections e s M u l t i l e g i n t e r s e c t i o na r e t h o s er v i t h f i v e o r m o r e i n t e r s e c t i o ln g s .T h e y should be avoided wherever possible.Where volumes are light and stop t e o i c o n t r o li s u s e d . t m a y b e s a t i s f a c t o rty h a v ea l l i n t e r s e c t i oln g si n t e r s e ca t safety and a common. all-paved arca. At other than minor intersections, that remove sonreconflicting efficiency are improved by rearrangements :lre Theserearrangements accomfrom the major interSection. movements legsandcombiningsome realiningone or more of the intersecting plishedby as of the traffic movementsat adjacentsubsidiaryintersections, shown in e i n . s o m c a s e sm a k i n go n eo r m o r el e g so n ew a v a w a yf r o m t h e . l F i g u r e X - 8 .o r intersection. t o F i g u r eI X - l t , { s h o w st h e s i m p l c s t ' l s e t ' t h i s p r i n c i p l c l n r t l ti n t c r s c c l i o n t l e g s .T h e d i a g o n a l e g i s r e a l i n e do . i o i nt h eu p p c rr o i l dr t with fiveapproach to distlncelrom the main point of the intersection tbrm twt.ldisttnct sufficient T o c a nb e s i n r p l y p e r a t e d . h c l c t i t o l o w e rr i g h t t s i n t e r s c c t i o ne a c ho f w h i c h s. t l i k e l y t o b e t h e r n a j o rh i g h w a y .l n d t h e d i a g o n a l e g i s r c l l i n e dt o l o c a t e h e importantroad. on extra intcrsection the less l n a F i g u r eI X - 8 B i l l u s t r a t e s n i n t e r s e c t i o w i t h s i x a p p r o a c he g s ,n v o o f conrened tion. whichisrh-ereby' maj<fintersee piiare,IistaniC ihEiighaot-ihE to w h e r et h c t o p - t o - b o t t o r n 1 1 h r r r r hi a T c t o a f o u r - l e g r r t s s i n g .h i s p a t t e r n p p l i e s

L
rN \\\!,
-B-

FlgurelX-7. Four-teg intersecilons(channeilzed high_type).

a t t h e l e f t i s t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n r o u t e .I f t h e l e f t - t o - r i g hh i g h w a y i s m o r e t impo-rtant, may be preferableto bend the diagonallegs toward the other it highway and thereby create three separare intersections along the minor highway.The designs FigureIX-8 areshownin the simplest in form. Separate turning lanes and divisional islands,as are necessary fit the particular to s i t u a t i o nm a y b e u s e d . .

CAPACITYANALYSIS
o is t i a c a p a c i r y n a l y s i ss o n eo f t h em o s ti m p o r t a nc o n s i d e r a t i o nn t h ed e s i g n f a n di s d i s c u s s e d r d i n t . r r . . i i o n r . T h i s s u b j e c its d i s c u s s ea t l e n g t hi n C h a p t e I I o t a r h r o u e h o utth i s c h a p t e r s i t r e l a t e s o t h e v a r i o u se l e m e n t s f i n t e r s e c t i o n i c d e s i g n .O p t i m u m c a p a c i t i e s a n b e o b t a i n e dw h e n a t - g r a d e n t e r s e c t i o n s a i n c l u d e a u x i l i a r yl a n e s ,p r o p e r u s e o f c h a n n e l i z a t i o n .n d t r a f f i c c o n t r o l n o o c d e v i c e sF o r m o r ec o m p l e t e o v e r a g e f c a p a c i t y f i n t e r s e c t i o nis ' c l u d i n g . shouldbe madeto the reference computations. tbr proce<lures makingcapacity 'Highl/at f C a p a c ' i t M a n u a l ( H C M ) ( 2 ) , a n d g u i d a n c eo r i t s u s ei s g i v e n i n v I ChapterI.

ATJNEA'{ENT

OID AUNEMENT ALINEMENT AND PROFILE General Considerations and pedestrians, bicycles' vehicles, are Intersecrions pointsof conflict between shouldpermit users roads,therefore, of the intersecting and The alinement grade to to discem and perform readily the maneuversnecessary passthrough the should the ends alinement To of interference. these rvirh intersection I minimum shouldbe The sightdistance as flat as practical. and be as srraight the gratiients conditions' intersection for thantheminimumvalues specific equalto oigreater the havedifficulryin disceming it is not,users later.If ancl asderivccl discussed of the anddiscerning messages trafficcontrol in of action,s otheru5ers, reading t d e v i c e sa n di n c o n t r o l l i n gh e i ro p e r a t i o n s . . and gradelimitations definitealinement establish generally Sitecondirions and to po.s.sible modify the alinement roads.It is sometime.s on intersecting operations' gracles. and therebyimprovetraffic however.

ALINEMENT

Alinement and ectlnomy'lnlerscctlns tor of Regardless the type of intersection, sat'ety t i ' . g r o a d s . h o u l d e l c r t l l y m c e ta t o r n e a r l ya t r i g h ta n g l e sR o a d s n t e r s e c t i nlg a n dt c n dt o l i m i t v i s i b i l a t c l c u r c l n g l e sr e q u i r e x t e n s i v eu r n i n gr o a d w a y r e a s a W o i t y . p a r r i c u l a r lfy r d r i v e r so f t r u c k s . h e n a t r u c kt u r n so n a n o b t u s e n g l e ' ie t e r s e c t i o n s n . o r t h et l r i v c .h a sb l i n t ia r e a s n t h er i g h to f t h ev e h i c l e A c u t e - a n g l time of the vehiclescrossingthe main traffic tlow lnd increlsethe exposure

f
AASHTHeometric Design of Highwaysand Steets i At-Grade I ntersections realine the roads allow operating speedsnearly equivalentto the maior highway approach speeds. T h e p r a c t i c eo f c o n s t r u c t i n g h o r t r a d i i h o r i z o n t a lc u r v e so n s i d e r o a d s a p p r o a c h e t o a c h i e v er i g h t a n g l e i n t e r s e c t i o n s h o u l db e a v o i d e dw h e n s e v e rp o s s i b l e T h e s ec u r v e sr e s u l ti n i n c r e a s e da n ei n f r i n g e m e n t s e c a u s e . l b d r i v e r s t e n d t o s m o o t ho u t t h e c u r v e sb y e n c r o a c h i n g n a p o r t i o n o f t h e o o p p o s i t el a n e .A l s o , t h e t r a f f i c c o n t r o l d e v i c e sa t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n a y b e m o b s c u r e d e s u l t i n gi n t h e n e e df o r t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n f a d v a n c e d i g n i n g . r o s A n o t h e rm e t h o do f r e a l i n i n ga n i n t e r s e c t i n go a d o r i g i n a l l ya t a n a c u t e r a n g l e i s t o m a k e a s t a g g e r e dn t e r s e c t i o na s s h o w n i n F i g u r eI X - 9 ( C a n d i , D ) . o n l y a s i n g l ec u r v e i s i n t r o d u c e d n e a c h c r o s s r o a d e g , b u t c r o s s i n g o l v e h i c l e sm u s t t u r n o n t o t h e m a j o r h i g h w a y a n d t h e n r e e n t e rt h e m i n o r highway. (The terms "major highway" and "minor highway" are usedhere to indicatethe relative importanceof the highways throughthe intersecrion r a t h e rt h a n t h e f u n c t i o n a lc h a r a c t e r f t h e h i g h w a y s . ) o R e a l i n e m e no f t h em i n o r r o a d ,a ss h o w ni n F i g u r eI X - 9 C , p r o v i d e s o o r t p a c c e s s o n t i n u i t yb e c a u s e c r o s s i n g e h i c l em u s tr e e n t e r h em i n o r r o a c b y c a v t l m a k i n g a l e f t t u r n o f f t h e m a j o r h i g h w a y .T h i s d e s i g na r r a n g e m e ns h o u l d t o n l y b e u s e dw h e nt r a f f i c o n t h em i n o r h i g h w a yi s m o d e r a t et,h ea n t i c i p a t e d m i n o r h i g h w a yd e s t i n a t i o n s r e l o c a l a n d t h e t h r o u s ht r a f f i c o n t h e m i n o r a h i g h w a yi s s l i g h t . W h e r et h e a l i n e m e n o f t h e m i n o r r o a d i s a s s h o w ni n F i g u r eI X - 9 D , t h e t a c c e s s o n t i n u i t yi s b e t t e rb e c a u s e c r o s s i n g e h i c l ef i r s t t u r n sI e f t o n t o t h e c a v m a j o r h i g h w a y( a m a n e u v e t h a tc a n b e d o n es a f e l yb y a w a i t i n ga n o p e n i n g r i n t h et h r o u g h - t r a f f i c t r e a m ) n d t h e nt u r n sr i g h t t o r e e n r e r h em i n o r r o a d , s a T h u s i n t e r f e r i n gl i r r l e w i r h r h r o u g ht r a f f i c . A l t h o u g ha r i g h t a n g l ec r o s s i n gn o r m a l l y i s d e s i r e d , o r n ed e v i a r i o ni s s p e r m i s . s i b l e . e c o n s t r u c t i n a n i n t e r s e c t i o no p r o v i d ea n a n g l eo f a t l e a s t R g t pr 6 0 d e _ u r e e s o v i d e sm o s t o f t h e b e n e f i t sw h i l e r e d u c i n gt h e r i g h t o f w a y t a k i n g s n dc o n s t r u c t i oc o s t s f r e na s s o c i a t ew i t h p r o v i d i n g r i g h ta n g l c a n o d a i n t e r s e c t i o nT h e r v i d t ho f t h e r o a d w a yo n t h e a p p r o a c h u r v e ss h o u l d b c . c c o n s i s t e n w i t h T l b l e I X - 3 i n o r d e r t o r c d u c c t h e p o r e n t i a lt b r l u c t i nf r in g e n r et . n W h e r ea l a r g ep o r t i o no f t h e t r a f f i c f r o m t h e m i n o r h i g h w a ! r u r n so n t o t h e m a j o rh i g h w l v . r a t h e rt h a nc o n r i n u i n g c r o s s h e m a j o r h i g h w a y .t h c a r d o u b l e - i n t e r s e c t i o n s i g nm a y b c a d v i r n t a g e o urs g a r d l e so f t h e r i g h t o r de e s l e f t e n t r y .A n a l i n e m e ntth a t i n t c r s e c tts o r o a d sa t t h e i rj u n c t i o nt o i o r m w a l ' i v e - o r - m o r e - l eig t e r s e c t i o n h o u l da l s o b e a v o i d e d . n s o . I n t e r s e c t i o n s n s h a r p c u r v e s s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d w h e r e v e rp o s s i b l c
lng oI pavemenls on cufves Lrompll-

-A-

-B -

i f---

-E-

at variations intersections' FigurelX-9. Realinement

constrh W h e r et h e m a j o r h i g h w a y i s c u r v i n ga n d a s u b o r d i n a t e i g h w a y h r e a l i n i n gt h e s u b o r d i n a t e i g h w a y t s t u t e s a n e x t e n s i o no f o n e t a n g e n t , onto the maln a a d v a n t a g e o u s ,s s h o w n i n F i g u r e I X - 9 E ' t o g u i d e t r a f f i c . t h e p o i n t o f i n t e r s c c t i o nT h i s highwayand improvethe visibility'at o s a r l v e r s e u p e r e l e v a t i ofn r t u r n i n g e p r ' " . t i . . m e y h a v et h e d i s a d v a n t a go f superelevatton h w f a v e h i c l e s n dm a y r e q u i r e u r t h e r s t u d y h e nc u r v e s a v eh i g h
r e s t n c i l o n d u e t o t h e g r a d el i n e '

J;;is;a n d m a y

r e d u c e i g h td i s t a n c e . s

AASHTo--ljet)metri(. Design of Highw,a.v-s Streets and

At -Grade I nter sect i ons

Profile Combinationsof grade lines that make vehicle control difficult should be sections, it is not alwaysfeasible do so.Adequate but to si_eht distance shouldbe providedalong both highwaysand across corners. discussed the as later.even whereone or both intersecting highwavs on venicalcurves. are The gradients intersecting of highways shoultJ asflat aspractical those be on sections that are to be usedfbr storage spacefor stopped vehicles, sometimes referredto as storageplatforms. The calculated stoppingand accelerating distances passenger for cars on gradesof 3 percentor less differ little from the distances the level. Grades at ..--- leeper than 3 percentrequire correction of the severaldesign factors to produce conditions equivalent to thoseon level highways.Most vehicle operarorsare unabletojudge the increase decrease stoppingor accelerating or in distance that is necessary because ofsteepgrades. Their normaldeductions reactions and thus may be in error at a critical time. Accordingly,gradesin excess 3 percent of should be avoided on intersecting highways.where conditionsmake such designunduly expensive, gradesshould not exceedabout 6 percent,with a corresponding adjustment designfacrors. in T h e p r o f i l e g r a d e l i n e s n d c r o s ss e c t i o n s n t h e i n t e r s e c t i o ne g ss h o u l d a o l b e a d j u s t e d o r a d i s t a n c e a c k f r o m t h e i n r e r s e c r i o p r o p e r t o p r o v i d ea f b n s m o o t hj u n c t i o n a n d p r o p e rd r a i n a g eN o r m a l l y .t h e g r a d e l i n e f t h e m a j o r . o h i g h w a ys h o u l db e c a r r i e d h r o u g h h e i n t e r s e c t i o n .n dr h a to f r h ec r o s s r o a d t t a s h o u l db e a d j u s t e d o i t . T h i s d e s i g nr e q u i r e s r a n s i t i o n f t h e c r o w n o f t h c t t o r n . i n o r i g h r v a yt o a n i n c l i n e dc r o s ss e c t i o na t i t s j u l r c t i o n w i t h t h e m a j o r h h i g h w a v .F o r s i m p l e u n c h a n n e l i z eid t e r s e c t i t ' r in s o l v i n g l < l w d e s i g n n nv s p e e d n ds t o pc o n t r o ls i g n a l s r s i g n s , t r n a yb c d e s i r a b l co w a r pt h ec r o w n s a o i , t o f h o t h r o a d si n t o a p l a n ea t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n h e p a r t i c u l a r l a n ed e p e n d i n g t. p o n d i r e c t i o n f d r a i n a g ea n do t h e rc o n d i t i o n sC h a n g e sr o m o n ec r o s ss l o p c o . f t o a n o t h e rs h o u l d b e g r a d u a l .I n t e r s e c t i o nw i t h a m i n o r r o a d c r o s s i n ga s m u l t i l a n ed i v i d e d h i g h w a yw i t h a n a r r o wm e t i i a n n d s u p e re l e v a t c d u r v e a c s h t l u l db e l v o i d e d w h e r t c v e p o s s i b l e e c a u s e f r h e d i f t ' i c u l t vi n a d . j u s r i n g r b o g r a d e st o p r o v i d ea s u i t a b l e r o s s i n g G r a d e l i n e s f s e p a r a t eu r n i n gr o a d c . o t w a v s . s h o u lb e d e s i g n e do f i t t h ec r o s s l o p e s n dl o n g i r u d i n ag r a d e s t ' r h c d t s a l o i n t e r s e c t i o ne g s . l As a rule.thealinement grades sub.ject greater and are to restriction ()rncar at intersecting roads than on the open road. Their combinationat or ncar thc Intersection mustproducetraffic lanes thatareclearlvvisibleto theoDerators at s u d d e nl p p c a r l l n c e p o t c n t i ac o n t l i c t sa n dc o n s i s t e n t i t h t h c n o r t i o n s f t h c i l of . w o highwavjust ruvclcd. t .

adequate The combinationof vertical and horizontalcurvatureshouldallow A sharp horizontal curve following a crest sight distanceat an intersection. vertical curve is undesirable.

INTERSECTION CURVES Widths for Turning Roadways at Intersections are and roadwaywidths of turning roadwaysat intersections The pavement and the types of vehiclesto be governedby the volumesof turning traffic and may be designedfor one-way or two-way operation' accommodated Widths determined on depending rhe geomitric patternof the intersection. within an intersection' are foi turningroadways also appliedon all roadways are crossslopes functionsofdesignspeed turningradii andthe pavement The andtypeofvehicles.Foranin-depthstudyofthecriteriainvolved,see ChapterIII.

Clearance Outside Traveled Way Edges for Minimum Designs SharpestTurns Whereitisnecessarytoprovideforturningvehicleswithinminimumspace' the inteisections, minimum turning pathsof the design as at unchannelized are turnsof thesevehicle.s shown in ChapterII' and Sharpest vehiclesapply. paths are innerrearwheeland the front overhang shown.The the pathsofthe p a t h so f n e a r l ya l l t i n d i c a t e dw h i c h a r e s t i g h t l yg r e a t e r h a n t h e m i n i m u m . lessthan l5 km/ at ar! in vehicles eachclass, tne minimumsattainable speeds Layoutspatterned offer someleewayin driver behavior. h, and consequently as satisfactory minimurn vehiclesare considered to fit thesepathsof design TablesIX-l of speeds l5 km/h or lessare appropriate. whererurning designs tbr way designs vlrious design minimumedgeof traveled anaiX-Z summarize vehicles. Thedimensronsandturningr.rLliiofdesignvchiclesareidentifiedtn d a v e h i c l e s r ea d d r e s s e ( a l l . I C h a p t e r I . I n t h i sc h a p t e r t h e f o l l o w i n gd e s i g n wheelbase,WB,lengthsareinmeters'scepagesl()and2-Jfore"uivalents): passen[ercarlP).singleunittruckantlbus(SU}.mcdiumtrlcto.-scmitrlilcr (w ) cornbinations B- l-5 ' w c o m u i n a t i o n(s B - l 2 ) . l a r g e rt r a c t o r - s e m i t r a i l e r
i n n s r W R - l 9 e n t lW B - 1 0 ) . t r a c t o r - s e m i t r a i l e r -

t:uI I t ra i le r- t:uI I full irCilerltmbinalions(WB:19) rrnd trac tor'sc m i t ra i I erd r e m a i n i n g c s i g nv c h i c l e si n c l u d i n g T tW c trailer ombination B-35t. he

AAS HTO--G eometic. D esi

hwa s and

rade Inlersections

-w3'l

8 t r u c k s ,a r t i c u l a t e d u s e s , o t o r h o m e sa n d p a s s e n g ec a r sp u i l i n g b m r t r a i l e r so r b o a t sa r e n o t a d d r e s s e dn t h i s c h a p t e rs i n c et h e s ev e h i c l e sa r e i R o rg e n e r a l l ys e l e c t e d o c o n t r o l t h e d e s i g n .s h o u l d a n y o f t h e s ev e h i c l e s t b e e s t a b l i s h e d s t h e d e s i g n v e h i c l e ,r e f e r t o c h a p t e r I I f o r i n f o r m a t i o n a r e l a t i n - t o r h er u r n i n gt e m p l a t e sA d d i t i o n a li n f o r m a t i o n n d e s i g nc h a r a c e . o t e r i s t i c so f l a r g e r r u c k sc a n b e f o u n d i n R e f e r e n c e ( J ) a n d ( 4 ) . s

S i m p l e C u r v e R a d i u sw i t h T a P e r

Angle of Turn (degrees)

Design Vehicle
Y

Simple Curve ( R a d i u sm ) 9
If

Radius (m) 6 t2 t8 36 3'7 25 35 6 il t2 t7

15

OtTset (m) 0.8 0.6

ta

Taper (m:m)
l0:I l 0 :I l0:I l5:l 3 0 :I 3 0 :I l5:l l 5 :I 8:l l0:I l0:I l 5 :I 3 0 :I 3 0 :I l 5 :I l 5 :I l0:l l0:I 8:l l 5 :I 25:l 25:l l5:l l 5 :I l5:l 8:l 6:l l 0 :I 2 0 :I 2 0 :I l - 5I: l5:l l0:l ll: I tt: I
h: I

Simple CurveRadius with Taper Angle of Turn (degrees) Design Vehicle

Simple Curve R a d i u s( m )

SU wB-t2 wB-15 wB-19 wB-20 wB-29 wB-35

105
P SU

1.2 t.2 1.3 0.8 0.9

Radius (m)

Offset (m)

Taper (m:m)

0.8 t.0
l)

P SU wB-12 wB-t5 wB-19 wB-20 wB-29 wB-35

P SU wB-12 wB-15 wB-19 wB-20 wB-29 wB-35
60

l8 30 45 60 il0 ll6 7'l 145

a
b/ )t

77

'^0 1.0 1.0

l . l

l 5 :I l 5 :I l5:l 20:l

wB-12 wB-15 wB-19 wB-20 wB-29 wB-35 r20

P SU

t.2
l.u I.0 1.0 2.8 0.6 1.0 1.5
l)

35 22 28
't) o il l4

/)

l5

36 53 70 76
ol

43 4-l 3.5 6l

0'6 l.?
t1

rrr
l5:l l5:l l5:l 20:l

wB-12 wB-t5 wB-19 wB-20 wB-29 wB-35 I 3_s

Y

30 20 26
6 9 9 t2 ?5 t9 2-5 6 9 9 il IS l9 l9 20 5 9 6 B t-l l6
tt

1.5 1.6
l.l

2.tr
0.-5 1.2 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.6 t.7
i_o

0.8
I.-l

P SU w B -t 2 wB-t-5 wB-19

wu-2{) wB-29 wB-3.s

P SU w B -t l wB-15 wB-19 wB-20 wB-t9 wB--15

t? Irt 2n 4-5 50 60

t
4J

;
t.2
I.-t

rrr
t 5 :I l-5: I I . 5 I: 2 0 :I l0:I l 0 :I 1 . 5I : l5:l l0: I l0: I 1.5:l 20: I

:
ll

.11 29 -s.l 8 Iri t0

+.1 lo ta

SU wB-12 wB-l.s wB-19 wB-20 wB-29 wB-.r5 P SLJ wB-12 wB- l-5 wB-lq \vB-10 wB-19 wB-.15
t-

0.8
I.-l

0.6 0.6 0.6 t.0 l.l I.-.1 1.0 t.7

0.6 l.l 2.0 :.1 l0 Ll l.: .1.6 (). l 0.5 ..t.0 1.0 _1.0
r- I

l0:I l():l l 0 :I I l{): l(): I l 0 :I 5:l

I:I 1.5:l l0: I l0:I

TablelX'1. Minimumedge-of-traveled designslor turns at way

SU w B -t l w B -1 5 wB-19 wB-10 wB-19

TablelX-1. Contlnued.

MsHTMeomeffic

Design of Highways and Streets

At -Grade I ntersections

3-Centered Compound Angle of Turn (degrees) Deslgn Vehicle Curve Radii (m) Symmetric Oflset (m)

3-Centered Compound Curve Radii (m) Asymmctrlc Oflset (m) Angle of Turn (degrees) I20

3 - C e n t e r e dC o m p o u n d Symmetric Offset {m)

3-Centered ompound C AsYmmetric Offset (m)

Design Vehicle
Y

Curve R a d i i( m )

Curve R a d i i( m )

P SU wB-t2 wB-t5 wB-19 wB-20 wB-29 wB_35 wB_12 wB-15 wB_19 wB_20 wB_29 wB-35 wB-12 wB-t5 wB-19 wB-20 wB-29 wB-35
75
P SU P SU

_ tao-sr-r+o
67-24-67 r 68-76_ I 68
l',

1.5\

r.4

9l-53-168 6t-24-91 76-6t-t98

0.6- .4 1 0 . 8 -. 5 t 0.5-2.1

SU wB-12 wB-15 wB-19 wB-20 wB-29 wB-35

D

ao-lo-eo t40-72-t40
t4p-fi-140 ?6-24-76 r68-6t_168

0.6
l) t/

rc

t.5

7G38183 6t-2+91 -52- 98 6l I

_ 36-43-t50

1.0-2.6 0_3-1.8 0.8- .7 l ns-t I

SU wB-12 wB-t5 wB-19 wB-20 wB-29 wB-15

r50

oo-i-oo
t20-30_t20 t22-30-t22 76-24-76 I 98-46_ I 98 30-8_30 36-I 4-36 36-I 4_36 45-l5-4-5 134-23-134 I 28-23-28 | 76-24_76 213-38_213 30-6_30 36-I 2_36 36-| 2-16 55-I 8-55 120-2t-120 | 34-20-34 r 76-21-76 2r3-3.1-3tl 30-6-30 30-| t -10 .10- t--.10 | 55-t.l-5-5 160-t5-t60 1 5 2t-5 -t . 5 2 76- 18-76 3r3-29-: t-.1

4.5 t.4 1.7 0.6 0.6 t.5 2.0 4.5 3.0 t.4 ?.0 0.ft 0.6 I .-5 2.A 3.0 3.0 2.0 0.ll !.0 1..5 .1.5 .1.0
l(

60-23-84 34-30-67 76-38-83 I 6l-24-91 6l-43-I83

wB-12 wB_15 WB.I9 wB-20 wB_29 wB-35 wB-12 wB-t5 wB-19 wB-20 wB-29 wB-35 w B -t ? wB-15 wB-t9 wB-20 wB-29 wB-15
P JU P SU

P SU

0.6-2.0 3.0-3.7 0.3- .8 | 0.6- .7 | 4.5-2.4 0.6-2.0 0.6-1.0 1.5-.3.6 0...]-1.0 0.-5-..s | 0.-5-3.,s o.o;.0 0.6-3.0 2.0-,].0 0.3-.1..1 0..1I..5 0.6-.'1..s ').;..5 0.6-.'1.0
| 1-1 1

36-I 4-60 45-I 5-69 4l-30-I 65 6t -24-183 30-24-9 | 46-34-68 I lo- I z-oo 36-I 2-6{) 4lt-21-0 |l 6t-2t-|l]3 6t-2t-91 -r0-29t6lt

SU wB-12 wB-15 WB-I9 wB-20 wB-29 wB-3-5 P SU w B -1 2 wB-15 wB-19 wB-t0 \\'B-:9 wB-l.s

l0-6-10 l0-9--r0 l6-9-16 - s 51 2 - 5 5 160-21-t60 1 6 8l-4 -t 6 r l 76- t8-76 ?13-26-213 30-6-30 30-9-30 36-9-36 48-I l -48 r80-r8-r80 168-4-168 I 76-18-76 2t3-Zt-2t3 23-6-23 30-9-30 30-9-30 48-I I -48 t45-17-r15 168-14-168 76-I 8-76 213-20-213 l5-5-15 30-9-10 l0-6-30 .10-8--10 2.151.1-2-1-5 Ill]- l.l-I rl3 76-11-16 - : I r . r1 7 -t . l

0.6 1.0 2.0

.:.o

3.0
1.6 1.5 2.7 0.5 1.2 2.0
!.1

10-9-55 .15-lI-67 24-t7-t60 6t-18-r83 r l0-r8-9 16-21-152

0.6-7.7 0.6-1.6 5.?-7.3 0.6-3.8 L 0.5- 8 2.0-5.3 1.0-4.0 r.0-r.3 2.I -J.3 0.6-3.8 0.8-2.0 2.l -5.6 0.3--1.6 1.0-1.3 2.4-3.0 2.0-5.0 L5-2.J ).'7-5.6

3.6 5.0 t.7 1.8 0.6 1.2 1.0 2.1 4.5 5.8 2.1 4.6 0.2 0.5 3.0 1.0 6.0 6.2 1.9 6.1

30-8-55 40-9-56 30-I 8-195 6 l - l 8 -1 8 3 30-18-91 46-20-52 I 28-8-.18 16-9-55 43-l 8-r70 6r-l7-rn3 30-lrt-91 6 I -t0- I -52

:r,i-r.s
.10-lt-,55 . 1 0l-7 - t 7 5 - t { ) ,7 - t l l r : 1 oI 7 - 9 1 6 l - l f i -l 5 l

2.0-+.0 ?.0-.1.0
-.1..5 .1.-5 l.f -'r.6
t/. l1

.1.0-0.{

Table lX-2.

Continued.

{-5l2-6J I t0-21-riO | 6l-20-I 8-l .10- | t8-9 {6-24- 52 I

.rorz-00

0...1-.1..r 0._5I.ll 0.9-{.6

way In the designof the edge-of-traveled fbr the minimurnparhof a ti!erl v d td v d c ' s i g n e h i c l e i.t i s r r . s s u m eh l t t h e v c h i c l ei s p r o p e r l ,p t t s i t i o n ew i t h i n t h c lnd traffic lanelt thc bc.ginning end of thc tum. i.e..().-irn frorrlthe etlgctlt' cu a w s t l r v e l c . d t v o n t h e t a n g e n t a p p r o l c h i n g n d l c a v i n gt h e i n t c r s e c t i r ) n r \ c , n arc wayconti)rming thislssumption shor" to tbr Curvedesigns edgeof traveled ()l'lhc vilrlotls pilths lit rvithFigurelX- 10.Thevclo.sely thcinnerrvhecl beginnins ol'thcturn.and nl()st m thembv 0.-5 or morethroughout vehiclc.s. clearing design p t i n o p o i n tb r ' l c s st h u n{ ) . 1m . D i i f c r c n c c sn t h c i n r l e r a t ho f v e h i c l c su n l i n r : ar

at :rsa lcft turn to lellvc a divided highrva,v- vcry lorv spcctl

AASHTO--Geometric Design of Highways and Sffeets

At-Grade I ntersections

/.2 /-. Passenger Vehicles Three minimum designsfor the inner edge of traveredway for a 90-degree r i g h t t u r n t o a c c o m m o d a t t h e p d e s i g nv e h i c r e r e s h o w ni n F i g u r e e a IX- r0. A 7 . 5 m r a d i u so n t h e i n n e r e d g eo f r r a v e r e d a y ( r h e s o r i d r i n e i n w Figure IX-l0A) is the sharpest simple arc rharclearsrhe inner wheel path and doc.s s o b y a b o u t0 ' 2 m n e a rt h ee n do f t h ea r c .A s i m p r e u r v eo f 9 m i a d i u s , c shown dottedin the samefigure,providesa 0.4-m clearance the endsof the at curvc b u t h a sa c l e a r a n c e f a b o u t 1 . 6m a t t h e m i d d l eo f t h e c u r v e .o n a r a d i u s . f o mdrgthan 9 nr. most drivers would naturallyusea turning radiusflatter tharr t h e m i n i m u m f o r t h e i r p a s s e n g ev e h i c l e s n d m o r e o r l e s sf o l l o w t h e r a edec of traveled ay. w The edgedesignshownin FigureIX- I0c is a practicar equivarent a curvc to transitional mostor all of its length. consists a three-centered for It of curvewith radii of 30. 6. and 30 m, rhe centerof the middle curve being located7 m tiom the extension the tangent of (which measurement edges includes I m offset). a 'thi.s de.sign involveslittleextrapavement compared as with thesimplecurvcof 9 m radius,the pavedareas a .single in quadrant between tangent the edges of traveled way produced being20 m: tbr theedgedesign and rg mr ior theslmprc curve.However.the edgedesignis pref-erred because t-its desisnvehiclc it the pathmoreclosely.A designthatcloselyapproximates three-cenrJred the curvc layoutin the tleld is shownin FigureIX- I 08. [r consists a simpleoff .set of curve and connecting tapers.
,/

? ostcN \trHtctE ?Ar}l

',/ , / 1 //
/z

NI\ \

///
CUR\G MINIMUA{ SIIAPTI WlrH TAPER lm oFFSET 6m RADIUS, -a-

./-

vehicles' for designs passenger lX-10. Mlnimum Figure

AASHTO-Ceometric Design of Highwoys ancl Streets

io A t -Grode I nter sect ns

Single-UnitTrucks and Buses for \4inimum designs the inneredgeof traveled way for a 90-degree right turn to accommodate su design the vehicle shownin FigureIX- l i. A I5 m radius are on theinneredgeof traveled way (thesoridline shownin FigureIX- l l A) is the sharpest simple arc that accommodates vehiclewithout encroachment this on adjacent lanes. Towardtheendof theturn.however, innerwheelpathcloselv rhe approaches edge-of-travered the way. A simplecurve of l7 m radius,rto*n dottedin FigureIX- I I A, allowsfor slightlymorecrearance the at far endof the intersection curve.Inner-edge radiiof l g m ormoreperrnittheSU vehicre tum ro on a radiusgreater thanthe minimum.

/\r

-,nY\
-+-lt

---(

*nra,*tfJ
toct :l g

\ \

In any designpermittingthe SU designtruck to turn on its minimum path without swingingwide, the front overhang .swings 3.6 nr riom the edgeof out tangenr travered way on the far end of the turn, and the vehicletherebyt'uily o c c u p i c a 3 . 6m l a n e n t h ec r o s s r o a W . t h 3 . 0o r 3 . 3m l a n e st,h ev e h i c l e s o tJ i would -----encroach on adjacent lanes. preclude To encroachment with laneslessthan3.(l m wide' edgeof, traveledwav radii largerthan the nrinimumindicated woul6 haveto be used.

wmr rrrer.!

SIMPI.E CIJRVE

SU DESIGII vEHtcu PAIH

Semitrailer Combinations F . r t h e d e s i g n s e m i r r a i l c rc o m b i n a t i o n s r i s n o r p r a c t i c a lt o f i t s i n r p r c i c i r c u l a ra r c st o t h e i rm i n i m u md e s i g n a t h s H o w c v e r .w h er e t r a f f i cl a n c s r c p . a - 1 . 6 r v i d e ,s u c h v e h i c l e s a n t u r n w i t h o u te n c r o a c h m e n tn a d i a c e nr a n c s m c o t w h e n t h e r a d i u so f a s i m p l ec u r v e o n t h e i n n e r c d q c o t ' t . . u . 1 . , 1 u y . w is a p p r o x i m a t e l2 3 m t b r t h ew B - 1 2 u n i ra n d l 9 m f o r t h e w B - 1 5 u n i t .s u c h y t u r n sw . u l d b e m a d c . n a t u r n i n gr a d i u s( o f t h e o u t e r f r o n t w h c e l ) sreilrcr t h l n t h e r n i n i m u ms h o w no f t h c s ev e h i c l e s T o i i t t h e e d g ct l f t r a v c l c ; c ta y . w

neces.sirrvro usexRTsynlrnctrical ari,nEam-na three-i.cntcicd of ciJmpountt curvcs. thc wB- l2 dcsign For vehicle these curves h:rve rltJiiof -ltr.ll. :rnd

deslgnsfor singleunit trucksand buses. FigurelX-11. Mlnimum

656

AAS O--4 eomet i c'D esi g tt oJ'H i g hv,a s ancl Streets HT -v

ctions At -Grade I nterse

657

shown Figure in IX-13fbr rhewB-r5 vehicre. Although asefficient not in theuse pavement theasymmetrical layout, maybea preferred of as curve it design because its ease construction. of of ^'/ *'/
r/

60 m, the arc of the middre curve being off.setl and2 m from the extension o f t h e t a n g e n t d g e so n t h e a p p r o a c h n c l x i t s i d e s( s h o w na s t h e e a e s o r i dr i n e i n F j g u r e I x - 1 2 ) ' r e s p e c t i v e l yA s i m p r ec u r v e w i t h t a p e rc o m b i n a t i o n . is

WLI2

DESIGN

VEHICLE PATH

Choiceof Minimum Designfor SpecificConditions The designsbeginningwith FigureIX-10 are thosethat fit the sharpesr turns of thedifferentdesignvehicles. Combinations curveswith radii othertnan of l!q!e shown may be used to produce similar and satisfactory results. of particularconcern is the choice of generaldesign (Figures Ix-rt, rx-12, IX-13, and IX-14) for a specificinrersection turning movementwhere or it is desirableor necessaryto keep the intersectionarea to a minimum. The selection ofany one ofthe designs depends the typesand sizesofvehicres on that will be turning and to what xtentthey shouldbe accommodated. In turn, theseelementsmay dependon other factorssuch as the type, character, and locationof the intersecting roadsand traffic volumesthereon, numberand the frequency the largerunitsinvolvedin turningmovements, of and theeff-ect of theselargervehicleson other traffic. For example,if turning traffic is nearly all passenger vehicles,it may not be cost-effective clesigri lorg. trucki. to tb. provided that it remainspossibletbr an occasionar rarse truck ro turn by s w i n g i n g i d ea n de n c r o a c h i no n o t h e rt r a f f i cl a n e s i r h o u r i s r u p t i n g w g w d tral'fic s i g n i f i c a nl y . t It is necessary' theretbre, the designer analyzethe rikely pathsand for to encroachment.s re.sult that whcna turn is madeby vehicles largcrthanthose16r which the desisnis rnade. From the analysisof thesemaneuvers and corresponding paths.to-setrrcr with other pertinentdata. the appropriate type of minirnum tlesign can bc s e l e c t e d . p p l i c a t i o n s . fm i n i m u md e s i g n sb r t u m i n gn r o v L . m e n,t,s r " A c t - nur"rous.even in rural areas.Minimum designsmay be appropriate ,,vhcrc spectls are gcnerallyverv lorv. propertyvaluesare high. anclturning movemcnts arc b w i n v o l u r n e .T h e s e l e c t i o n f t h e c l e s i g n e h i c l e t i r r r n i n i m u r n o v desrgn. b e g i n n i n g i t h F i g u r eI X - r 0 , w i l l c i e p e no n t h ej u d g m e n t f t h e< J e s i g n c r w d o aircr all theconditionshavebeenanalyzetl and the effect oi the opcrationof larqcr v c h i c l c s h : r s b c c n r - ' v a l u a t e d .s a g e n e * r l s u m m a r y .t h r c c r n i n i r n u n r A cclge-'f'-traveled way designsfor turns may be considcredfbr thc fbllowing Pdcsign l FigtrreIX- l0). Thi.s tleSign usedai inieisCiilenillii'oniun*ion is w i t h p r r k w l y s w h e r e a b s o l u t e i n i m u m t u r n sa r c s t i p u r a r c d . t r o c a l m a r.arl

,r$"

3-CENTEREOCOMPOUND CURYE RADII 36e'l2n60m OFFSFI lm ANO 2m

-,lF

w8-'t2 DESIGN VEHICTE PATH

CURVE 3-CENTEREO COMPOUND OFFSET 2m 36m-t2m36m RADII; -8-

(WB-12 vehicle design Path).

AASHTO-Geometric Design of Highways and Streers

ons At -Grade I ntersec'ti

659

intersections major highwayswhereturnsaremadeonly occasionally, on and a t i n t e r s e c t i o n s t w o m i n o rh i g h w a y s a r r y i n g o w v o l u m e s I n m o s to f t h e s e of c I . instances, however, the sU truck design(Figure IX-l l) is preferredwhere conditions ermit. p sU design(FigureIX-11). Generally this designis the recommended minimum for all rural highwaysfor conditions otherthanthosedescribed. Tuming movementsfor urban conditionsare discussed a separate in sectionof this chapter.Importantturning movements major highways,particularlythose on involvinga largepercentage oftrucks,shouldbe designed preferably with even largerradii, speedchangelanes, both. or

...ffi
t"'7
t "f'z./
,(,A,"

d /

semitrailercombination (Figures designs IX-12 through IX-17).These designs shouldbe usedwheretruckcombinations approximating sizeof this
rgn vehicle will turn repeatedly.where designs for such vehicles are warranted, the simpler symmetrical arrangements three-cntered of compound curyes (shown in Figures IX-12 and IX-14) generallyare prefened if smaller vehicles make up a sizable percentage the turning volume. Becausethese of designs, particularly when used in two or more quadrants of an at-grade intersection,produce large paved areasthat may be difficult to control, it is usually desirableto channelize them, for which somewhatlarger radii are (Seethe section"lslands"in this chaoter.) needed.

,4
"'1+t {i"

V"B-l5 SEMITi IIEi COMSINAIoN CUTVE, COT.^TOUNO 3 CENTTRED l Dll, OfFStI ln AND 3n 36nl2m{0m

'i

).

't

f/'

)v

.i,1"-$
'q.
'1. \v .r
"d

MTN|MUH SlMttI CUIVI ffIIl r^Pft lEm tlDlU5. OfFSET lm

w8-15 s[MtTlAllEl coMSlNAT|oN 3 CINftTED COM'OUNO CU'W, LADll,OfFSEI 2m 55r18*55n

Figurelx'13. Minimumdesigns forsemitrailercombinations (wB-15 designvehicte path).

figureii-tC. Minimum designs for semitieilei Combihations (WB-l5designvehicle Path).

Itons

wg-19 DES|GN VEH'CI.E PA]H

qs

\.))

;x;fr
829 Trl?tt lrllr:r colJH co^{touMt c1j(w r-l!o & llort rloN

wD-lt

rNTtrsl^tt stHtl^tttl coMni{AlloN J.ClMIilO COH'CXTNO CUtYt 6OFl3FlaOn l^Dll OtelEf 16 ANO ail

wB-29 oEslGN VEHICL! PATH

wt-19 lNltlst^ll ltxllt^lut conltN^tld J-atMlrtD coMrcuxo curyt

l&cllFlh El,OttSn Jm

coMuNl rultll w!-29 tlln! cutvl co*ouNo 3-CtNtttto uoll' OFTSEI?m l0or2aFl6od

l F i g u r eX - 1 5 .M i n i m u m d e s i g n s f o r i n t e r s t a t e s e m i t r a i l e r (WB-19 designvehiclepath). combinations

IXare Otherdesignvehiclecombinations shownin (Figures ltl, lX- 19,antl IX-20). Thesedesignsshould be used where thesedesignvehicleswill turn Minimum or near-minimumdesigns for iurning movementsoftEn ltrc particularlywherevariouscontlicting intersections, at necessary channelized

for triple trailer combinations '-' ''eiY lX'16. Fiqure '- Minimumdesigns path)' (wB-29 designvehicle
lnd lt mtnor control is requircd' musrbe controlled'wheresignal movements i n t e r s e c t i o n s w h e r e o n l y o c c a s i o n a l v e h i c l e s t u r n , l v l i n i m u m d- e : t vg n s l [ s o m a 1 . f ws i rights-ot-w1l1 rvhcre at location's hi hi i sh-soeed. gh-volume ghways they snou aie limiterl; but in such insnnces llnes' speed-change

secttons

curvesresultin way Curbsalong the edges-of-traveled of sharpintersection -some restrictionof vehiclesmaking the tum. A design vehicle making its carefully to avoid scrapingor minimum turn would need to be maneuvered to when curbsare used.it is desirable use jumping the curb. For this reason, way flattercurvesthanthosein minimumedge-of-traveled designs. somewhat

Oblique'Angle Turns way at oblique'anq': tl-':::tt'ont Minimum designsfor the edge-of-traveled by as those for right angle intersections were developed in the ,"*""nl*""r curves

t"Tt::ltltjtlq thesharpest the plotting paths 'n" J"lit vehicles-on wheels' mtntmum Suggested "r rear of toihepaths inner of curyes

or combinations design are tompound^curves usedfor each in designs which ttt""-i"nt""l angles IX-2 for various tnTable turn the making sharpst aregtven when vehicle .um, of tum. it conditio" angle the Forconvenience' intersection :"91tT9,1t^':.:*t;::

;";u'hi'r:,1':l::li,T*:::i""T;"tl;: *i'"i"i::ilffi ;il'*;?*;""c'"'TlT:lil:ll'l::li"''""":H:?ii "il;d""";ffi ll*I'llililffi

$:Tiilffiil;;r;tr,un larger and decreased illi; the sd'degrees radiiare

Cffi lT:li:l".'ffi |"'*.*Fs:.*:::1.:-y,:::1:T"1g"4 :il'"J11ilJ"'J:';:il:'"''*""iv'"rr'i'n"*:T::*':g'il::: ffi il;u'"'ilne""r'unth:st:1sgT:',:"":::"1',T lJfi:i:lfi ruffi ;i;J""?91'::::T"':f::::;::""'#T lfr lll}l?iJ'*ff
offsets of the central arc are necessary' turns to arethosesuggested fit the sharpest The designsgiven in Table IX-2 * so*t oth""om6inations of curve:-it:::"t of the differentdesign"tiitG' is another simple curves r"'ult'' The useof mperswith usedwith satisfactory and way for tums at intersections' method for design of ""0-goof-ttveled arenecessary aregiven in Table IX- l ' Tapers for dimensions suchcombi"nution' in TablesIX- I a minirium' and any designgiven to keepthe intersectio";;;;;" that of with the typesand sizes vehicles or IX-2 may be.no'"n, in u"cordance shouldbe accommodated' which thesevetricies will be turning and the"*i.ni ,o for section"Choice of Minimum Design in discussion the The previousgeneral to thesevalues' ip"tn. ConJitions" also applies way designedfor with inner edges-of-traveled At 90-degreeintt"tttion' tuting a wide swing olto adjacent vehicles'off t-'utft"un turn by passenger anglesof roadsareopposiig traffic lanes'For traffic lanes.which on two-lane way also can turn on an inner edge-of-raveled turn lessthan90 degrees'trucks thantn"lj:::: u"nitt"' with evenlessencroachment tbr designetl passenger the than 90 degrees' mtntmum more turns.For furning anglesol 90-degree thatall turningtrucks to ensure vehicl mustbc adjusted for design theP tlesign ior way on eachhighway' In this regard' lancsof traveletJ remainwithin two of three-centered or more'the samedimensions of turningangles 120degrees (30' 6' ind 30 m) may be used'but ov as curves, requiretl t;oeil;ig;ltnittt from I m to as much as 3 m he should increased curve "hn'l,l b: iT::::,i;;":::'i:: of theoffset themiddle i,','", ,""0..

m-s5 00ulu lt^ltlt coMl|NAnoN cortouNo culvt l- z4i a l?Or

wB-35 oESIGN VEHICTE PATH

(e\

,/

:
t.

,:r
,'j \,. +t

'."+
d/
3m

{,p

wl|5 rcu&t uttl coMilMIloN lctxrltto copouNo curn

t2hll+l2on tlDx. Ofl3ll

"

lX-17. Mlnlmumdeslgnsfor doubletrailercombinations Figure (WB-35 vehicle desiqn Dath).

o n a d j a c e nt r a f f i c l a n e s ,a n d t h e W B - 1 5 d e s i g nv e h i c l ew i l l e n c r o a c h n l y o p a r t i a l l yo n o t h e rl a n e s . Design for anglesof turn more than 90 degreesmay result in large paved portionsof which are often unused. intersections, This situationmay lead to confusion among drivers creating a potential danger to pedestrians. These to conditionsmay be alleviated a considerable extentby usingthree-centered asymmetriccompoundcuryes or by using larger radii coupledwith comer islands, stepin channelization discussed a following section. major a as in On intersecting oblique angles, at highways separate roadwaysfor right-turning wherevehiclestum more traffic shouldbe provided,if feasible, thequadrants in thanabout 120deerees.

designed nearhighwayfacilities are terminals located these l<teally, terminals. them' the to accommodate vehiclesserving IfitisnecessarytoroutethesetrucksoverlocalStreetstoreachtheterminals, carefulconsiderationshouldbegiventothenetworktobeused.Generally,this networkshouldnotincludenanowStreets'streetswithrelativelysmallcurbradii with parking' or with crossstreets 5use15 at intersections

Effect of Curb Radii on Turning Paths through variousdesignvehicles.tuming The effect of curb radii on the pathsof FiguresIX- I 8 parkinglanis is shownin on anangleof 90 degrees sreet; without a n d I X - l g . F i g u r e I X - l S s h o w s t h e e f f e c t s o f a 4 . 5 m r a d i u s adjacentlane n e s ' 'with3.6mla on vehicle can tum with no encroachment an a designpassenger vehiclesmust swing wide on both streets at theexit, bur the SU and BuS design a n d o c c u p y t w o l a n e s o n e a c h S t r e e t ' T o t u m i n t o t w o l a n e s o n street'A s s s t r e e t ' thecro part of a third laneon the cross the wB_ l5 designu"t i.i" o."upies a laneson the crossstreet' WB-35 designu.hi.l" would occupy four l2 m,radius'The P vehiclecan easily FigureIX- l9 ,tto*' op"'u'ion around-a SU and BUS designvehiclescan tum make the turn aroundthis radius'The crossstreetby beginningadjacentto the aroundthe radiusinto one lane on the the requires entiretwovehicle The WB- I 5 design line center of themajorstreet' is the turn' This type of maneuver lanewidth on the crossstreetto complete normally would urt"rial str..t wherethecrossstreet for practicable tums rr#* b e f r e e o f t r a f f i c a s a r e s u l t o f s i g n a l o r S t o p s i g n c o n t r o l o n t hbe disturbing t . T u m s ecrossstree wouldnot ro srreer the arte;ialaboutsuchradii also frornrhecross ,"r'heresignalcontrolit"tO'butwithoutsuchcontrol'driversofthesevehicles m u s t w a i t t o r a p r o p e r g a p i n t r a f f i c t o t u r n l n t o t h e s e c o n d l a crosst h e a r t e r i a l n e o f street mostof a thirdlaneon the The streer. wB-35 desiin vehiclerequires the to complete turn' ^ .-dr-,.+ the rnole of i n t e r s e c t i oo n t u r n l n gpaths ^r n of T a b i e I X - 3 s h o w st h e e f f e c to f t h e a n g l e T h ed i m - e n s i o n s w o v e h i c l e s n s t r e e t s i t h o u tp u t \ i l q l a n e ' s ' d of vnrious esign d,lntld.arethervicithsoccupiedbvtheturningvehicleonthemainstreetand t w h i l e n e g o t i a t i n gu r n s t h r o u g h . v a r i o u s o n t h e c r o s ss t r e e t .r c s p e c t ; v e l \ , ' c f r o m t h e r i g h t - h a n d u r b t o t h ep o l n t l n g l e s .B o t h d i m e n s , o n * t t m e a s u r e d " o a n g l e s f t u r n 'c u r b s h o w nf o r v a r i o r r s o f m a x i m u mo u . r t l " n g 'i i e ' s e w i d t h s ' o with thea.ngle f i g e n e r a l l yn c r e a s e r a d i i .a n t l l o r t w o t y p e su l m a n e u v e r s ' " s i m p i e 's i n g l e - r a d i uts * t ] : t 1 : : - 1 i : : : : : l r u r n .T a b l eI X - - ' s h o w sr h a tw h e na

Curvature for Turning Movements, Urban Streets Becauseof spacelimitations and generally lower operatingspeedsin urban areas,curve radii for turning movementsmay be smaller than thosenormally used in rural areas.Curvature (comer radius) to accommodate tuming movelargelyon the numberand typesof turningvehicles. Minimum mentsdepends vehicles all otherdesign vehicles included for and are in tumingpaths passenger I C h a p t e rI . development standards mostcitiesprovidecurb radii of 1.5to of The street cars at 9 m. mostof which are between and4.5 m. Most passenger operating 3 very low speedon lanes3 m or more in width areatrleto make a right turn with Howevcr. a curb radiusof about4.5 m with little encroachment otherlanes. on vehicles increased of at evenat vcry operation these speeds of largervehicles or lanesat on low speedgenerallyresultsin substantial encroachment adjacent or eirherthebe-einning theendof theturn,or both.Wheretherearecurbparking or streets parkingis restricted thereon tbr lanes bothof the intersecting on and serves somedistance from thecomer,theextrawidth provided therestriction by m the curb radii of 3 to -1.-5 arc to increase usableradius.On most streets. because streetsand sidetvalks are generallvconfined within the reasonable public right-of'-way, largerradii can be obtained and only by narrowingsidcthe However. walks at comersand increasing lengthof pedestrian crosswalks. efticient tratfic operationon arterial streetscarrying heavy traflic to ensure vtllumes.it is desirable providecomer radii of -1.5 7.5 m for passenger to to vehicles of 9 to I 5 m for mosttrucksandbuses expedite tums to andfrom and to tanes. ttrettrrougn are largerrudii frlr tums at intersections required. in not Thc WB- l9 lnd largertrucksaregenerally engaged locll distribution trucking betrvc'en trensponction but orc usedprincipalllrfor "over-the-road"

::;

,...1e r --L^-^.L ^6^r?rl iS wrrv'v . -"'- --"---- to aec'ommodiltethe tonger YelLclc!! Pqrt-rr'!11|t' i r' g r cutc t r r d r r \ / u L 6 rv ! a srL' terr thanre0.r.g,."1-Fni=ii i"'" " i6':!::: :X:*t h e ::,"i: *:f v e h i c l e s p a t h s o ""rt':':: w ' i t h t a p e r so r s p l r a l s t o f i t iinrplc durvcsin conrbinatitln

il;:;";;;;;';"

mustbevervwide or mustbeused thestreets radius

d , ( m ) f o r C a s e sA a n d B W h e r e :

R=4.5m

R=7.5m

R=9m

R=12m

Design Vehicle

B 4.0

su
8US wB-12 w B -1 5 wB-19 wB-20 SU BUS w B -1 2 wB-15 wB-r9 wB-?0
90p

-1.3
6.7 4.3 6.1

\', =

+.J

.t.0 ,1.3

.1.0
{q

4.0
51

4.3

5.8 4.3

'l
=

4.3

4.3

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51

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Figure lX-18. Effect curbradilonturningpathsof varlous of design vehicles.

I 2tl'

su Bus wB-12 wB-15 wB-19 wB-20 su Bus w B -l l w B -1 5 wB-19 wB-10

SU BUS wB-ll wB- l-i wB-19 wB-:(')

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rade Intersections

properly) are much preferred.Tables IX-l and IX-2 include curve radii the suitablefor accommodating several classes designvehiclesfor a wide of rangeof anglesof turn. Data are shown for simple curvesand for two types of three-centered compoundcurves.The radii for simple curveshave been omitted for angles of turn greaterthan 90 degreesfor the reasonsgiven, although they may be used for separate turning roadwayswhere sufficient rights-of-wayare availableand where there is little pedestrian traffic. Turning arounda 12 m curb radius, WB- l9 truck occupies the most of the Encroachment adjacent third laneof thecrossstreet. with lanesis more severe on curb radii and streetnetworkswith thesesmallerradii curbs should the smaller not be usedby this combination.For this reason, valuesfor only the l2 m curb ._--.-radius have been shown in Table IX-3. As shown by the footnoteforTable IX-4, straighttaperedwedgeshaving a taper of about l5:l may be substitutedfor the longer radius portions of the three-cenfered curves. A spiral-curve-spiral arrangement may also be used. With curb parking on the streets, vehicles(exceptfor WB-19 and the larger vehicles)are able to turn without encroachment adjacentlanes,even where on curb radii are relativelysmall.As shownin FigureIX-20, the SU and WB-12 designvehiclesare able to turn abouta 4.5 m curb radiuswith little, if any, whereparkinglanesare2.4to3.0 m wide and on lanes encroachment adjacent traffic lanes are3.6 m wide. Parkingmust be restricted, however,for a distance of of at least4.5 m in advance thePC on the approach and9 m beyondthe PT on the exit. The BUS and WB-15 designvehicleswill encroach unlessthe curb -- - --radius is aI least?.5 m, asin FigureIX-20B, and the parkingon the far end of the for the turn is restricted l2 m beyond PT. Cautionin theuseof radii of 4.5 or 7.5 whereparkingis permitted, m is advised because traffic volumesmay increase to the point where all parking will be prohibited either during rush hours or the throughout day, and the sameturningconditions will prevailas shown in FiguresIX- 18 and IX- l9 and TableIX-3. For arterial streetdesign.adequate radii tbr vehicles must be balanced againstthe needsof pedestrians and the difficulty of acquiring additional Because comer radiusoften is a comproright-of-wayor cornersetbacks. the in mise, its etl'ect on pedestrians combinationwith vehicular movement.s s h o u l db e c x a m i n e d . distances thecorrespondingly and Crosswalk additional right-of-way required with the radiusof curb retum. On the basisof thc setbackincrease or corner that a.ssumptions the sidewalkcenterline a right-angle is at intersection in line comcrs,thc ldded crosswalk distances betweencurbs as comparia tith ihc widthsare shownin Fisure IX-2L street normalcurb-to-curb

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on parking turningPaths' FiguretX-20. Eftectof curb radliand

AASHTO--CeometricDesign of Highways and Streets

At -Grade I ntersections

671

-The additionalright-of-wayor comer serback resultingfrom variouscurb radii for borderwidthsof 3 and6 m is shownin Figurelx-22. The dimensions shownin FiguresIX-2 I and IX-22 varysomewhar with intersection angles thar are either more or lessthan 90 degrees. The dimensionspresenred Figuresrx-21 andIX-22 demonstrate in why c u r b r a d i i o f o n l y 3 t o 4 . 5 m h a v e b e e nu s e di n m o s t c i t i e s . W h e r e l a r g e r r a d i i a r e u s e d , a n i n t e r m e d i a r e e f u g e o r m e d i a n i s l a n d i s d e s i r a b l eo r r c r o s s w a l k sm a y n e e d t o b e o f f s e t s o t h a t c r o s s w a l k d i s t a n c e sa r e n o r objectionable. I n s u m m a r y , o r n e rr a d i i a t i n t e r s e c t i o n n a r t e r i a ls t r e e t s h o u l ds a t i s f y c o s t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f t h e d r i v e r s u s i n g t h e m t o t h e e x t e n t p r a c t i c a la n d i n o c o n s i d e r a t i o n f t h e a m o u n t o f r i g h t - o f - w a y a v a i l a b l e ,t h e a n g l e o f t h e o numbers of pedestrians, - .-...-!41!ersection, width and number of lanes on the intersecting streets, and amounts of speed reductions. The followins summary is offered as a guide: Radii of 4.5 to 7.5 m are adequare passenger for vehicles.Theseradii may be providedat minor crossstreets wherethereis little occasionfor trucks to turn or at major intersections where thereare parking lanes. where the street has sufficient capacity to retain the curb lane as a parking lanefor the foreseeable future,parkingshouldbe restricted for appropriate distances from the crossing. 2 . Radiiof 7.5m or moreat minorcross streets should provided new be on construction on reconstruction and wherespace pennits. 3 . Radii of 9 m or more at majorcrossstreets shouldbe providedwhere f'easible thatan occasional so truckcantum withouttoo muchencroachn1ent. ..1 Radiiof I 2 nr or more.andpreferably three-centered compound curyes or simple curves with tapersto fit the pathsof appropriate design vehicles, shouldbe provided wherelargetruckcombinations buses and turn fiequently. Largerradii arealso desirable wherespeedreciuctions would causeproblems. 5 Radii dirnensions shouldbc coordinated with crosswark distances rr specialdesignsto make crosswalkssal'etbr all peciesrrians. (Sce I C h a p t e rV . )
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wlth corner-curb in FlgurelX-21. Varlatlons lengthof crosswalk radlusand width of border.

c u r b r l d i i r t c o r n e r s n t w o - w a vs t r e e t s a v el i t t l ee f f e c to n I e f t - t u r n i n g o h m o v c n r c n l sw h e r e t h e w i d t h o f a n a r t e r i a s t r e e ti s e q u i v a l e ntto f o u r o r . l n r o r cl a n e s g e n e r a l l y h e r ei s n o p r o b l e m f e n c r o a c h m e n tl ' l e f t - ( u r n i n g , t o b

672

AASHTO--{;eometric' Design of Highv,ays and Streets

ion At -GracleI ntersec'l s

673

ISLANDS

General Characteristics
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Wdth Of Bordcr Or Thc Nomo Sctbod On Tlc Appr@ch to An Inbnrction.

paths islands by intodefinite in intersection which trafficis directed An at-grade n a t e r m e d c h a n n e l i z eid t e r s e c t i o n . is An island is a defined area between traffic lanes for control of vehicle refugeandtraffic control Islandsalsoprovidean areafor pedestrian movements. an is or a Within an intersection median an outerseparation considered devices. typemakesevidentthatan islandis no singlephysical This det'inition island. by it may rangefrom an areadelineated a curb to a pavementareamarkedby paint. forone design(channelization) Islandsgenerallyareincludedin intersection or more of the following purposes: of Separation conflicts. Control of angle of conflict. pavement areas. in Reduction excessive of of Regulation traffic and indication properuseof intersection. tuming movement. to Arrangements favor a predominant of Protection pedestrians. vehicles. of and Protection storage tuming and crossing Locationof traffic controldevices.

R-

Rodiur Of Curb Rctum.

ApprTtoN^f CORryER SETEiSK , W-3m W-6m METERS METERS 0.0 o.o L3 o.o 2.5 1.3 ,t.0 2.5 4.0 5.0

Aw

MINI]!IUM DESIGN FOR TURNING ROADIVAYS are Where the inner edgesof traveledway for right turns at intersectlons o c s d e s i g n e dt o a c c o m m o d a t e e m i t r a i l e r o m b i n a t i o n s r w h e r e t h e d c s i g n permits passengervehicles to turn at speedsof 25 km/h or more. the large for proper may becomeexcessively pavementareatl the intersection t . c o n t r o lt t f t r a f f i c .T o a v o i dt h i sc o n d i t i o n a n i s l a n dm a y b e p r o v i d e d o t b r m r a s e p a r t t et u r n i n g r o a d w a y( a c o n n e c t i n g o a d w a yf o r t r l f f i c t u r n i n q b e c t w e e nt w o i n t e r s c c t i oln g s ) . p . s A t - g r l i l e i n t e r s e c t i o nw h i c h h a v el a r - e e a v e da r e a s s u c ha s t h g s ew i t h p a l a r g ec o r n c rr a d i it n d t h o s e t o b l i q u ea n g l ec r o s s i n g s , e r m i tl n d e n c o u r a g e c , . v u n c o n t r o l l e d e h i c l e m o v e m e n t s r e q u i r el o n g p e d e s t r i a n r o s s i n g sa n d l, a a . p a t e m e n t r e a sE v e na t a s i m p l ei n t e r s e c t i o np p r e c i a b l e r e a s v t h a v eu n u s el

FigurelX-22. Varlatlons cornersetback in with corner-curb radius and width of border.

ma1, paths. eon-tici.'; is include lands.

b e x t e n ta n d i n t e n s i t y y l a y o u td e s i g nt o

-GradeIntersecttons

675

I s l a n d sg e n e r a l l ya r e e i t h e r e l o n g a r e d r t r i a n g u l a ri n s h a p ea n d a r e o s i l u a t e di n a r e a s o r m a l l yu n u s e d s v e h i c l ep a t h s . h e d i m e n s i o n s e p e n d n a T d i n o n t h ep a r t i c u l a r n t e r s e c t i od e s i g n . s l a n d s h o u l db e l o c a t e d n dd e s i g n e d I s a t o o f f e r l i t t l e o b s t r u c t i o no v e h i c l e s b e r e l a t i v e l y n e x p e n s i v eo b u i l d a n d , t i t m a i n t a i n ,a n d o c c u p ya m i n i m u mo f r o a d w a y p a c e u t y e t b e c o m m a n d i n g s b enough that motorists will not drive over them. Island details dependon particular conditions and should be designedto conform to the general p r i n c i p l e st h a t f o l l o w . Curbed islandsare sometimesdifficult to see at night because the glare of from oncomingheadlights from distantluminaires roadside or businesses. or Accordingly, where curbed islands are used, the intersectionshould have lighting or appropriatedelineation. ....._-.-.- !l-I_9_d-source Wherevariousintersections involvedin a givenprojectandthewarrants are are sufficiently similar, in order to enhance driver expectancyit is desirableto providea commongeometric designfor eachintersection. designershould The also refer to part V of the Manual of Uniform Trffic Control Devicesfor Streetsand Highways (MUTCD) (5) for design guidance. Painted,flush mediansand islandsmay be prefened to the curbed type undercertainconditions,includingthe following: in lightly developed areas; whereapproach at intersections speeds relativelyhigh; wherethereis little are pedestriantraffic; where fixed-sourcelighting is not provided; and where s i g n a l s s i g n s ,o r l i g h t i n gs t a n d a r da r e n o t n e e d e d n t h e m e d i a no r i s l a n d . , s o Painted islands may also be placed at the traveled way edge. At some intersections, both curbedandpaintedislands may be desirable. pavement All -milrkings should be reflectorized. The use of thermoplastic .striping, raised ciots,spacedand raisedretroreflective markers.and other forms of long-lit'e markings also may be desirable.This subject is discussedin the section "Traffic Control" in ChapterVI. I s l a n d ss e r v e t h r e e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n s :( l ) c h a n n e l i z a t i o n - t o c o n t r o l and direct traffic movement.usuallv turning. (2) division-to divide o p p o s i n go r s a m e d i r e c t i o n t r a f f i c s t r e a m s . s u a l l y t h r o u g hm o v e m e n t s . u and (3) refuge-to provide refuge for pedesrrian.s. combine Mo.sti.sland.s t w o o r a l l o f t h e s ef u n c t i o n s .

dimensionsoftheintersection'someofwhichareillustratedinFigure|x-23. traffic from right-tuming to shape separate A commonform is oneof triangular which turning guide around ifrrougt,traffic' Central islandsmay serveas a vehiclesoperate. ls ot shouldbe placedso thatthe propercourse travel islands Channelizing When continuity' easyto follow' andof unquestionable obvtous, immediately shouldbe given to the fact that the driver's eye atten;ion an designing island, viewisdifferentfromtheplanview.Particularcaremustbetakenwherethe curve.howeverslight' or is channelization on or beyonda crestof a vertical to on horizontalcurvature the approach or through wherethereis substantial shouldbe easilyflowing curved outlinesof islands area.The the channelized separate linesnearlyparallelto thelineof travel'Whereislands linesor straight traffic, the radii oicurved Portionsshould equal turning trafdc from rnrouiir orexceedtheminimumro-rtt'eturningspeedsexpected.Driversshouldnotbe confrontedsuddenlywithanunusableareainthenormalvehiclepath.Islands firstapproachedbytrafficshouldbeindicatedbyagraduallywidening roughenedstrip that directs traffic to each side' ,""rti"g o, u "onrpi.uously require three.or more Inteisectionswith multiple turning lanes may islandstochannelizethevariousmovements.Thereisapracticallimitation traffic' A group of islands to the use of multiple islands for channelizing outliningseveralone-waylanesmaycauseconfusionandresultininadvert. t r a f f i c ' S u c h l a y o u t sm a y b e o e n t e n t r a n c e f a o n e - w a yl a n e b y o p p o s i n g f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e ' a n do n l a t e rp a s s a g e s o c o n f u s i n g n l y t o d r i v e r su s i n gt h e m t h e p o s s i b i l i t yo f t h e s a m e d r i v e r s m a y u s e t h e m a s d e s i r e d 'H o w e v e r ' number to arepreferable a greater that suggests a few largeislands .lonfusion ofsmalleristands.Atintersectionswheretheareaformultiple-lane l t o t r y t e m p o r a r ya y o u t so f s c h a n n e l i z a t i oin r e s t r i c t e di.t m a y b e a d v i s a b l e traffic flow with several o m o v a b l e s r a n c h i o n s r s a n d b a g ia n d o b s e r v e the andconstructing of of variations sizesor shapes islandsbetbredesigning p e r m a n e nits l a n d s . wherethroughand turning moveProperlyplacedislandsare advantageous highways'however' on ments are heavv' At minor intersections two-lane channelizationmaybeofquestionablevllue,especiallyinruralarel.swlrerc should islands The useof curbed -uenerally wereprovided. smalIcurbedislands bereservedtbrmultilanehighways.orstreetsandtbrthemoretmportant are arelswherespeeds low lri highways. or nearurban on intersections two-lane canbeexpected channelization facilities. t*o.oniin..t are anddrivers accustomed toworkwelt.Curbedis|andsgenerallyshouldnotbeusedinruralareasandat locattons, isolated by' whenWafr'anted modiiic'aiion cicncyandsattry andhasthea,lrrnragJot ca.iy driverbehavior.Ifamorepositivebanierisrequired.curbedislandsma-v.be

ChannelizedIslands Isllnds to control and direct traffic movement i shoulds u i d em o t o r i s t sn t o t h e re.suttingtromspaciou.s-areas be eliminatedby conversionot'the normally mav areas into islands leave unused that Iittleto thediscretion drivers. Channclizing of r n a y b c ' o f m l n y s h a p e s n d s i z e s .d e p e n d i n g n c o n d i t i o n sa n t l isllnds a o

676

AASHTO--CeometricDe.rignof Highways and Streets

t At -Grade I ntersec ions

677

ted,but the markedchannelization well serveinitially to establish may the best layout arrangement beforepermanent construction established. is It shsuld be noted,however,thatinclementweather decreases effectiveness the of markedchannel ization.

Divisional Islands Divisionalislands ofrenare introduced undivided on highways intersections. at They alert the drivers to the crossroad aheadand regulatetraffic through the intersection. Theseislandsareparticularlyadvantageous controllingleft turns in at skewedintersections at locations and whereseparate channels providedfor are '-.-,,.-.: Egbt=tuming traffic. A variety of divisional islands that divide opposing traffic are illustratedin Figure lX-23. where an island is inrroduced an intersection divide opposingtraffic on at to a four-lane road or on a major two-lane highway carrying high volumes, particularlywherefuture conversionto a wider highway is likely, two full lanes on each side of the dividing island should be provided. In other insrances narrowerroadways may be used.Formoderate volumes,roadwaywidthsshown undercaseII (one-laneone-way operationwith provision for passinga stalled vehicle)in chapter III and in Table III-21 areappropriate. light volumesand For wheresmall islandsare necessary, widthson eachsideof the islandcorresponding to caseI in Table III-21 may be used. widening a roadwayto includea divisionar island(Figurelx-24) shouldbe donein sucha mannerthat the properpathsto follow areunmistakably evident -udlivers. The alinement should require ho apptuciableconsciouseffort in vehiclesteering. often the highwayis on a tangent, and to introduce dividing islands, reverse curvealinement mustbe used. Tapers can be used, mustbe but consistentwith design speed.In rural areaswhere speedsare generally high, necessary reversals curvatureshouldpreferablybe 1500m radiu.s greater. in or Sharper curvesmay be usedon intermediate-speed roads.but preferablyshould not be lessthana radiusof 700m. Usually,theroadwayin eachdirectionof travel is bowedout. moreor lesssymmetrically aboutthecenterline, shownin Figurc as IX-24. widening may also be effectedon one side only, one of the roadways continuing throughthe intersection a straight on Whenthisarangemenr course. is used for a two-lane road that is plannedfor future conversionto a divided highway,the traveledway on rangentalinementwill becomea permanent part of the ultimatedevelopment. widening on tangentalinement.even with tlat curves,may producesome
vrr w rrrvrrrS

typesand shapesof lslands' lX-23. General Flgure

alinement. advantage shouldbe takenof the curvarure spreading traffic in the laneswithoutusingreverse curves, illustrated Fisure IX-24. as in

AASHTO--Ceometric Design of Highways and Srreets

At-GradeI ntersections

RefugeIslands o i A r e f u g eo r p e d e s t r i a ns l a n di s o n e a t o r n e a ra c r o s s w a l k r b i c y c l e p a t h and bicyclistscrossingthe roadway.Refuge ro aid and protect pedestrians s a f c i s l a n d s o r p e d e s t r i a na n d b i c y c l i s t s r o s s i n g w i d e h i g h w a y ,f o r l o a d i n g o r u n l o a d i n gt r a n s i tr i d e r s ,o r f o r w h e e l c h a i r a m p sa r e u s e dp r i m a r i l y i n the urbanareas. The locationand width of crosswalks, location and size of l o a d i n gz o n e s , n d t h e p r o v i s i o no f w h e e l c h a i r a m p si n f l u e n c et h e a transit . s s i z ea n dl o c a t i o no f t h er e f u g ei s l a n d sR e f u g ei s l a n d s h o u l db e a m i n i m u m w i d e w h e n t h e y w i l l b e u s e d b y b i c y c l i s t s .P e d e s t r i a n s n d a of 1.8 m path on the island and should not be bicyclistsshould have a clear o b s t r u c t e d y p o l e s , s i g n p o s t s ,u t i l i t y b o x e s ,e t c . C h a p t e rI V c o n t a i n s b detailsof wheelchairramp designthat affect the minimum sizeof the small d islands.In rural as well as in urban areasmany of the islandsdesigne for are channelization ofthe type and location to serveas refuge for pedestrians.The islandsin Figure lX-23 areexamples.The generalprinciples for island design apply directly to refuge islands, except that barrier curbs usually are considerednecessary.

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AASHTO--Geometric. Designof Highways and Streets

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is located' rurarversus urban, alsogoverns design. a physicar the In sense. isrands sanbe di'ided into threegroups: l,, raised ( islands outlined curbs,(2) islands by delineated pavementmarkings,butrons, by or raised(iggle) bars placedon al1=paved areas; and(3) non-paved areas formedby tn. pui.lfr"nt edges. possibly supplemented delineators posrs othergrid.portr. by on or or a mounded-eanh treatmentbeyondand adjacentto the pavement edges. Curbed islandrreatment, groupl , is universar anJisthemostpositive. rural In areas wherecurbsare not common,this treatment often is limited to islands of smat to intermediate size.Conversely, urbanareas, of this in use typeof isrand is generally standard practice. Islandderineatio.n pavedareas, on group2, is usedin urbandistrictswhere speedsare row and space is timited. In rurar areas,this type is used where maintenance problems.,high approachspeedsor snow removal make curbs '' --1*{ssimble. Group 2 isrands arsoare applicabre to*_uorumeirigh*ays wnere on the addedexpense curbsmay not be warranted of and wherethe islandsare not large enoughfor delineationby pavementedges alone. The group 3 treatmentnecessarily appriesto other than small islandsand is logical primarily at rural intersections where there is spacefor large-radius intersection curyes. The centralareaof rargeisrands mostcases in hasa turfor othervegetative cover. As spaceand the overail characterof the highway determi"ne, row l a n d s c a p p r a n t i n gm a y b e i n c r u d e db u t i t e , m u s tn o t o b s t r u c t i g h td i s r a n c e . s G r o u n dc o v e ro r p r a n tg r o w t h ,s u c ha s t u r f ,v i n e s , a n ds h r u b si,s d e s i r a b r eo r f a n i s l a n da n d p r o v i d e s x c e i l e n c o n t r a sw i t h e t t t h ep a v e da r e a s s s u m i n gh a t a t t h e g r o u n dc o v e r i s c o s t j u s t i f i e d a n d c a n b e p r o p e r r ym a i n t a i n e ds m a , . c u r b e d i s r a n d sm a y b e m o u n d e d .b u t w h e r e p a v e m e n tc r o s s s r o p e sa r e o u n v a r d .l a r g e i s r a n d ss h o u r db e d e p r e s s e d t o a v o i d d r a i n i n g a c r o s st h e p a v e m s n l T h i s f e a t u r ei s e s p e c i a i l y e s i r a b r e . d w h e r ea r t e r n a t e- r e e z i na n d r g t h a w i n go f s t o r e ds n o w m a v o c c u r .F o r s m a ' c u r b e di s r a n d s n d i n a r e a s a r v h e r e r o w i n gc o n d i t i o n s r en o t f a v o r a b l e . g a s o m ef o r m o f p a v e ds u r f a c ci s u s e do n t h e i s l a n d .I n m a n y r e s p e c t sh e c u r b e d - i s r a n c r t c r o s ss e c t i o n e s i g n d i s s i m i l a r t o r h a t d i s c u . s s e id t h e s e c t i o n . . r V r e d i a n s - w i d r h n and Cross S e c t i o n "n C h a p t e r V . i I

Delineationand Approach-End Treatment Dc'linearion smail curbed israndsis eft'ected of primarilv by curbs. Large curbetislands ay besufficientlv erineated l m d b y c o r o ra n dt e x t u r e o n t r a so f c t vcr:ctative cover.moundedearth,shruUr. o""rA'oo.rir. l;

In l , , n s t r u c t u r eo r p e d e s t r i ac r o s s i n g s . s p e c i ac a s e sc u r b s a ss h o w ni n C h a p t e r s y I V a r es u i t a b l ep r e f e r a b l o f h e ig h t sn o tm o r et h a nI 5 0 t o 2 2 5m m .E i t h e rt y p e , o i d o f c u r b c o u l d b e a p p r o p r i a t en u r b a na r e a s , e p e n d i n g n t h e c o n d i t i o n ' a o uc a r e a d v a n t a - e e oa ts r i t i c a ll o c a t i o n s r o n i s l a n d s n d c High-visibility urbs traffic. by high-speed roadwayforks approached by The outlineof a curbedislandis determined the edgeof through-traffic with lateralclearance, any,to the curbedisland if lanes and turningroadways, or islandarerounded beveled olthe curbed The pointsat the intersections sides. a curbedislandis simplicity.The amountthat fbr visibility and construction of laneis influenced the ty'pe edgetreatment by offsetfrom the through-traffic lengthof taperor auxiliarypavement suchas islandcontrast, andotherf'actors rather Island curbsareintroduced island. andtrafficspeed. preceding curbed the suddenly andshouldbe offset from theedgeofthrough-trafficlaneseven ifthey A aremountable. mountablecurb at an islandneednot be offset from the edge its Barriercurbsshouldbe exceptto reduce vulnerability. of a turningroadway, ways. of offsetfrom edges throughand tuming traveled curbedislanddesignare shown in FiguresIX-25 and Detailsof triangular for island designed approach-end is IX-26.The lowerrightcornerofeachcurbed and small,intermediate, large'areshown Threecurbedislandsizes. treatment. laneedge:( I ) The curbedislandedgeis of cases through-traffic for two general way,and(2) thecurbed traveled tiom thethrough by determined offiet clearance Small the caniedthrough intersection. of is island eclge at theoutside a shoulder n a c u r b e di s l a n d s r e t h o s eo f m i n i r n u mo r n e a r - m i n i m u ts i z e .a s p r e v i o u s l y a t w i a d d i s c u s s e L la r g e u r b e ds l a n d s r et h o s e i t h s i c l e i m e n s i o n st l e a s 3 0 m . A l l c . c and noses in islands FigureslX-2-5and IX-26 areshownwith approach curbecl to on mergingendsrountled approprilterldii of 0.-5 l nrThe lower lefi corner t w s i s r o u n r i e d i t h a r a c l i u o f ' 0 . - 5o l . - 5r n . Where lanes. adjacent through-traffic to shorvs curbedislands IX-2-5 Figurc' * traveled ay. thc minintumolfsetof theedge thcreareno curbson theapproach roadwayhasa to of the curbcdislandshouldbe 0.-5 I m. Wherethe approach at islandcouldbe located theedge a similarcurbon thecurbed curb. nrountable a lanc rvhcrcthcrc is suftlcicntlengthof curbedislantlto cl't'cct ot'thc through fronr gnrdual curbsshoultlbc rlfl.sct Non-rttountablc thc noscrlt'l.sct. tapcrfrorn to island. ttvotd wav cdgc.rcgardlcss oithc sizeof thccurbc'd travclctl thethrough ltnd Wherethc intcrmcdiute largc-stzc to drivc'rs. luscnscof latertl restriction ot' islandsarc uncurbcd.thc indicltcd oft.scts thc curhcti isl;rrldpropcr are any t'ixcdobjcctswithin thc islnndare:rs l-ltlwcvc'r. but desirirblc not csscntirtl. ln shouldbe oft.set lppropriatedistlncc l'romthc throughlltnes. ts s b i T h c a p p r o a c c n do t ' ac u r b e d s l a n d h t l u l c l c c o t t s p i c u t r uo a p p r o a c h i n g h

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to the by that it could be straddled vehicles.The offset from the travel lane be greaterthan that to the side of the curbed island, nose should approach the normally about 0.5 m. For median curbed islandsthe face of curb at be offset at least0.5 m and preferably 1.0m from upprou.hislandnoseshould islandshouldthen curbed way.The median edgeof traveled thenormalmedian the full width. For othercurbedislands total nose widenedto its be gradually the normal edgeof through way and 0.5 to I m offier shouldbe I to 2 m from be from the traveled way edge of a turning roadway' Large offsets should lane or a by is preceded a deceleration provided where the curbed island graduallywideningauxiliary pavement' when an approachshoulderis used,the curbedislandshouldbe offset from where the throughtravel laneby an amountequalto the shoulderwidth except are Where speeds intermediateor high or a deceleration tum lane is provided. laneor a graduallywidened by andthecurbedislandis preceded a deceleration offset the nose of large curbed auxiliary pavement,it may be desirable to an areas offset as small 0.5 an islands additional to I m. In heavilydeveloped as0.3mmaybeappropriatefornon-mountablecurbswheretheapproachnose traffic is particularly wherepedestrian ofthe curb islandis offset and tapered, a factor. and Curbed islands should be ramped down as shown in Figure lx-2'l drivers both warning to approaching providedwith devicesto give advance pavement, jiggle barsin front or roughened markings, duyandnight.Pavement as on of the approachnose are particularlyadvantageous the areasshown high-visibility other stippled in Figure lX-25. To the extent practicable, curbs.signslocatednearthe shouldbe used,suchas reflectorized indications or or appioachends of curbed islands Suitablyreflecrorized illuminated. of all islands The curbs ,.ti..toru mountedabovethe curbedislandsurface. with the in the line of traffic flow shouldbe markedin accordance located than one to lv{UTCD (5). Where approaches islandsmay be made in more cautionshould be exercisedin determiningwhetherto ramp the direction. signal curbed island down so that adequateprotection is prol'ided for traffic and signslocatedin the island' cquipment Delineationandwarningdevicesareespeciallypertinentatapproach line of ici c n d s o f m e c l i a n - c u r b e s l a n d s ,w h i c h u s u a l l ya r e i n t h e d i r e c t of a a p p r o a c h i n gr r a f f i c . I n r u r a l a r e a s t h e a p p r o a c h s h o u l d c o n s i s t frer w g r a , l u a t t y i d e n i n gc e n r e s t r i p e ( F i g u r e I X - 2 8 ) . A l t h o u g h n o t a s s r, h i s a p p r o a c h h o u l db e s t r i v e df o r i n u r b a n a r e a s luentty obtainable of color m t c a l s o .P r e f e r a b l yi .t s h o u l dg r a d u a l l y h a n g e o a r a i s e d a r k i n g w i t h t h a t o f t h e t r a f f i c l a n e so r t o j i g g l e b a r st h a t l n r J t e x t u r ec o n t r a s t i n g
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The principal controlsfor the designof turning roadwaysare the alinement of the traveledway edgeand the turning roadway width, so that the design c t v e h i c l ec a n b e a c c o m m o d a t ew h i l e t u r n i n ga t a s p e e d o n s i s t e nw i t h t h e d . o p e r a t i o no f t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n W i t h r a d i i g r e a t e r t h a n m i n i m u m , t h e s e i t c o n t r o l sr e s u l ti n a n a r e al a r g ee n o u g hf o r a n i s l a n d ,g e n e r a l l y r i a n g u l a r n t b s h a p e , e t w e e n h e l e f t e d g eo f t h e t u r n i n g r o a d w a ya n d t h e t r a v e l e dw a y ) S e d g e s( e x t e n d e do f t h e t w o t h r o u g hh i g h w a y s . u c ha n i s l a n di s d e s i r a b l e t t f o r d e l i n e a t i n gh e p a t ho f t h r o u g ha n d t u r n i n gt r a f f i c ,f o r t h e p l a c e m e no f s . s i g n s ,a n dt o r p r o v i d i n gr e f u g ef o r p e d e s t r i a na n d b i c y c l e s L a r g e ri s l a n d s o s s l m a y b e n e c e s s a rty l o c a t e i g n sa n d t o f a c i l i t a t e n o w - r e m o v ao p e r a t i o n s . t T h e t u r n i n g r o a d w a ys h o u l db e d e s i g n e d o p r o v i d ea t l e a s tt h e m i n r m u m t i s l a n da n d t h e m i n i m u mw i d t h o I t u r n i n gr o a d w a y . T h e u r n i n gr o a d w a y t o s h o u l db e w i d e e n o u g h o p e r m i tt h e r i g h t a n dl e f t w h e e lt r a c k s f a s e l e c t e d v e h i c l et o b e w i t h i n t h e e d g e so f t h e t r a v e l e dw a y b y a b o u t0 . 5 m o n e a c h s i d e .G e n e r a l l y . h e t u r n i n g r o a d w a yw i d t h s h o u l dn o t b e l e s st h a n4 . 2 m . t w f m H o w e v e r .w i d t h sd e s i g n e do r l a r g e rv e h i c l e s a y b e r e d u c e d i t h p a i n to r p r t t c o l o r c o n t r a s t i n gr e a t m e n t so c h a n n e l i z e a s s e n g ec a r s a n d d i s c o u r a g e t h e f o r m a t i o no f t w o t u r n i n g l a n e s . t n F i g u r e I X - 1 9 s h o r v s t i n i m u m d e s i g n sf o r t u r n i n g r o a d w a y s b r a 9 0 o c A d e g r e e i g h t t u r n t o f i t t h e s e o n t r o l s . d e s i g nb a s e d n a m i n i m u m i s l a n d r i m a n d e m i n i m u m t u r n i n gr o a d w a yw i d t h o f . 1 . 2 ( F i g u r eI X - 2 9 A ) r e s u l t s n w a c i r c u l a rl r c o f l S m r a d i u s( n o t s h o w n )o n t h e r i g h t t r a v e l e d a y e d g eo f d o t h e t u r n i n g r o a d r v : . r vr i n I t h r e e - c e n t e r ec u r v e ( a s s h o w n ) w i t h r a d i i t m 1 5 .a n d- l - 5 w i t h t h e m i d d l ec u r v eo f f s e t I m f r o m t h e t a n g e n e d g e s olJ5, v t n T h i s d e s i g n o t o n l y p e r m i t sp a s s e n g e re h i c l e so t u r n a t a s p e e d extended. e w h e e l )o f a p p r o r i n r a t c ' l y0 m a n d s t i l l c l e a rt h e t u r n i n gr o a d w a y d g e sb 1 ' 2 s h o w nb y t h e v e h i c l ep a t h si n t h e f i g u r e . s m a b o u t0 . - 1 o n e r r c h i d e .l s

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3-CENTlrlO touN{ts

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By increasing the turning road\\'aywidth to 5.4 m and using the same c o m b i n a t i oo f c u n ' e sb u t w i i h t h em i d d l ec u r v eo f f s e t1 . 5m f r o m t h et a n g e n t n arrangement ed_ees extended. more desirable a results(FigureIX-298). This v w t d e s i g n n a b l e t h eS U d e s i g n e h i c l eo u s ea 2 l - m t u r n i n g a d i u s i t h a d e q u a t e e s r and it for to the clearances makes possible theWB- l5 vehicle negotiate turn with throush-traffic only slightencroachment adjacent on lanes. n f pa A t l o c a t i o nw h e r e s i g n i f i c a n tu m b e r os e m i t r a i l e r c o m b i n a t i o n sr.t i c u s a larly the longerunits.will be tuming.thearrangement shownin FigurelX-29C Thisdesign. consisting a minimumcurveof 20 m radius, of should used. be offset radii.generally provides a WB-15 design for 2 m. and terminalcurvesof 55 m vehiclepassing the througha 6 m turningroadwaywidth and greatlybenefits operation smallervehicles. of shouldbeawareof largersemi-trailercombinations on However.thedesigner vehicles these will haveon turningroadway roadwavs theeff'ects and designated the in II The shouldreference truckturningtemplates Chapter designs. designer widthscanbe needs. previously As stated, turningroadway to meettheirdesign passenger with paintor color contrasting treatments channelize cars reduced to and discourage formationof two tuming Ianes. the shouldbe located about0.5 m outside traveled the The islandin rll instances lX-29C, For high-speed highwaysthe wav edges extended, shownin Fi-sure as greater. ruralareas. useof In the offsetto the throughlaneswould be desirably When raised paintccl islands used, are islanils shouldbe the first consideration. havc a rnountable curb tace.(SeeFiguresIX-25 and IX-26 and they shoulcl However. maybewarranteci accompanving discussion.) dift'erent curbtreatment w r v h e n e d e s t r i i r nrs db i c y c l i s t s i l l b e u s i n gt h e i s l a n d b r r e t u g e . p t i n n I sy F o r r ' u c n r i l r i n r u n r c s i g s h o n vin F i g u r e X - 2 9 .a t l r c c - c c r r t c r c r l n t t t t c t r i c h cl n houever, asvrnmetric cotnpouncl curvcs conrpound curve is recommencJed: whcre the dcsignprovidestirr the turnins ol. particularly could also bc usc'cl. t c i t r u c k s . l t h o u g h r n c q u i v a l e ns i n r p l e u n e o f a g i v e nr a d i u s s n o t e di n t h e A l its nravrc'sult designvehicle in t'igure eachcasr'. uscin thc two latterdesicns in n r c n c r o u c h m e n(t)s t h es h o u l d c o r t h e i s l a n d .

FigurelX-29. Designsfor turning roadwayswith minimumcorner islands.

()blique-Angle urns with Corner Islands T o i u d i \ l i n i n r u m c s i g nd i r n c n s i o nts r r o b l i q u e - a n g lte m s ,d e t c m t i n c d n n b u s i s . t t s i n r i l l rt ( )t h i l tt i ) rr i l h l - a n g l eu m s .a r eg r v c ni n T a b l cI X - - 1C u n ' cd c s i g n i r rt h c r s o l t r r r r ' l e dw u y ,t u r n i n g o a t [ v l v r v i d t h l,n d t h cl p p r o x i r n u t ie l a n d t inner dgc c the thrcechoscndesirrn classificrtirlns described thr' at size lre indicated tirr
r t r h e t h r c c r n i n i r n u r nt l c s i q n ss h o w n i n l c c o r d r r n c e v i t h t h c s i z t ' t r t ' v c h i c l e s , h c t h c p h r s i c a l c ( ) n t r ( ) l \ r tl h c s i t r ' . l o l u r r r r t r t ' t n r t - t ' il c l t i c i p l t c d , l n d u r

AASHTMjeometric

Design of Highv+,ays Streets and

A t -G rctde I nter sect io ns

In Table IX-4 no designvarues are given for anglesof turn less than 75 degrees. Turningroadways tlat-angre for turnsinvolvereratively rarge radiiand qrgnot considered theminimumclass. in Sucharrangemenrs require individual designto fit siteconrrolsand trafficconditions. anglesof turn between For 75 degrees and 120degrees designs governed a minimum isrand, the are by which provides tbrtu.nson morethanminimumturning radii.Forangles 120degrees of or more,the sharpest turningpaths theselected of vehicles andarrangements of curyeson the inneredge travered of way to fir these pathsgenerally controlthe design, resulting rhe islandsizebeinggreater thanrheminimum.The inneredge of traveledway arrangements designsB and C for turning anglesof for r20 degrees 150degrees thesame those to are as givenin TableIX-2 for sinele-unit trucksand semitrailer combinations, respecrively. The size of islands-for the tuming anglesgiven in the last column of rable IX-4 indicatesthe l4lge otherwiseunusedand uncontrolled areas pavement of thatareeliminatedby the useof islands

3-Centered C o m p o u n dC u r v e Angle Radii Design Offset of Turn (degrees) Classification ( m ) (m)

lvidth of Lane (m) 1.2

{t

Approx. Island (m2) Size 5.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 1.5 I r.5 5.0 5.5 l r.0 8.5 20.0 43.0 35.0 60.0 r30.0 I 10.0 r60.0

15

B 90' B C 105 A B C A B A
D

45-23-45 45-23-45 55-28-55 45-l5-.15

-.r<l< 4<

L0
l<

r.0
t.0 1.5 2.0 0.6 1.5
AA

6.0
,1 a +.: <{

55-20-55 36-t2-36 30- r l -30 55-l 4-55 30-9-30 30-9-30 55- l 2-55 30-9-t0 30-9-30 4 8 -l r - 4 8 30-9-_30 30-9-30 48-I t--18

6.0 4.5 6.6 9.0 .1.8 7.2 10.2 .1.8 7.8 10.5 .1.8 9.0
I l.-l

r20
APPLICATION AT TURNING ROADWAY TERMINALS An importantpan of intersection designis the provisionof a suitable traveled way edgealinement wherea turningroadway departs fiom or joins the through highway traveledway. Ease and smoothness operationresult when the of traveled way edgeis designed with spirars compound or curvesandis of a shape and le'gth to avoidabruptdecererarion driversbetbrethey leavethethrough by traveled way, to permit development superelevation advanceof thc of in --nl&(lmum curvature. and to enable vehicles follow naturalturningpaths. to Variousclegrees transitional of treatments an exit lrom a highwayarc for illustrated FigureslX-30 and lX-3 l fbr desiln lturning)speeds 30 and-50 in of km/h' respectively. p. theoftsetfrom theedgeof rhethroughtraveled As way to the ntinimunrradiuscurveproducetl, increased. is progressively smoother ancl rnoreadequate turnoutfacilities provideti. spiralcurveof minimumlength are A (TableIX-5 ) joining theedgeof through traveled rvevrvirhtheinrersectir)n curve t F i g u r c ' l X - 3 0 8 )i s a s u b s t a n t i un r p r o v e m e n tv e r t h e s i m p l ec u r v el F i u u r c il o I X - l 0 A ) i n c a s i n qt h e t u m i n g p a t h .T h i s s h o n . s p i r eils n o r s a t i s t a c t o rty r r i dcveltlprncnt superelevation the turnoutbecausc' wetigeof auxililry of on the pavclrlcnt. arcaa-b-c.is too srnalltbr this purpose. doublingrhc minirlunr By l e n g t h f s p i * l ( F i g u r e X - 3 0 c ) .p i s i n c r e a s etd n e a r l y . 7r n .a n i n c r e a ste a r o I o 1 h provicles a more directional tor pathand a subsrantially greater pavcment irrca (a-b-c-d)tbr developnrent superelevation of rhan in the previouscxrmple. compoundin-q inrersecrion the curvtwlrh an arc. oflrrubltahtmiannirm iatliu.i ( F i g u r cX - - 3 0 D ) . l

0.8 1.5 2.5 0.8 1.5 2.1 0.8 2.0 2.1

r35

r50
B (-

n " I l l u s t r a t cid F i s u r cI X - 2 9 . h d \ O T E S : ' \ s 1 ' r n n r e t r itc r c c - c c n t e r e c o m p o u n t lc u r v e a n d s t r l i g h l t a p e r sw i t h l l "r s i n r p l c u r v ec a n a l s ob e u s e dw i t h o u ts i g n i f i c a n t l yl t e r i n g t h e * i d t h o f r o a d w a ,o" c c o r n c ri s l a n ds i z e . lessthln 7 rn: in sizc. tbr Plintcd isllnd delineltionis recommendeJ islands l ic:tl f)csrtrtel:tssi iort: vchiclcs: pcnlrts occrtsiortrtl dcsignsrnr:lc .'\- Prinrurilypirsscngcr unit truck to turn rvithrcstrictcd clclrtnccs. WB- l.s t() turn ldcquatcl-"- SU: pennitsocc:tston;ll tbr []- Provides rvithslightcncroachment utljlccntrrll'fic Ilncs. tln t'ullv lirr WB- 1.5. C - Providcs

TablelX-4. Minimumdesignsfor turningroadways.

AASITTO--4eometri('Design of Highu'at'sand Steets

A t -G rade I ntersec't i o n s

693

m o r e d e s i r a b l ee d g e a l i n e m e n ti s o b t a i n e db y u s i n g a t h r e e _ s r e p c o m p o u n dc u r v e ( F i g u r e I X - 3 0 8 ) . I n t h i s c a s e r h e 3 0 m r a d i u sc u r v e i s - t 4 r e c e d e d b y 6 0 a n d 1 2 0 m r a d i i c u r v e so f a p p r o x i m a t e l y h e m i n i m u m J e n g t h sg i v e n i n T a b l e I X - 6 . T h i s a r r a n g e m e nr e q u i r e sm o r e s p a c ea s t indicatedby the offset p of approximately7 m. The designis superiorto the p r e c e d i n g x a m p l e s n p r o v i d i n ga m o r e g r a d u a lt u r n o u tw i t h s o m es p a c e e i furnished for decelerationoff the through traffic lane, and an area of t r a n s i t i o n ap a v e m e no n w h i c h a r e l a t i v e l yf l a t c i r c u l a rc u r v e i s u s e da n d a l t c o m b i n i n g s p i r a l b e t w e e ni t a n d t h e m i n i m u m r a d i u s c u r v e . T h e r a d i u s s e l e c t e do r t h e i n i t i a l c u r v ec o r r e s p o n dts a d e s i g ns p e e d f a b o u t7 0 k m / f o o h , 4 0 k m / h m o r e t h a nt h e s p e e df o r t h e m i n i m u m ( 3 0 m r a d i u s )i n r e r s e c t i o n c u r v e .T h e e n do f t h ef l a t t e r c u r v eo r t h eb e g i n n i n g f t h es p i r a l ,i s p o s i t i o n e d , o the widening obtainedapproximates lane width. a __-fryLere Minimum lengths spiralfor intersection of curves(TableIX-5) and lengths of circular arcs for compound intersectioncurves (Table IX-6) are also discussed ChapterIII undertheseheadings. in FiguresIX-30E and IX-30F indicatethe desirable type of alinement where the right turn movements to be channelized, are particularlywherethe turning movementsare relatively large or large trucks need to be accommodated. where thesedesigns not feasible, are arrangements similar to thoseshownin F i g u r e sX - 3 0 c a n dI X - 3 0 Ds h o u l d eu s e dA d e s i g n i t h a s i n g l e i r c u l a r a r c , I b . w c as in Figure IX-30A, generallyshouldbe avoided. T h e s a m e e n e r ae x p l a n a t i oa p p l i e so F i g u r eI X - 3 r , w h i c hd e m o n s t r a t e s g l n t d e s i g n s i t h a m i n i m u mr a d i u so f 7 0 m . w F i g u r e sI X - 3 0 a n d I X - 3 I i l l u s t r a t et u r n i n g r o a d w a ye x i t s , b u t s i m i l a r -arransements are applicableto turning roadway entrances. except that thc approachnose becomesa merging end without offset from either edge of w traveled ay. I n t h ed e s i g n f F i g u r e s X - 3 0 a n dI X - 3 I , i t i s a s s u m e r h a tp a r to r a l l o f t h c o I d necessary speedchaneeoccurson the throu_qh traffic lane.The arranqements s h o w na l s oa r e a p p l i c a b l e h e nj o i n i n g a p a r a l l e la u x i l i a r yo r s p e e d h a n g c w c lane.If theou(erlaneis a deceleration lane.thepavement taperbeyondrhenosc w o u l db e r h a rs h o w nb y t h ed a s h e di n e i n F i g u r eI X - - 1 0 E , i n i n g r h ec ' d g c l ' jo l o w t h r o u g h r a v e l e d a y a t e . D e s i g n s i t h s p e e d h a n g ea n e s r e d i s c u s s eld t c r t w c l l a i n t h i sc h a p t e r . In an altematernethodof designingtuming roadwayterminals, straight a taperto an ot'fset circulararc may be usedinstead a transition the longcr of or rediusarc of a compoundcurve.This anangemenr (Figure IX-30F) requircs rrtorepaved area.but it providesa gradualtumout and deceleration thc ol'f

l-tsh t-lc'

,-.*-i i:i

A SIIIGH'

'

'TI

RAY

II

USCO

IN

Mc!

of lxt

orcu

t {c:. ^l! SHL I tXClft Tul rIOUCIO Or tuuno.

NOt!: tNtRCt IIHMB NOS{ OftSCTl [t

FigurelX-30. Useof transitionand compoundcurvesat turning

694

AASHTO--Ceomctri(.Design of Highx.,a1,s Streets ancl

ctions At-Grade I nterse

(km/h) Design (turning) sPeed ( M i n i m u mr a d i u s m ) C Assumed Calculatedlengthof sPiral (m) minimum length Suggested of spiral(m) Conespondingcircular curve offset from tangent(m)

30 25 t.2
IQ

40 50 l.l z) 25 0.7

50 80 1.0

60 125 0.9
4l

1A 160 0.8 57 60

JJ

20 0.7

35 0.7

45

0.8

0.9

Tab|e|X.5.Minimum|engthsofspira|forintersectioncurves.

R a d i u s( m ) Lengthof circular arc (m)

30

50

60

100

125

or 150 more

,,Ihrueh

Trtff. ton.

>---- :-/ p-215^ ''

Mininrunr Desirable

t2 20

l5 20

20 30

25 35

30
t<

35 55

,( 60

Table lX-6.

intersection Lengthsof circulararc for a compound radiusor by a curveof one-half curv; whenfollowed of doubleradius' by preceded a curve

A S]IAGHT IPCT HY ruct ot lHl cllcuul NO[:

II USEO 'N ^1c5. frcln YU' tu^llN^rto.

tMNCt TIHNArJ & Smlar NOSI OftSfTS tl rlouclD ot

Figure lX-31. Useof transition and compoundcurvesat turning

AASHTO-Geometric.Design of Hi,ghw,a-v-s and Streets

I At -Grade I nter sec' ions

SIGHTDISTANCE

General Considerations
E a c hi n t e r s e c r i o n n r a i n s e v e r a ro t e n t i avl e h i c r e co p c o n f l i c r sT h ep o s s i b r l i to f . y these conflictsactualry occuningcanbe greatrv reduced rhrough provisions the of proper sight distances and appropriale rraffic conrrors. The avoidance of accidenrs the efficiencyof trafficoperations and stilr depend thejudgmenr, on capabilities. the response the individual and of driver. Theoperatorofavehicre approaching intersectron grade an at shourd havean unobstructed view of the entire inrersecrion and sufficient lengthsof the intersecting highwayto permitconrror the vehicleto of avoidcolrisions. when r--:tr{ffie at the inrersection controlledby signalsor signs, is theunobstructed views may be limited to the areaof control. The sightdistance considered safeunder va'ous assumprions physicarconditions of and driver behavioris directry related vehiclespeeds to theresultant to and distances traversed duringperception and reactiontime and brakins. Arteriarhighwaysin urbanareas preferential are facirities with stopsignsor traffic signarcontrorof crossing enteringtraffic. or At intersections, greater stoppingsight distance shouldbe available along the arterialbecause greater potential contlictsareinvolvecl thanon a.section oihigrr*r1,, of intersections fiee and because the time required vehicres, of by particutarty trucks.to crossthc relativclywide pavemenr an arteriar of from the ,,op pn.irinn.-fhis principre a p p l i c so s i g n a l i z e id t e r s e c t i o n sw e l l a s o t h o s e v i t f L o n l y t n a t r s t o p i g n sa . sh e r e s , t nra-y a rnaIunctionof the signals. it may be bc or iJesirablc. placethe signar:; to p L Y i ' { ) ' { l l r 'otnl ly t l l r s h i n to p e r a t i t l n .h c l a r t c r l l r T u c t i o ni s t h " r , r m cr r ss t o ps i g , conlrol. Sightdistance a crossroacl strect at or shouldbe sufficicnr alongtheprcdonrinanthighwayttl prtlvitle clearance timetirra vehic staninsrocross highrvay le the t'romthis st'p p.sition anira vehicre the through on hi,rhwa\..

h s t r h i n d i c a t ets es i g h tt r i a n g l e e q u i r e do b e f r e eo f o b s t r u c t i o no r t o e s t a b l i sth e withless han t s n h m n e c e s s a r y o d i f i c a t i o in a p p r o a c s p e e d w h e na s i g h tt r i a n g l e I o i s . r h er e q u i r e d i m e n s i o nis u s e d T h e s i g h tt r i a n g l es s h o w n n F i g u r e X - 3 2 A . t a h w a I f f e a s i b l e ,n yo b j e c t i t h i nt h es i g h tt r i a n g l e i g he n o u g h b o v e h ee l e v a t i o n or shouldbe removed a to roadway constitute sightobstruction. of the adjacent . . s S l o w e r e d . u c h o b . ; e c rm a y i n c l u d e :b u i l d i n g s p a r k e dv e h i c l e sc u t s l o p e s . or unmowedgrass tall crops. bushes. trees. hedges,

Departures-Si ght Triangle t, a h A f r e ra v e h i c l e a ss t o p p e d t a n i n t e r s e c t i o nh ed r i v e rm u s th a v es u f f i c i e n t a t m a k e a s a f e d e p a r t u r e h r o u g ht h e i n t e r s e c t i o n r e a .A s t s i g h td i s t a n c e o design should provide adequate the intersection shown on Figure IX-328, m s s i g h td i s t a n c e f o r a n y o f t h e v a r i o u sv e h i c u l a r a n e u v e r s u c ha s c r o s s i n g r o r t u r n i n g i n t o t h e i n t e r s e c t i n go a d w a y .T h e s e r t h e i n t e r s e c t i n go a d w a y s f o r a s w e l l a s t h es i g h td i s t a n c ew h i c hm u s tb e m a n e u v e rm u s tb e p r o v i d e d s f e o n t h em a j o rh i g h w a y i t h e r r o m t h er i g h t a p r o v i d e do r v e h i c l e s p p r o a c h i n g f o e " d " i s t h e d i s t a n c er a v e l e d y t h e r e s p e c t i v v e h i c l e n b t o r r h el e f t . D i s t a n c e f d s p e e d u r i n gt h et i m e r e q u i r e do r t h e a t t h e m a j o rr o a d w a y r a v e l i n g t d e s i g n s t o p p e dv e h i c l e t o d e p a r t f r o m i t s s t o p p e dp o s i t i o na n d e i t h e r c r o s s t h e l i n t e r s e c t i o o r t o t u r n i n t o i t s d e s i r e d e g o f t h e n l a j o rr o a d r v a y ' n

C Intersection ontrol 'I'hcrc t i s a r cf i r e f t p c so f c o t r t r o l t h a tu p p l yt o a t - g r a d cn t . * . . , , . , t , r .T h c s c v p c s orc: I. II. lll. I\'. t t N o c ( ) n t r o lb u t a l l o w i n gv e h i c l c so a d j u s s p e e d . . t.tlttst roadrvltv Yicltl controlwhcrevchiclcsc'nthc minor interscctinq rt t r i c l d t o v c h i c l c sl n t h c n i n i o ri n t e r s e c t i n gl a c l w l v ' llltlsl st()llPrl()r[() on lftrt't'ic tltc ttlitrorrtladvurlV Stop contr()lrvhcl.c ' roatlwitr cntcrinI tltc tttltirlr r ro c . S i g n ;c r l n t r o r . v h c ra l l l c g so t ' t l t ci n t e r s e c t i n g l t l * l t v s ; t r c c q u i r c t l .p l s d t o r t ( )s t o ph 1 ' c i t h c u s t o ps i g r r r w h e r e h c i n t c r s c c t i oin c r l n t r o l l c b r .

,\pproaches_Sighr'l.riangle 'l-hcrc trtttstbc rtn unrlbstructed sight tjistance llonrt borh rrpprolrchcs tll'b.tlr tttrttls rtnintcrscction acrttss rtl and theirincludcd corncrs a dlstlnccsuf't'icienr firr I o r t l l o r vh ct l p c r a t o ro f ' v c h i c l c s t p p r o a c h i n gm u l t a n c t l u s l r . . t s r, si t e s c ce a c h t h c r e r n t r r n ct ( )p r c V e r l to l l i s i o n s t t h ei n t e r s e c t i o n .a c h c a E d r i v c , h a st h r e er r o s s i b l c r : Lt i ( ) r l st:0 r r c c e l c r r r t . ,s l 0 wd o " v no r t o s t o p A r eu c h c, . . i l t C r s c c r i g nr.. r L n , , , r n . ,

s trafl'ic ignlls. \,'. Stoppctlvchiclcs tuming lct't t'rtlnta tnltjor r()irdwrl!ln[() ;l lllln()r on trllt'l'ic thc vicltl ttltlpposinC tralficrltust rihcrc lct'tturnirtg ro1(l\\'il\',

JJ('ni;rilc i!rl()urlrlc ph,vslcallarroul;rnd thc atrkns ol thc vchiclc.()Dcrirrors un '',th iatcrsr'cti'g r.ads. F.r cach casL., t h c s p : r c c - t i n r c - r . c l r l c i t r .r r r r i . n s h r n rc

i [ ] a c l t t r t t h c r c c r t s c s s , l i s c u s s c t li n t h c l . o l l o w i n gp a r l t g r l t p h s

AASHTO--Ceometric. Design of Highwaysand Steets

At-GradeI ntersecttons

CaseI-No

Control, but Allowing Vehiclesto Adjust Speed

signs'or traffic W h e r e a c r o s s l n gl s n o t c o n t r o l l e db y y i e l d s i g n s ' s t o p n a n i n t e r s e c t i om u s tb e a b l et o r s i g n a l st,h eo p e r a l o o f a v e h i c l ea p p r o a c h i n g oe-,ceiu.conflictingtrafficinsufficienttimetoalterthevehicle.sspeedas o o f t i m e n e c e s s a rty T - gh u r e n . . . , , 0 , y b e f o r er e a c h i ndtr i e i.n'ts r s e c t i o n .h e a m o u n t a n d r e a c t i o nt i m e . w h i c h f o r perception i s t a r td e c e l e r a t i o ns t h e intersectiondesign.canbeassumedtobe2'0s.Inaddition'thedrivershould beginactualbrakingsomedistancefromtheintersectiontoaccomplish f o r t h e d i s t a n c ef r o m a n a delelerarion nd avoid collision'A lower limit vehicle approachingon the where a driver can first see a i;;;;;i;". and r o a d ,i s t h a t w h i c h i s t r a v e r s e d u r i n g2 . 0 s f o r p e r c e p t i o n intersecting reactionplusanadditionall.0stoactuatebrakingortoacceleratetoregulate traveledby a vehicle in 3'0 s distances TablelX-7 showsthe average speed. a r et h e f o l l o w i n g :

A.CASE t& il

Speed(km/h)

Distance(m)

NO CONTROL Y I E L D C O N T R O L O N OR MINOR ROAD

20 30 40 .50 60 1{) ll() 90 l(x) ll0

20 25 35 40

-s0
60 6-5 75 ti5 9() 100

n0

Table tX'7. Distancestraveled by vehicles in 3'0 s'

s p c c t l s 't h c s i g h t t r i e t t s l c t s L l r r t l c rC ; t s c t . i n F i g u r c I X - - l l . ' \ , l i r r t h e r : i v e n

8. CASEltl S T O P C O N T R O LO N M I N O R R O A D

ltltlngthc rtlltl' trr tlctcrntinctl tht lthtlvcminitnutlltlistanccs l r \ w i r h r . ! g k n r i l rs p c c t u . r l h i : : 6 * u } i R c t i , r r i . g , r F i g u r cl x - . 1 1 . \ .h i g h w a v o c stilg h t r i r r l t r l lb c t w c c tll( ) r n t 5 n a s , u w i r hi l i ( ) k r n f l r p c c dr c q u i r e nu l l o b s t r u c t c

triangle.

intersections, minimum sight

J 6 5 r t t r t t t d ( ) r t t .r c s p c c t i rc l r ' i r t r t t t r h i s h \ \ ; . r s . \ . r n t iB , r i t h l c g sc r t c r t t l i n r l t tl c l s t r p - rrv i r li t l r v c h i c l c o n c i t h c r r t t l t t l c nl rh..inr.'rr,','ri,rn'I-lrr'rr',rrur"rtartlist:rnccs l-r r-hmgc' spcct bctirrc rcrrching thc itltL'rscL'tloll-

AAsHTo-ljectmetric' Design of Highu,avsancl Streets

A t -Grade I ntersecttons t v e h i c l et o a s t o pp r i o r t o r e a c h i n gh e a r e a c t i o n n d b r a k i n gt r m e ,b r i n g t h e for be cannot achieved the int.rr..ting road*ay. Whereu piopt' sightdistance speed to it maybenecessary havea posted on driverof thevehicle theminoi road' the majorcrossroad' as reduction the minor roadapproaches Intheeventthattheminorroadwayvehiclemuslstop'thedataforenabling underCase asexplained to vehicles crossor enlerthe major roadway' stopped ..p ' r *. P l l c m le. I I I . ,a pea , aPuis ta b e n t s f o r a l l d i s t a n c e s m u s t b e m a d e w h e n a n y o f t h e a p p r o a c h in are Suchadjustments stared ChapterIII' legsareon otherrhanlevelgrades' under"Effectsof Grades'" section cost' at except a prohibitive which cannotbe removed When an obstruction' lessthanthedesignspeed are of fixesthe vertices a sighttriangleto pointsthat must adjustments appropriate distaice from the intersection' suf. rtopping slght for distance at least stoppingsight be madefor the designspeedand for the safe concerned' one of the roadwaYs Ifthevehiclesononeoftheroadsarepermittedtotravelatthedesignspeed road on speed theintersecting maybe oi tiot ,oaa*ay, thecriticalcorresponding evaluatedintermsoftheknowndesignspeedandthedimensionstotheknown obstructions. V i s k n o w na n da a n db a r et h e , I n a t y p i c a lc a s ea sr n F i g u r eI X - 3 2 A ' s p e e d o e t h J r e s p e c t i vp a t h s f v e h i c l e s f o k n o w nd i s t a n c ets t h e s i g h to b s t r u c t i o nr o m i c a nt h e nb e e v a l u a t e dn t c r m so t ' A a n d B . T h e c r i t i c a l, p " I d V n o f v e h i c l eB A f o r v e h i c l e ' W h e nv e h i c l e d ; . k n o w nf a c t o r sD i s t a n c d " i s t l i es t o p p i n g i s t a n c e o a n dt h ec l r i v e r s f v eh i c l e sA a n dB e A i s a t a c l i s t a n cd , f r o m i h t i n t t " e t t i o n l t l nf r o n tl h e i n t e r s e c t i o rB'- vt h c s t ' i r s r i g h te a c ho t h e r ,v e h i c l eB i s a d i s t a n c e simillr trilngleProPortion:

I n r e r s e c t i o n w i t h s i g h t t r i a n g l e s a v i n gd i m e n s i o n s p p r o x i m a t e l v s h a e q u a lt o t h o s ei n d i c a t e d r e n o t n e c e s s a r i lsya f e . h e r ei s p o t e n t i ac o n f u _ a T l s l q n r o o p e r a r o r sw i t h r h e p o s s i b i l i t yo f a d r i v e r o n o n e h i g h w a y b e i n g w c o n f r o n t e d i t h a s u c c e s s i oo f v e h i c r eo n t h ei n t e r s e c t i nh i g h w a y . v e n n s g E where only one vehicle on each of the adjacentlegs"approaches an i n t e r s e c t i o nb o t h v e h i c l e sm a y b e g i nt o s r o wd o w n a n d r e a c ht h e i n t e r s e c , t i o n a t t h e s a m et i m e . o n e i m p o r t a n r a c t o ri s t h a t a v e h i c l ea p p r o a c h i n g f a n o n - c o n r r o l l e di n t e r s e c t i o n u s r y i e l d t h e r i g h t _ o f _ w a y o v e h i c l e s m t ap_ p r o a c h i n g h e i n t e r s e c t i o n n t h er i g h t .N o n - c o n r r o l l e d r e r s e c t r o n s o u l d t o in sh b e u s e d o n l y i n t h e d e s i g n o f i n t e r s e c t i o n o n l i g h t t y t r a v e r e dt w o - r a n e s r o a d s .w h e r e t h i s m i n i m u m t r i a n g r ec a n n o tb e p r o v i d e d ,t r a f f i c c o n t r o l d e v i c e ss h o u l d b e u s e dt o s r o w d o w n o r s t o p v e h i c l e so n o n e r o a d e v e n i f b o t h r o a d sa r e l i g h t l y r r a v e l e d . The prefened designfor "non-controlled"crossings allows the operators of vehicleson both highwaysto seethe intersecrion the traffic on the rnter.sectand ing highway in sufficienttime to stop thevehiclebeforereachinsthe intersecrion.The safestoppingdistances intersection for designare theiame as those used for design in any other sectionof highway.chapter III, sectionunder "StoppingSight Distance," contains stopping sightdistance criteria. For two highwaysof known designspeeds, sighttriangre the determined by thesat'e stopping sightdistance a safer is design rhanthatwith rheadjusred d spee distances. operator An sightinga vehicre the intersecting on road may stop,ir' necessary, otherwisechangespeedto avoid a conflict. Confusionof thc or driversis possible because bothmay slow down andrcachthe intersection thc at s a r n c i n r e .H o w e v e, t h i sd a n g e i s s l i g h tb e c a u so f t h eg r e a tn u m b e r f s n c c d t r r e o c h a n u c o s s i b i l i t i c sh et i m ea v u i l a b l e ,n dt h en o r m a l, L l . r a r r ai n s o c c d s u r r p t. a u i n t e r s e c t i oin e p p r o a c h eu n d e r u c hc o n d i t i o n s . s d s Each vchicle approaching intersection an must have the appropriate clcar .sight distance vehicles fbr approaching intersection the alongboththe right and lcti lcgsof thecrossroad. of theabovedataarebased an intersecrion All on with tlat gradcs the approach tln legs.Appropriate corrections approach tbr lcqs6n qro(lcsnlust bc rnadein accordance rvith data in ChapterIII. sectionuntlcr "Et'fc'cts Grldcs." of

d -D

Case II-!'ield

Control for llinor Roads

1'histrpc rlf tlcsirn requires that the minor roadrvay posrcdwith -vicld be signs rus lcgs intcrsect rnljor roadwav. its the Rcfercnce madeto FigureIX-.ll;\. i.s
sull!crL'nt [o illl()w tlre rryrerator otrserve a vEh]cle onl]r.. lt13i,rr roa,trrllv to

a p p r o u r - ' h i n'{ o r nc i t h c r t h c l c t i o r t h e r i g h r ,a n d t h c n t h r o u g hp c r c c p t i o n . f r

702

AASHTO--$eometri(' Design of Highu,aysand

Streets

tions At -Grade I ntersec

CaseIII-Stop

Control on Minor Roads

Figure IX-4G-illustrates Case IIIB for a multilanehighway in sightdistance the right for left tuming the to calculating necessary vehicles. (B,C) FigureIX-41-illustrates for Cases IIIB andIIIC thesightdistances for the maneuvers. required (C) Figure IX-42-illustrates Case IIIC for a two-lanehighway in the sightdistance. calculating necessary The stop condition criterion is applicableto two-lane,two-directional Wherethe principalroadway roadways throughmultilanedivided highways. is either undividedor divided with a narrow median(the medianis not of are maneuvers sufficient width to store the design vehicle),the departure treatedas a single operation.Where the major roadway is divided and has a wide median(wide enoughto safely storethe designvehicles),the departure The first operationconcernsthe maneuvers consideredas two operations. are that is, crossingthe traffic approachingfrom the left for all three maneuvers; a entireroadway,crossing part of the roadwayand turningleft into the cross road or turning right into the cross road. The secondphaseconcernstraffic that to from theright for thefirst two operations; is, continuing crossthe major roadwayor turning left and merging with traffic from the right. Details are I s h o w ni n F i g u r e s X - 3 5 a n d I X - 3 5 A .

(B)

A. B. c.

To travelacross intersecting the roadwayby clearingtraffic on both the Ieft and the right of the crossing vehicle; To tum left into the crossingroadwayby first clearingtraffic on the refi and thento enterthe traffic streamwith vehicles from the right; and, To turnright into rheintersecting roadway entering rraffrc by the streanr with vehicles fiom the left.

These conditions shownby theCases B, ancl respectively, are A. C, on Figurc IX-36. To assist the user,the figuresnecessary the analysis in fbr.il CaseIII c o n i r i r i o na r e o u t l i n e db e l o wa n d d e s i g n a t eaJ G e n e r a( G ) . s ts r caseIIIA (A). C a s cI I I ! ( B ) . a n dC a s e I I C ( C ) : I (G) (G) (Gt tGl r(lt r r.-\ tAt ( L lt F i g u r eI X - 3 2 - i i l u s t r a r i o no f s i c h rr i n e s b r c a s e sI . I I . f ancl II. I F i g u r eI X - 3 - i - r o d e t e m r i n e, t b r p . S U . a n c w B - r - 5 v e h i c r c s . t l Figure IX--1'l-to dc'termine speed-distance ihe rerarionship r) fbr v c h i c l c s n r lf b r S U a n d W B _l 5 t r u c k s . a Figure IX-3.5-ro determine rinre_speed rhe relarionship p vc_ tirr h i cl c s . Figurc LX-.lo-r. dcrcrrnine disrancc lntr d. firr *vo-ll*c hi*rrtr
\\ ll\rs.

CaseIIIA-Crossing Maneuver is maneuver based the time it takesfor the on for The sightdistance a crossing will travel and that vehicle cleartheintersection thedistance a vehicle stopped to in speed thatamount time.SeeFigureIX-36. of at alongthemajorroad itsdesign may be calculated from theequation: IIIA. This distance andFigureIX-37 Case d = 0 . 2 8 V( J + t " ) whcre: d V = J t. = (n) the fiom theintencction ) sightdisttrcea,long majorhighway designspeed the major highwayikm/h) on to time andthe time required actuatc sum of the perception an shitt (s) theclutchor actuate automatic the and time requiredto accelerate traverse distanccS to wav (s) clearthe major highwaytraveled

F i g u r cI X - 1 7 - t r d e t c r m i n e i s t a n c c f i l r C a s cI I I . . \er l n t r i r i r l n s d S lilr t r ' " o - l l n e n dm u l t i l a n e i t u a t i o n s . a s F i { u r c I X - - 1 8 - q h o w q h es i g h rd i s t a n c e n c c c s s a rtvt r C a s cl l l , \ r d i sltc crrtssing f'roma stopped position. F i r r u r cI X - . 1 9 - i l l u s r r a r e s c.ul{ruktlrntl tlr-r-essarv tlrL. si_qht distanrCto rhT n-,rhllbr la;lFlrnliu v c hi cl t s .

t l o o k i n b o t hd i r e c t i o n s f t h e r o a d w a y t, o p e r c e i v eh a tt h e r ei s s u f f i c i e n t o p t o s h i f t g e a r s .i f n c c e s s a r v . r e p a r a t o r \ ' t i m e t o c r o s st h e r o a d s a f e l y .a n d

AA.S O--{; eon etr i c'D esi g rt of' H i,q HT hu,at,.r nd Str eers a

t At -Grade I nt ersec ions

---

t o s t a r r i n gI.t i s t h e t i m e f r o m t h ed r i v e r ' sf i r s t l o o k f o r p o s s i b l e n c o m l n g o t r a f f i c t o t h e i n s t a n t h e c a r b e g i n s o m o v e .S o m eo f t h e s e p e r a t i o n s t o are d o n e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y y m a n y d r i v e r s ,a r r c is o m e o p e r a t i o n ss u c h b . as s h i f t i n go f g e a r s . a y b e d o n eb e f o r el o o k i n gu p o r d o w n t h e r o a d .E v e n m f h o u g hm o s t d r i v e r sm a v r e q u i r e n l y a f r a c t i o n f a s e c o n da v a l u e o o . of J s h o u l db e u s e di n d e s i g nt o r e p r e s e n t e t i m e t a k e nb y t h e s l o w e rd r i v e r . th A v a l u eo f 2 . 0 s i s a s s u m e d . T h e t i m e t , r e q u i r e d o c o v e ra g i v e nd i s t a n c e u r i n ga c c e l e r a t i od e p e n c l s t d n o n t h e v e h i c l ea c c e l e r a t i o n .h i c h ,f b r p a s s e n g e ra r s .s e l d o m q u a l s h e r a t e w c e t t h e v e h i c l e s c a p a b l e f . R a t h e rt,h i sv e h i c l e c c e l e r a t i orn t ei s c o n s i d e r a b l y i o a a l e s s 'a s g o v e r n e d y t h e t e m p e r a m e n tn d o t h e rc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h e i n < J i b a of v i d u a l d r i v e r a n d b y t h e i m m e d i a t e o n d i t i o n sF e w d r i v e r so p e r a t e t t h e c . a of .--- ggli'num accelerarion their vehiclesin crossinga major highway, mosr vers accelerate somewhat more rapidly than normal but lessthan the full vehicleacceleration rate. The solid line curve in Figure IX-33 labeled .p', is the recommende<J time-distance relationship a typicalpassenger of vehicle be usedin computing to tu,thetime required cross majorhighwayin Case to the IIIA conditions, also and to clearthesightdistance theleft underCaseIIIB. The rime-disrance fbr to data the 'P' design vehicle shown in Figure IX-33 was developedfrom studies perfomredby the Universityof Michigan Transportation Research lrrstitute (UMTRI) in Ref'erence ). (7 T h e a c c c l e r a t i o o f b u s e s n d t r u c k si s s u b s t a n t i a l lly w e r t h a n t h a t o l ' n a o passenger vehicles, particularly heavily' fbr loadedtrucksand truck combinat i o n s .T h e h i e hg e a rr a t i o s( i n l o w g e a r )n e c e s s a riy m o v i n g t h e l a r g e ru n i r s n esttllin verv low accelerations. Fromtruckoperation studics, time.distancr: the r e l a t i o n s h i pb r a c c e l e r a t i oo f S U a n d W B - l - 5 c l e s i s n e h i c l e sh a s b e c n f n v d e t e r n r i n e d s u l t i n gn t h e . a s s u mr e l a t i o n s h is h o w ni n F i g u r e X - 3 3 .O n l l t r t re i ed p I gratles accelerating the tinie tilr theSU anct WB- 1.5 vehicles abourl.l0 ro 170 is perccnt' rcspcctively. thatfbr passenser of vehicles. FieureIX-.1-5 illustratcs thc tinre-spced relationship between time and speedtilr passenser vehicles. Thc vrrluetlf t., calt be rcld ciirectlyfiont Fi{ure IX-l.l t'or ncarly lcvcl c t l n t l i t i o t l t i r r l t g i v e n d i s t a n c t - ' iS n r . i n F i s u r e s 6 a n t l . 1 7 . r r s c I I I \ . r h c s n J C I r l i s t r t n c c t h l t t h cc r o s s i n g e h i c l e u s tt r a v c lt o c l c a rt h er n a i o r i g h . w aiv t h c S v m h s (in surn(lt thrcetlistances tneters):

20

td

to

tt,
u

14

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15

20

25

35

40

45

DURING ACCELERATION-METERS TRAVELED S: DISTANCE

S=D+W+L '*hL'rc:D = distance fromnear edge-r>f-travelcd ro thc lronrtlf':r wav

W = L- t r l l v e l e dw l v w i d t h a l o n l p n t h o l ' c r o s s i n qv e h i c l c ( r n ) r l v c m i l l e n , r r ho f v c h i c l e ( m )

(Caselll,acceleration at FigurelX-33. Sightdistance intersections

AASHTO--Geometri(. Design of Highu,aysand Streer.s

At -G rade I nter sect tons

ts
J

50
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40

/ /

OF ACCEI."ERATION CARS PASSENGER

NOt i^l t^ll rot t:vtt coNomoNs

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for curve time-speedrelationship lx-35. Acceleration Figure passenger vehicles.

illost drivcrs stop thcir vehicles ls close to the edgc of the interscctiort gcncrll t r l r y c l e d\ ! a v i l s c o n v c n i c n t : h t l w e y e r .m a n v l e a v e s e v e r a ll n c t e r s .F o r ol'lravclctl t l c s i g n p u r p ( ) s ! .r.r D v r r l u co t ' - l r n i s a s s u m e d( t n e e s u r c df r o n t c d g c o \ \ l \ . t ( ) l ' r o t t t t r e h i c l c ) f o r t h c C a s el l l c o n d i t l o n s . -i-ltc 'l'hc a v a l u c o t ' \ \ ' i s r n e a s u r e d l t l n g t h e p a t h o i t h e l c c c l c r l t t i n s v c h i el c . p r i n c i p r r lv l r i l r i o n i n W i s t h e n u m b e r o f l a n e s o n t h c l r l a l ( ) rh t g l t w ' r t r 'l.- e r t c *idths ot ir -l.btrtlrc usctl. 'flrc < ) .1 . 5l,n d l 7 r r l f i l r t h c P . S L . v r r l u c s i ' L . r t ss h r l r v ni n C h l p t c r l l . l r c 6 . o \ \ ' B - l l . a n t t \ \ ' B - l - i v c h i c l e s .r e s p e c t l v c l \ . . Figurc IX--lS \h()!',s thc sight distrlnccd ncccssarv li)r satc crossing frotrl rl Ittrppc'tl iltl{-rirxr wifh tritvelell i{1lvs ot' .J.6 m lanL's.ilt nt'arl\-riEht-ilngle s i n t c r s c . c t i o n s . ' f h e e t s t l f s l o p i n g l i n e s g i v e t h c v l l u c s f t l r t h c t h r e e t v p c ' st r l

leo

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//

2ro u

rlar Eoo ns

b{ro t?!o xnt znar 2:loo 2r!o Jo.xr !:x, .x}oo lrucxs _ DtsIANct ruwuo _ rfTEts

Figure1X-34. Acceleration curves.

AAS[|TO--4eomatri(. Design of Highu,avsanclStree t.s

t At-Grade I nter set'ions

crl|

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xrr - slotEo wHlcu Tuurxc uFf Mo TWO-TANC A,JOI HICXWAY

uor XIGHWAY

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Nt.Cf, HffiAY

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Figure lx'36. lntersection sightdistance at-grade at intersections.

FigurdX-3h -

(tl and A2)-lntersection sighl distance crossings)' (CaselllAl- level-9O-degree

7t0

AASIlTolieom(tri(

Desi,qn Highwats onc! Streets rf

At -Grade I ntersections

L_

v . c r o s s i n g e h i c l e se a c h i t h a r e l ' e r e n co t w o .f o u r ,a n ds i x - l a n e i d t h s V a l u e s w te w . f o r o t h e rr o a d w a yw i d t h sc a n b e c a l c u l a r erd a d i l yb y t h e u s eo f p r o p e rt , , a s e determined front FigureIX-33. Thesevalues for levelconditions. eiade are For adjustments, ref'er ChapterIII. to whethera sightdisrance In resting alonga major highwavis aclequate an at intersection given in FisureIX-18. rhedistance as shouldbe measured ftom a heightof eye of I 070 mm (for passenger cars)to the rop of an object.I 300 mm above pavement. the Stoppin-e distance sight values foreach design speed given as "Stopping in chapterIII. in the Section SightDistance," alsoshownon Figure is IX-38. Comparing d values the contained Chapter indicates in cenain in III, rhat s i n s t a n c e s r ' P ' d e s i g nv e h i c l e a b o v e 0 k m / h ,t h es t o p p i n g i g h td i s t a n c w i l l fb 8 s e (d). exceed intersection the sightdistance Wherethisoccurs. permira crossinq to posirion, stopping the sightdistance will govem. [oq a stopped Dlvided highways,whererhe medianwidth is equal to or grearer than the vehiclelength,allow the crossing be madein two steps. to The vehiclecrosses the first roadway,stopswithin the protected areaof the medianopening,and Ihereawaitsan opportunity complete second to rhe crossing step.For divide<J highways with median widths lessthan L, the length of the designvehicle ( F i g u r e sX - 3 2 a n d I X - 3 7 ) ,t h em e d i a n i d t hs h o u l d e i n c l u d e d s p a r to f t h e I w b a W v a l u e F i g u r eI X - 3 7 .t h ed i v i d e d i g h w a ys h o w s a c h e s i g n e h i c l e n cr h e . h , e v d a l rnedian width that determines number steps eachcrossing the of for maneuver.

alonga majorhighwayis lessthanthecase sightdistance where the stopping mayhaveto adjust vehicles themajorhighway on at IIIA distance an intersection, speed approach the wamingsigns indicating appropriate Intersection theirspeeds. along the major highwayand the may be provided.When the sight distance traveled way width along the path of the crossing vehicle are known, the IX-38. directlyfromFigure orobtained can speed becomputed approach appropriate (espeof for required highways high designspeed The CaseIIIA distances of cially the multilane type) are large, and the averagedriver's keenness Driversmay be for may be inadequate properuseof suchdistances. perception thantheCase thatareless stream in the ableto cross openings thethrough-traffic drivermustaccelerate the either crossing suchopenings. To IIIA distances. cross or at drivermustbe traveling a lowerspeed must at a higherrateor the through to it conditions, is desirable use Underthese slow down to permitthe crossing. vehicle. for CaseIIIA sightdistance the control-type the indicated CaseIIIB-Turning Left into a Major Highway

a a IIIB) andIX-39 illustrate P vehicleentering crossroad IX-36 (Case Figures from theleit andthen vehicles approaching position clearing by from a stopped from the right' approaching the by tuming left and entering traffic stream for it this maneuver is necessary the driver complete vehicleto sat'ely For a to sight distance the le& to crossthe near lane(s)without to have sufficient vehicle mustalsohave Thestopped trltfic in thislane. with intert-ering oncoming of to the right to allow the opcrator the vehicleto tum sightdistance sufficient with intert'ere not whereheor shedoes significantlv to leftandaccelerate a spced frorn the right. conring the vchicles t'rorn cquation: the to The sightdistance the lcft nravbe calculated
d=0.llJV(J+t,)

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d - DIST^NCE ALONC M JOR HIGHWAY FROM INTERSIC'ION {MI Notr: For 3.6m lon.r, L.v.l Condrtion. ond Right Angt. Inronrdonr only

sight distancealong a major highway).

AASHTO-Ceometric Design of Highwaysand Street.s

At -Grade I nl ersections

The necessary sightdistance the right to makea left turn from a stopsign ro i s c a l c u l a t em a k i n gt h ea s s u m p t i orn a tt h em a i n l i n e e h i c l e i l l s l o wd o w nr o d h v w : speed percent the designspeed 85 of and therewill alwaysbe at leasta 2.0-s t a v _ e ab e t w e e nh e t u r n i n sv e h i c l e n dt h e m a i n l i n e e h i c l e . p Figure IX-39 should be referredto when calculating the necessary sight distance the right on a two-lanehighwaywith no median.To calculate to the necessary sightdistance firstdetermine from FigureIX-34 thedistance requireii tbr the tuming vehicleto reacha speedof 85 percent the mainlinedesign of speed-this is P. Next determine time required rravelthis distance the to from T a b l eI X - 7 .T o t h i st i m e ,a d dj ( 2 s ) .M u l t i p l yt h i st i m eb y 0 . 2 gX ( 9 5p e r c e no f t rhemainlinedesignspeed). This will give e; seeFigureIX-39. The distance h is equal to P-5 m-(0.56 x 85 percentof the mainrinedesignspeed)-vehicle Subtracting from Q givesthe necessary h sightdistance. _length. In thecase undivided of highways dividedhighways or wirh narrowmedians (themedianwidth is lessthanthe lengthof thedesignvehicle), borhclearances areperformed simultaneously oneoperation. as Fordivided highways with wide medians(the median is wider than the length of the design vehicle), the maneuvers performedastwo operations. are The stopped vehiclemustfirst have a proper sight distance to depart from a stoppedposition and cross traftic approaching from the left. The crossing vehiclemay thenstopand storein the medianprior to performingthe second operation. This operation requires the necessary sight distancefor vehiclesapproaching the right to allow the on vehicleto departfrom themedian, tum left into thecrossroad to crossing to ancl accelerate wirhoutbeingovertaken vehicles by approaching liom the right. A s i s s h o w ni n F i g u r eI X - 4 0 C a s e I I B m u l t i l a n ea d d i n g d d i t i o n al la n e s r I , a o ;r r'rredian re.sults the accelerating in lefi tuming vehieleachievingaveragc runningspeed closerto the intersection. distance n and h aredecreased The that b v i s t h ew i d t ho f t h ee x t r al a n e s i o n rt h el e f tp l u st h ew i d t ho f t h em e d i a nT h c t . ncccssarv sight distanceis therefbredecreased the sane distance. by This tlistance minor whencompared is with therequired sightdistance, especially at h i g h e rs p e e d sI.n t h e c a s eo f u n d i v i d e d i n h w a y s r d i v i d e dh i g h w a y s i r h h o w (rnedian llrlrr()\\'rnedians width lessthanthe lengthof the dcsignvehicle).the t l r i v c ro f ' t h e n t e r i n g e h i c l ev i l l c h e c k b r r d e q u a r s i g h td i s t a n c ci l r v c h i c l c s c v l t e t Itpprtllchint frtlm both the lefi and right betirre enterinq nta.i()r rhc highu,ayin
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AASHTHeometric

Design of Highwaysand Streets

A t -Grade I nter sec't ions

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t A t -Grade I nter sec' ions

theintersection areotherthanflat,corrections le-es shoulijbe rnade thesicht to d i s t a n c ea so u t l i n e di n T a b l eI X - 9 s Required sightdistances trucks for makingleit turnsinroa crossroadwill be substantially longerthanfor passenser cars.Theserelationships truck:j ror can be derived usine appropriate assumptions vehicleacceleration tbr ratesilnd p turnine aths. R e q u i r e d i g h r d i s t a n c e o r a s r o p p e d e h i c l et u r n i n g l e f r f r o m a m a j o r s f v h i g h w a y i n t o a m i n o r h i g h w a v ( o r e n t r a n c e m a y b e c o m p u t e df r o m r h e ) f o r m u l aD = 0 . 2 8 v ( J + t , ) . T h e r i m er e q u i r e d o a c c e l e r a ta n i l t r a v e r s ch c t e t d i s t a n c eo c l e a rt r a f f i c i n t h e a p p r o a c h i nlg n e( r " )m a y b e o b t a i n e d i r e c t l y t a d f r o m F i g u r eI X - 3 3 .
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AASLITO--Ceometric Desi,qn Highwavs and Streets of

c At -Grade I nterse t ions

i n c r e a s e d r i v e r w o r k l o a da t i n t e r s e c t i o na n d t h e p r o b l e m s n v o l v e dw h e n s i v e h i c l e s u r n o n t oo r c r o s st h e m a j o rh i g h w a y . h e p r o b l e m s s s o c i a t ew i t h t T a d v x n a n t i c i p a t e d e h i c l ec o n f l i c t sa t s i g n a l i z e dn t e r , s e c t i os u c ha s .v i o l a t i o n i n. o f t h es i g n a l .r i g h t t u r n so n r e d .m a l f u n c t i o n f t h e s i g n a l .o r u s eo f f l a s h i n g o r e d / y e l l o w o d e .f u r t h e rs u b s t a n t i a tte e n e e dl o r i n c o r p o r a t i o n f C a s eI I I m h o s i e h td i s t a n c e v e na t s i g n a l - c o n t r o l l en t e r s e c t i o n s . id A b a s i cr e q u i r e m e nfto r a l l c o n t r o l l e dn t e r s e c t i o n s t h a td r i v e r sm u s tb e i i able to seethe control devicesoonenoughIo perfbrmthe action it indicates. w A t i n t e r s e c t i o n sh e r er i g h tt u r n so n r e da r ep e r m i t t e dt,h ed e p a r t u r s i g h tl i n e e f b r r i , s h t u r n i n gv e h i c l e s h o u l db e d e t e r m i n e d y t h e m e t h o d s i s c u s s e id s b d n " C a s eI I I C , T u r n i n gR i g h t i n t o a M a j o r H i g h w a y . " In addition, when determiningsight lines for the design maneuver, the ner should consider the effects of rsadsideappunenances, parked cars, snow accumulation any otherrestriction the siehtline. or to In mury cases, theeffectof skewandgradesasdiscussed followingsction the in the requires thesightdistance that alongthemajorhighwaybegreater thanthedistl.nce in Figures IX-38 and IX4l . Whereit is not cost-effecrive providetherequired to sight distance a particularlocation,it may be necessary introduceeffectivemeansof at to reducing vehiclespeeds themajorhighwayasdiscussed CaseIIIA. the on in

CaseV-Stopped VehicleTurning Left from a Nlajor Highway . \ l l l t - g r a d ei n t e r s e c t i o n s o n ga r n a j o rh i g h w a y , n c l u d i n g h o s ew i t h r r r i n o r al i t r o a d s . : , n t r a n c o r D r i v e w a ! s , ' , v h e ra s t o p p e d e h i c l ed e s i r e s o e n t c rb y e L es v t tirrniirglct'tacrossthc oppusinulanesof travel,must be clieckedfirr adequatc s i r r hiti i s t u n c c . ' l ' h e i v e w i l l n c e t o s e a h e a d s u f f i c i e nd i s t u n c t ( )h l v c t i r n c dr r d e t e a tr.lnr lct'tand clcirr the opposinetravel lune betbrertn approaching to vehiclc r c l r c h ct h c i l t t c r s e c t i < l n . s Tlrr'requiredsisht distance nraybe cornpurecl frorn the fbrrnulucl = 0.2tlV ( . 1 t . , ) W h e r eV = d c s i g n p c e d n t h e m a i n l i n eJ = l s u n dt . ,= t i n r er c q u i r c d + . s o . untl travcrse distlnceto clclr trlffic in the approaching to uccclcratc the lunc. t n . . \ c c c l c n r t i o in l c n l r y b c o b t u i n c d i r e c t l vt ' r t l r n i g u r cI \ - . 1 - 1 . d F

A - B a n d B - C a r e s m a l l e ro r l a r g e r t h a n t h e y w o u l d b e f o r a r i g h t - a n g l e o t a o b i n t e r s e c t i o n .u t b e c a u s eh e d e r i v a t i o n s r eb a s e d n t h e r e l a t i o n s f s p e e d t A l s a n dd i s t a n c ea l o n gt h e r o a d s . h e a c t u a ld i s t a n c e - B i s i m m a t e r i aa s l o n g d . a st h ea r e aw i t h i nt h et r i a n g l eh a v i n gl e g sd " a n dd nm e a s u r ea l o n gt h er o a d , i s f r e eo f s i g h to b s t r u c t i o n s . t. ls W h e r eo b s t r u c t i o na t o b l i q u ei n t e r s e c t i o n i m i t s i g h td i s t a n c e s h e d i s s e s o h a t a n c e s a n db t o b e u s e di n t h ec a l c u l a t i o n(s q u a t i o nu n d e r e a d i n g f C a s e s d I I . Y i e l d C o n t r o lf o r M i n o r R o a d s ) h o u l db e m e a s u r e p a r a l l etl o t h e r o a d s . a s s h o w ni n F i g u r eI X - 4 3 . t lu F o r a n o b t u s e - a n g qe a d r a ntth ea n g l eb e t w e e nh es i g h tl a n eA - B a n dt h e the can look across full pathof eithervehicleis small,and vehicleoperators sight triangleareawith but a little side glancefrom the vehiclepath. For an quadrant, are to sightline B-C, operators required turn theirheads acute-angle the to considerably seeacross whole of the sight trianglearea.The difficulty to traffic makesit undesirable treattheintersection of lookingfor approaching of underthe assumptions Case I, even where traffic on both roads is light. Treatmentby Case II or Case III, whichever is larger,should be used at intersections. oblique-angle is than for right-angle In CaseIII. the S distance largerfor oblique-angle v , w T h e r o a d w a y i d t h o n t h ep a t ho f t h ec r o s s i n g e h i c l eW , i s t h e intersections. n . w a y w i d t h d i v i d e db y t h e s i n eo f t h e i n t e r s e c t i oa n g l e T h e d actuatraveled l f b t h eh i g h w a yi n s u c ha c a s e a n n o t e r e a dd i r e c t l y r o m F i g u r e c a distancelong t b d I X - 3 t i .b u t c l n b e c o m p u t e d y t h e e q u a t i o n = 0 . 2 8 V ( J + t " ) b y r e a d i n g , d i r e c t l l 'f r o m F i g u r eI X - 3 3 . v a f T a b l eI X - 8 s h o w st h c v a l u e sf o r a c c e l e r a t i orn t e s o r p a s s e n g e rc h i c l e s from 0 krri/h.

Speed (km/h)

Distance (m)

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IJ

F.lTect Skew of \ \ ' h r r r t r v o h i g h r v l v s i n t t ' r s c c ltt i . l na n g l c l c s s t h a n 6 ( ) d c { r e c s .u n t l r v h u r ) r c r t l i r t c nne t o i n c r c u s ch c a n g l co l ' i n t e r s c c t i o in n ( ) tl u s t i f i c d . ( ) l . n(c l l h c rt t s s

l j i g u r c I X - J . l s h o " r s t h c s i g h t t r i u n g l c sl t i r n o b l i q u c - l n g l c i n t c r s c c t i ( ) r l . l i r r ( ' : r s r , ' ll .l . ; r n t lI l l c t l n d i t i r l n s .F o r C l s c I r n t l l l i n t c r s c c t i t l n st ,h c s i r r h tl i n c s

1.5 +0 70 Il0 160 l.r5 -tl5 +55

rales lor passenger vehicles. TablelX-8. Acceleration

AASHTO-Geometric Design of Highv'aysand Srreets

At -Grade I nter sections

Effect of Vertical Profiles The evaluation ofsight distance intersections CaseII is based the safe at in on stopping distance a vehicletraveling a stated of at speed levelhighways. on One or more of the roadsapproaching intersection the mav not be level.A vehicle greater descending graderequires somewhat a a distance stopthandoesone to vehicle on a levelgrade: also, a ascending _erade a requires distance which less in to slop. The ditferences stopping in distances various grades intersections on at are thesameas thosegiven in Chapter The differences III. indicate up thatgrades to 3 percenthave little ef,fecton stoppingsight distances. Gradeson an intersection shouldbe limited to 3 percentunlessthe sight distances lee are greaterthan the lower limits for stoppingon a level grade.in which casethe gradesshould not be greaterthan 6 percent. In the CaseIII derivation, time required crossthe major highway is the to materiallyaffectedby the gradeof crossingon the minor road. Normally, the grade an is across intersection so smallthatit neednot be considered, when but curyature the major roadrequiresthe useof superelevation, gradeacross on the in it may be significant, which casethe sight distance along the major road shouldbe increased. The elfectof gradeon acceleration be expressed a multiplicand be can as to with thetime.t,, asdetermined levelconditions for used fora givendistance. The approximate ratiosof theaccelerating time on thegradeto thaton the level.lbr the likely rangeof crossing distances. siven in Table IX-9. are

t (lt
J

o o o o
q)

tr .9
\
o\

tti

'ii
to\

.s
(o o o tr
G'

a dt at, o

6\

.o E
.E

.g) a st -l x
o : g) iI

Ratio, accelerating time on grade to accelerating time on lelel section CrossroadGrade ( 7o) V Design ehicle P SL' wB- 15
.t

0.1 0.rt
0.ll

2 0.9 0.1) 0.9

0 I.0 1.0 1.0

+l Ll l.l
l.i

+.+
I.-1

I ..r
1.7

Table lX-9. Effect of gradient on acceleratingtime at (t") at intersections.

The valueoi t from FigureIX-33. rdjustedby theappropriate ratio,can be

-)

I for lhc crossrolrl condition.

AASHTO-Ceomerric Desi,gn Highwavs and Streets of

At -Grade I ntersec t ions

STOPPING SIGHTDISTANCE INTERSECTIONS AT FOR TURNI).i(; ROADWAYS General Considerations

The valuesfor stoppingsight disrance compuredin ChapterIII fbr open as highwayconditions applicable tuming roadwayintersections the same are to of The same design speed. method derivation suitable tumingroadways of is tbr tbr of designspeeds lessthan30 kmlh. For a brakereacrion time of 2.5 s foreach designspeedand coefficients friction varying from 0.44 ro 0.40 fbr design of speeds l5 to 30 km/h. respecrively. Table III-l fbr speeds km/h anct of and 30 greater, stopping the sightdistances TableIX- l0 result. in These distances have factor of sat'ety. - - - lqgn rounded upward to provide an increased ale Thesesightdistances the lower limits that shouldbe available all points at along a tuming roadwayt whereverfeasible.longer sight distances should be provided.They apply ascontrolsin designof borhverricalzrrdhonzontalalinemenr. Designspeed(km/h) S Stopping ight ( D i s t a n c em )

V e r t i c a lC o n t r o l l a T h e l e n g t h f v e r t i c ac u r v ei s p r e d i c a t e d ,s i t i s f o r o p e nh i g h w a y o n d i t i o n s . o c d o o n s i g h td i s t a n c m e a s u r ef r o m t h eh e i g h t f e y eo f 1 0 7 0 m t o t h eh e i g h t f e m o " l o b j e c to f 1 5 0m m . F o r m u l a s h o w ni n t h e S e c t i o n C r e s tV e r t i c a C u r v e s "i n I F C h a p t e r I I a p p l l ' d i r e c t l y . i g u r eI X - - l - la n d T a b l e i X - l l s h o w t h e r e l a t i o n betweendesignspeed.algebraicdiif'erence gradient. in and length of crest verticalcurye to providesaf'e stoppine distance. FigureIX--l-1 basedon the is values K. The methodof roundingjs thesameasthatexplained rounded tbr tbr l o w e rl e t i p o r t i o n s f t h e h e a v yl i n e s . b r t h e l o w a l g e b r a i c o F i g u r eI I I - 3 8 .T h e t in at practicallen_gths vertical diff'erences grades. are terminated selected of to curve.equalin meters 0.6V in km/h.The factorK is constant eachdesign tbr speed and the lengthof venicalcurvein meters foundby multiplyingA. the is in diff'erences percent ,erades, K. of by algebraic of For designspeeds lessthan60 km/h, sagverticalcurves. _eovemed as by theoretically should be longer than crest vertical headlightsight distances, found bv substituting stopping curyes. Lengths sagverticalcurves, of the sight "SagVertical in tiom TableIX- 10,in theformulas thesection distances Curves" greater in Chapter are25 to 60 percent thanthose crestvertical III. fbr curvesin speed mosttumint:roadways governed is FigureIX-44. Because clesign the of is curvature thecurvature relativell'sharp, and by thehorizontiil a headlight beanr p a r a l l etlo t h e k l n g i t u c l i n a lx i so f t h e v e h i c l e c i i s c so b c l c o n t r o lT h u s .l i r r c t . t u r n i n g o a d r v a vts e l o w e r l i r n i t o f l e n g t h s f ' v c r t i c ac u r v e s n s a g sm l y b e r h i o l ( c c o n s i d e r ctd h c ' t h es i l r n e s t h o s c ' o n r e s t s F i g u r eI X - - 1 + )W h c r ct c a s i b l c . o a . Iontcr lengths both crcstan(lsagvu'rtical tirr curvesshouklbc usctl. H o r i z o n t a lC o n t r o l 'l'he t a h e i s i g h t l i s t a n cc o r t t r orls a p p l i c d o h o r i z o n t a l l i n c n r c n l u sr r n q u a l . l ' n o t c l g r c a t c rc i t c ' co n d c s i g n t ' t u r n i n qo u d r v a vts a nt h ev c r t i c ac r ' r n t r o l . e s i g h t . r h t o Th l i n ca c r o s sh ei n n c rp a r t< ; ft h cc u r v e . l c a ro f o b s t r u c t i o ns \ . o u l d e s u c ht h l t t c .h b puthcquuls cxccctls thc sirllrttlistancr' rttcr.tsurctl ;.ln llrug thc Vt'hiclc on ilrc or t h c s t o p p i n g s i g l r t t l i s t l r r c c g i v c r r i r t T l b l c t \ - l ( ) .t .r.l \rls t rc l c t i o r r r r l r v b c r r rk u r (. rr h r i d s cl l b u t n r c ro t l i r t ct l t ' c o l u n t n s . u l l .c u t s i t l c s l o p c ) r; l \ i ( l c( ) rc ( ) n l u ( ) l . l r rr buildirtg. -fhc i. t l l r t c r uc l c l r n r n c c n n c rc t l g ct l t ' t m v c l c d\ \ l r v t ( ) s i g h to b s t r u c t i t l n i,r r l r r l r i o u sr d i i o l i r r n cr t l s c - o f t r a v c l c d a r r t n t t l c s i g rs p r ' c t l ss s h r l " v g r a p h i w l n t i, r 'Ihc p r l s i t i o nr t ' t h c l r i rc r ' sc - r ' r r r r t lh co bj c c ts i g h t c d r c t c : r J l vn F i g u l cl \ - J . i . r c a i r rtl l u s s u r r r c d t o . l cr n l ' r o n r t h e i n n c r c d s c o t ' t n t v*c ltc , r r i t l t t h c r i s h t i s t i l n c c lb i d
sc-elc. c-dgE-Tlr.rrTlctftt lt, thc lntc'ral-k'ar:urr'e l.\ rr';l(l diTaallt axr tltc VcFtrcrrl

l5

40 60-70 80-90 r00-120

Table lX-10.Stoppingsight distancefor turning roadways.

Design Spee'd ( k n r / h)

Stopping Sight ( Distance m)

K = R a t eo f V e r t i c a lC u r v a t u r e l-ensth (rn) per Voof A, Calculated Rounded :.t] t.titi e l6-e.76 | 1 . 6 61 7 . 7 1 . tl . 9 t - 1 0 . . 1 9 |.-l()--llJ. l0 -1 + 1 . 6 17 0 - - t - l 6t.01-10-1.02 7 7 . 7 51 . 5 0 . 1 l l I0 L q 0 - 1 0 q o L 3-l --5 .5 9 -l 0 l-l-Ilt I t-t_-t I l--le
+-1- / I

-+{)
50
tr()

;()

s()
9() I(X) Il0 ll0

-10-30 .5r)-.50 60-70 s()-e0 l(x)Il0 Il0-t-10 t-10- 0 I7 I 6 0 - l| 0 In0-1.50 I I 0-190

6l- 10.5 I rio-1.5 r0l-l0l

Table lX-11. Design controls for crest vertical curves based on stopping sightdistance.

7)l

AASHTO--ljeometic Desi,gtt Highu,avsanel Street.s of

,\ t -G rade I nl ers ec't ions

725

l a t e r ac l e a r a n c e s o w ni n F i g u r eI X - 4 5 a p p l yt o r h ec o n d i r i o n w h c r e l sh s t h eh o r i z o n t ac u r v ei s l o n g e r h a nt h es t o p p i n g i g h tc l i s t a n c w.h e r e t h ec u r v e l t s e length is shorrer thanthe sightdistance conrroi.the lateral clearance Figure of IX-45 resultsin greater sight distance. rhis casethe Iateral In clearance besr is determined scalingon a plan layout of the tumine roadwavin a manner by indicated the sketchin FigureIX-.15. bv The lareral clearance. determined. so shouldbe tested several points. at

-'--_____;.i,o*

DESIGN TO DISCOURAGE WRONG.WAY ENTRY

An inherent problemof interchanges thepossibility a driverentering of is of one and proceedin_e . the exit terminalsfrom the crossroad along rhe major highway r th. wrongdirectionin spiteof signing. This wrongway entrance becoming is more of a problem with the increased numberof interchanges. Attention to several detailsof designat the intersection discourage maneuver. can this As shown in FiguresIX-46 and rx-4i, a sharpor angularintersecrion is providedat thejunctionof the left edgeof the rampentering crossroad the ancl rhe ri-eht ed-se the traveledway.The controlradiusshouldbe tangent the of to crossroad centerline, theedge. not This typeof desi_en discourages improper thJ right turn onto the one-wayramp.
i> ;i<
{}
q ^

Oa - za O c-8- .*{,,,
tQ x O ,#*,o r<-p1r+r.e1 '

,:-,/ tara-5t'

lz'

orrrr.,,o*

'.a^>

*- .r,*, crrauNcr
.v-

SoEGREts

INNEI TOGETUYEIID WAY TO 5r6Kt O'SnUCITON r FOt Osrfr SPTED HI DtSlcN SffEO {rn+'} S- SlOmNC 3l6Hr OISY^NCt lN r ^{AUllD oN CUIVE l.E m FIOH IHNT IOG OI TTAVIID WAY ucu lor s

Ar Ctxtur

l5 la FIJ I Y,.

,\ \ \ \
r\

qF oll

ro
e

|\ \

\ \ \s
,tr \
'f

v.

x
v
\

e5
J ry^

t? t0

PT

s ?s ,
I rx6 6
I s : t

t -Hl E ( :
44 UF 10 l

\ \

6 6

J2 t

=\_J
\
r50

e o

wAY R- RADIUS OF INNER DGE TRAVFLEO

(m)

200

'

Joo

400

L . LNGIH OF VERTICA CURVE

inside of Figure lX-45. Lateral clearance to sight obstruction turningroadways.

Figurelx'44. Designcontrolsfor crest verticat curves(stopping

sight distance,open road conditions).

AASLTTO-Ceometri(Desi,qn Highw,ays of and Streets

ns At -Grade I ntersectio

As shownin thesamefigures, islands be usedin theterminal can areas where rampsintersect crossroads. islands the The providea means channelizing of the, traffic into properpathsandcan be effectively usedfor signplacement. Design of the islands shouldtakeinto consideration initial or futuresi-enal installations ai the ramp terminals. P r o v i s i o n f a m e d i a n sa d e t e r r e n t w r o n g - w a y o v e m e n ta si l l u s r r a r e d o a to m , in FigureIx-17, is a verv eff'ective rrearment. The medianmakesrhe lefi-turn movementonto the exit ramp terminalvery difficult. and a short-ra<Jius curve o r a n g u l a r r e a ki s p r o v i d e d t t h ei n r e r s e c t i oo f r h el e l i e d g eo f t h ee x i t r a m p b a n and the crossroad discouruge to wrong-wayright turns from the crossroacls. Additional design techniques reduce wrong-way movementsare ( l) to providing fbr all movements and from the freewayto reduceintentional to wlong-wayentry,(2) usingconventional, easilyrecognized interchange pattems driver confusionand hencewrong-wayentry.and (3) narrowingthe arterialhighwaymedianopeningto preventleft-turnmovements onto freeway otT-ramps. Signsand supplementary pavement markings amongthe mostimportant are devicesto discourage wrong-waytums.Signingrayouts fully discussed are in the MUTCD (5). other devices suchas pavement markingsor flashinglights havebeenused effectively prevent to wrong-way movements. These devices are d i s c u s s ee l s e w h e r ie t h i sb o o ka n d i n t h e M U T C D ( 5 ) . d n

ll l,l

I'L

SUPI,IR ELEVi\TION FOR C URv ES A't IN]'L RSECTIONS

(leneral DesignConsiderations T h c g e n e r a lf a c t o r st h a t c o n t r o l t h e m a x i r n u n lr a t e so f s u p e r e l e v a t i o t i ; r n o p e nh i g h w a y o n d i t i o n a s d i s c u s s eid C h a p t e I I I a l s oa p p l yt o i n t c r s e c c s n r t i o n c u r v c s .M l u x i n r u r n u p e r e l e v a t i r ) n t e su p t o l 2 p e r c e n tm a y b e u s c d s ra w h c r e c l i r n a t i cc o n d i t i o n s r c f a v o r a b l e H o w e v e r .a t i n t e r s e c r i t ) n h c a . ts r n ; . r . r i n r us u p e r c l e v a t i t )rn t c f b r c u r v c si s l 0 p c r c e n tc x c e p t t h i l t o r l t a x l rn a m u l n r a t c o f l l p c r c c n t g e n c r a l l , v h o u l c lb e u s e d r , , h c r es n o , " v n d i c i n { s a c o l t d i t i o np r c v u i l . s l n i n t c r s c c t i o n s i g nt.h et ' e a s i bce r v e s t i e na r eo f l i r n i t c d l d i i a n dl c n g t h . de lu o r Within iln intersccti()n. driverslnticipatethc sharpcurvesrrntl Jcccptopcriltiorl r v i t hh i r h c r s i d cf r i c t i o nt h a nr h c va c c e po n o p t n h i t h w r r vc u r y c s f t h es l n r c t o nrdii whcn their specdis not af't'ecred other vehiclcs. by whcn orhertraf'ficis -rTrcn ftrhwa1-curves ut drc samc'rtdiibecxnsalh-t mu\Tcmcaail?orn rll1(l

rnc.r!,-'rrilh through trlfl'ic. iVlostturning rnovctncnts lrrc mltle in thc orcscncc

dsigns to discourage Figure lX-46. Two-lane+ross+oad entry. wrong-way

AASHTO--Ceometric' Design of Highways and Streets

t At-GradeI nter sec' tons

Itllll+[

1N

,L

:uT

Y,

CASE B

\\\\

periodsof light traffic but in designingfor safeoperation, of other vehicles. ation as provide muchsuperelev to It desirable volumes alsomustbeconsidered. i.s curve is wherethe intersection particularly curves. on as practical intersection the practicaldifficulty of attaining Unfonunately. sharpand on downgrade. termichange theturningroadway at withoutabruptcross-slope superelevation of and curyature shonlengths tumingroadway. of primarilybecause sharp nals, This rateof superelevation. fact of the oftenprevents development a desirable In curvature fbr of in hasbeenrecognized useof low rates superelevation sharp Designs speeds. design of rhedevelopment minimumradiitbrgivenintersection curyesor effected the useof compound by curyature, changing with gradually of development superelevation' or spirals, both.permitdesirable they are speed used, thantheminimumfor a givendesign Whereradiigreater in at lessthan the maximumrate to effecta balance shouldbe superelevated that betweensharperand flatter curyes.Such greaterradii are design,as of curves by is where( I ) thespeed established oneor bothterminal encountered flattercurvature' portionis on a considerably andthecentral a tumingroadway, but flat as (2) theturningroadway a wholeis on relatively curvature, thereis stop is or in backof thecurve,or (3) thespeed low with respect signcontrolin front roadway limitations theconnecting on as to thecurvature a resultof otherspeed Table IX-12 showssuggested highways. intersecting or on one or both of the speed,derivedin much the same ratesin relationto clesign superelevation on in The widevariation likely speeds curvs. for as manner those openhighway by periodswhen speedis affected traffic curves.as that between intersection so needlor preci'rion, a range rvhen traflic is light,precludes periods volumeancl a l c o m b i n a t i oo f d e s i g rs p e e d n dr a d i u s n rn i n s u p e r e l e v a t i oa t ei s g i v e nf o r e a c h but is A curve.. maxinrumrateof l() percent -shr"\'n. any other ol intersection rattsc halfor thirtlot'thcindicated in Rates theupper ntax imuntratecxn be used. rninimunritrr a prrlctical The ratc of 2 percentis considcreci arc pret'erred. rate of Regardless thesuperelevation use(l' the across surface. drainage cft'ective all ride and acconlmodate the edgesof the roadwayshould vield a smooth requirements. drainage

S u p e r e l e v a t i oR u n o f f n 'fhe
CASE C

i u o p r i n c i p l c s t ' s u p e r c l e v a t i t lrn n o t f .d i s c u s s c dn C h a p t c rl l l t i l r o p e n n h i g h w a yc o n d i t i o n sl.p p l y g e n c r a l l yt o i n t c r s c c t i o c u n c s . P r i n l a r i l y ,t h c c(mtrol of the rlte ot' changc clf cross slopc is thlt oi riding comtbrt lnd

by slope dctermined thc is the In ,rppflrancc. mrny inshnccs !.rlucoIlhc cross in ef cha"Be cr..vIn$ .l r poinron the .o lwav llcncrallv thc edgeol ;G

lX-47. Divided Figure crossroad designs discourage to wrong-way entry.

trovclcd wilv ) \!'l

clr thc cdcL'-ol-traveled wav rs bcing rotiltctl. For t h r o u g h h i g h \ \ a r p r t l l i l c s t h c g r l l d i c n t o l ' o n e c d g e o f t h c

AASHTO--IJeometic Design of Highways and Streets

N -Grade I ntersection'\

731

way with respect thecenterline lraveled to shouldbe no greater than0.50percent fora designspeed of80 km/h and0.65percenr fora design speed of50 km/h,as in discussed ChaoterIIL Rangein Superelevation Rate (Zo) for IntersectionCurves with DesignSpeed(km/h) of

D e s i g nS p e e d ( k m A r t

30

t00

I l0

t20

! l a x i m u m r e l a t r l eg r a d i e n t s for profilesbetweenthe edge of two lane traveledwaY and ( 0 . 7 5 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.r8 r h ec e n t e r l i n e% )

0.'r5 0.'ll 0.-10

Radius (m)

2A 2-10
"1 1

30 2-ta 2-8 2-6

a4

40

50

60

70

r5
25 50 70 100 150 200 300 500 700 I 0(x)

and coincides for Note:The abovetableis recommended curvesthroughintersections ' of "Desrgn The TableIII- 1.1. word "lvlaximum"in TableIX- l'1 is usedin place with the in curves Change the to allow more flexibilityin selected'e'max. rhrough intersection rates those not width (7.2m) should exceed way edge-of-rraveled dividedby theroadway set in the table.

+-ltJ

1A t-3

3-8 3-6
J-)
1A

6-l0 5-9
.1 1

way rateof changein edge-of-traveled Tablelx-13. Maximum for curvesat intersections' elevation
8 -l 0 6-9 5-1 4-5 3-4 ; 7-9 5-6
A< +-J

2 2 2 2 2

at of Development Superetevation Turning RoadwayTerminals a e S u p e r e l e v a t i oc o m m e n s u r a t w i t h c u r v a t u r e n d s p e e ds e l d o mi s p r a c t i n c w t e r m i n a l s h e r e :( l ) a f l a t i n t e r s e c t i o n u r v e r e s u l t si n l i t t l e m o r e .obl. u, s t t w o w i d e n i n g f t h et r a v e l e d a y ,( 2 ) i t i s d e s i r a b l eo r e t a i n h ec r o s s l o p e t h a na b w a y ,a n d( 3 ) t h e r ei s a p r a c t i c al i m i t t o t h ed i f t e r e n c e e t w e e n o f t h et r a v e l e d . Too n w t h e c r o s ss l o p eo n t h e t r a v e l e d a y a n d t h a t o n t h e i n t e r s e c t i o c u r v e o v t ie c r o s ss l o p er n a yc a u s e e h i c l e s r a v c l i n g v e r t h ec r o s s n g r e a ta d i f f e r c ' n c h w . o u . , . r o r u nl i n e t c ls w a y s i c l e w a y s . h e n v e h i c l e sp a r t i c u l a r l y i g h - b o d i e d i t c r o w n l i n e a t O t h e r h a nl o r v s p e e d r n dr l t a t ra n g l eo l ' a b o u t c t r u c k s , r o s st h e v c l t t. ts l 0 c l e g r C e o J ( )( t e g r c e s h eb o c l y h r o r vm a y r n a k e e h i c l e r l n t r o t l i l f i c u l t

/.-J

J-+
1

) 2
I

2 2-3 222-3

3-4

NOTE: Prellrrrbl.r ;e supcrclc.. ion ratc in uppcrhllf or rhird of indicated rangc.In *'hcrc sr .)Wor icc is l'r.cque usc rnaxinrum ItrcAs nt. rateof ll7c.

--

Table|X-12. Superelevation rateS curvesat fntersections. for

[-ogicnllv.thr' cdgc-ot-traveleii wav gradesshoulclvary ,"r.ith clesign thc spccd. rlte of 0.7-5 A percenr applied a 30 km/hdcsirnspeed is tbr with a decrease percent 100km/h.the latrerbein-c usecJ openhighway in rutu' ().-l-5 lo tbr that tor values dcsigrr.'fhcse arc'shorvn TableIX- I 3. Fora 7.2m trlveledwav asa basc in * itlth.tlrcchangcin edgeol'travelcd qraclc rvrry mav bc vlricd up to 1-5 pcrccnt r t l r t r vo r i r c l o wt h c t a h u l a t c v a l u c st,h c i , t w e r l r d c sh c i n r a p p l i c a b ltc r v i t l c r c d g : o tnrlelctl u uvs unrl thc highergrltlcs to nilrrorvcr travclcdrvlrvs. I r : u a l l l . t h c p r o t ' i l c l ' t l n ce t l l r c l ft h e t n r v c l c d v l v i s c s t r t b l i s h c d r s ta n t l o < r l'i . o t h c p r o t ' i l c n t h eo t h c r c d g c s t l c v eo p e cb v s t c p p i n u p r l r t l o r v n o r n t h ef i r s r i l l u k ctlgctrvtlrearnount ot'desirctl superclcvltion.'fhis srcpis doneby plottingl t'crv c ( ) n t r ( )p o i n t so n t h c s e c o n c l d g eb y u s i n s t h c v a l u e sf r o m T a b i e t X - l . l t o l c :rpltrorirn:rte chlngc in supcrelcvati0n l'romonc point to the ncrt. arrd the rate p s p l o t i t ' d o i r r t u s i s t ' c l s i b l cD r l i n a g e a v b ea n l d d i r i o n l l c o n t r o l p l n i c u l l r l y . m . rtxulwln,s. lirr crrrbctl

(ieneral Procedure ntltvbccon'siticrctl trlfiic lanes the of Forclesign anexit tiorrla highwa'/. through ti<lrtltltt'throtrgh sltlpe..\s the exit curve divr-'rgcs fixctl in profiic rtntlcross citll \)lll\ sccti()n (or t.tllgcnt) cdgc'ot' thc rvidt'ning travclctl\\'lt\. thc cttrvctl tltc the edgeot'throughlilnc.shortlv l'rcrotrtl fronr r'rrr! in clevatirln grldulll-"t.tosc rttt is tunringroadwrtv attlirtctl. itpprtrrtch thc point whr.re t'ullwidth tlf the ltntl eXitcttrveis rclUivclvshltrp r"'ttltt-'ut WherethC \cparirtCs 1\,r'tl thL. pavcments. c l n i n a d v a n c r l l ' I h c o s c r t n ) c( l c v c l ( ) p e l l c o t a p c r r t r l n s i t i o r l .i t t l cs u p e r c l e v l t t i o n s l l . c i r r r h c s h o n t l i s t ; t t t c a v a i l a b l eB e v o n t it h c n o . s c u h s t l r r t t i stu p c r e l c v r t t i t r t t ( ) n t h c l c n g t l to t ' t h e t u m l n s u s u r r l l lc a n b c r r i t a i n c dt.h e a m t l u n td e p c n d i n g
tlcsirrble lrljitnlcnt of sttperclcrlltlon mav

/):

AASHTO-Ce()metric Design of Highu,avsand Streets

At -Grade I nter sections

733

--

Jhe merhodof developing supererevation rurningroadwayterminars ar is i l l u s t r a r e d i a g r a m m a t i c a l li y F i g u r e s X - 4 g t h r o u g hI X - 5 L F i g u r el X - 4 g n I illus-trates variation cross the in slopewherea turningroadwayIeaves through a road that is on tangent.From point A to B. the normal cross slope on the ihiough-traffic laneisextended theouteredge auxiliarylane. to of The addirional width at B is nominal,Iessthan l m, and projecting crossslope the across this width simplifiesconstruction. Beyondpoint B, the widrh is sufficienrthat the crossslopeon the auxiliarvlanecanbeginto be steeper thanthe crossslopeon theadjacent through-traffic lane, at C. At D wherethef ull width of theturning as roadwayis attained, still greater a slopecan be used. Superelel.ation further is increased adjacentto the nose at E and is facilitatediome*hat by sloping downwardthepavement wedgeformedbetween rightedgeof thetravelway the extendedlefi traveledway edgeof thetumingroadway.Beyondthenose, and-Lhe as at E, the traveled way is transitioned rapidlyasconditions as permituntil the full desired superelevation attained. is FigureIX-49 is a similarillustration thecondition for wherethethrough lanes andtheturningroadway curvein thesame direction. The <lesired superelevation on theexir roadway,which generailyis steeper thanthaton thethroughlanes, can be attained a relatively in shortdistance. B thecross At slopeof thethrouchlane is extended overthe widened traveled way. At C andD somewhat ,r."p.i.ro* slopes introduced, full superelevation are the beingreached the vicinity of E. in A less fhvorable situation occurs whenthejoining facilities curvein opposite directions'as in Figure IX-50. Because the rate of superelevation of on the throush roadway, may beimpracticable sloperheauxiliarylanein a clirecrion it to opposite thatof thethrough to lanes reasons appearance, lbr of ridingquality.and -sa{i't}-ln a typical treatmenttor a moderate rate of superelevation. rate of' the crossslopctln the throughroad,,vav extended is onto the auxiliarylane,as at B. At C it nraystill continuc upwartl. at a lesser but rate. The breakbctrvcen two the slopesbeconres nrore pronounced D, the added pavenlentbeing nearly at horizontal. Stlme superelevation introduced the nose.either by a single is at crown line ccntc'riltg thenoseor by a doublebreakin thecrossslopeoverthe on pavement wedqein f-ront thenose. tlf IVlost thesuperelevation of nrustbe gaincd lrcvondthc nose. on dcsisnsrvithl paraller speed change lane.as in FigureIX--5 p.rrr rhc l. of cross sltlpcchltngc tnavbe madcoverthe lengthof this lane.Usuallv,morcthan I t a l fo f t h c t o t a ls u p e r e l e v a t i o a t cc a n b e a t t a i n e d t D . a n d t h c f u l l t l e s i r c d rn a superclevation be reached orjust beyondthc nose. can at Thc discussion arrangemcnts and illusrrared Figures in I.X--llt rhroughlX-.5I lirr exit tcnninals alsodirectlvapplicable entrance are to tcnninals. c.\ceptthat ttt.,,ll't,,;
tltcrgirlg ctttl ttl'ilrl cnlrJncc terminal woultl be lpcatcrl in proxinrrt_v ()l'D.

' eac* 3 EOGt

SECTIONE-E

SECTIOND-D

SECTION C-C

SECTION B-B
i
I I

pmen
lerminals.

AASHTO---(;eometri(' Desig,n Highways and Streets of

At -Grade I ntersections

{urn-Lane Cross-Slope Rollover The designcontrolat the crossover (not to be confused line with thecrown line normallyprovidedat the centerline a roadway) the algebraic of is difference in cross of sloperates thetwo adjacent lanes. Wherebothroadways slope down and awavfrom lhe crossovercrown Jine, algebraic the diff'erence thesum of their is crosssloperates:wherethey slopein the samedirection. is the difference it of theircrosssloperates. desirable A maximumalgebraic difference a crossover at crown line is 4 or 5 percent. it may be ashigh asg percent low speeds bur at and wheretherearefew trucks. The suggested maximumdifferences crossslope in ratesat a crown line, related the speed turningtraffic,are given in Table to of IX-14.

Superelevation Transition and Gradeline Control Theattainment superelevation thegradually of over widening auxiliaryIaneand overthewholeof theturningroadway terminals should beabrupt. not Thedesign shouldbe in keeping with thesuperelevation cross and slope controls, previously determined and given in TablesIX-12 throughIX-14. As an example,consider arrangement in FigureIX_4g,in which the an as Iimiting curveof the turningroadwayhasa radiusof 70 m. corresponding a ro designspeed 50 km/h. FrornTable IX- l2 the maximumsuperelevarion of rate of this curve nray be between ancll0 percent 6 and pret'erably lessthan g not percent.Because roadwaywidth is variable.the rransition crossslooe the of
rtnngc should bc devcloped by using the rnethod oltraveleil rvay etlge changc in grade rvith respect to the point of rotation tbr a f'ull-rviclthauxiliary lane. Elcvalitlns dcvclopeci by this method shoultl then be converte(l t6 a change in elevatitltr between the edge oi the traveled rvay <lfthe through lune and the edge o f t h c i u l l - r v i d t hp a v e m e n to f t h ea u xi l i a r v l a n ea n d r h e nb e p r o r a r e d b r t h ea c t u a l t partial widths of the luxiliary lane. In this example. the rraveledway eclge change in snrde should be no grearcr than 0,65 percent. rs shorvn in Table IX- l-1. ,\tr rtltcntatelncthod, which has bc'ennote-d rvith respccttrt ridubility. crlmlilrt, altd eppcerancc tll'the roadwav in crossslope trensitionarcils.is to c'stablish ratc a tlt.changc in the roadwav cross slope. The rate of cross slttpc is a tunction of trltvclctlrvltv rvidth and the chan-ue gradeof thc edseot'tnlvelcdrvav with respcct in t() thc point tlf rttadwav rotation.This rnethodresultsin the cdgc lrldc bcinr:cqual ttl thc rolttlrvlv rvidth, which is rotated.tirnesthe ruteof changein crossslttpe. Thus, it' thc cdsc of travclcd way grlde chanre is 0.6-5 percenrand rhc widrh of roadway ilppllL'dlor cllculatrnq the gradechangeof thc edr:c-of-travclecj ',vav)is .1.{r thc m, nltc ()l'chi.lnrcin cross slope is -5..1 perccnt per .i() rn lcncth. 1

SECTIONE-E

y Tig ute lX4T. ieVebFm enloFs uperelevation at furni ng-roadwa terminals.

AASI-lTO--4 eometr i (. D e.sg n oJ' i g hu'a v.sa ncl Str eer.s i H

! At-Grade I ntersee'ions

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SECTIONE-E
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SECTION B-B
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nEar6-dwaterminals. terminals.

AASHTO-{ie()metric De.si,qn Highu'avsantl Stree!.s rf

I At -Grade I nter sec ions

l n F i g u r eI X - 4 8 . i f t h ec r o s s l o p e n t h et h r o u g hr o a d w a v s I p e r c e n a n d s o t i t h e d i s t a n c e r o m A t o B a n d a l s of r o m B t o c i s l 5 m , t r i a l c r o s ss l o p er a t e s f w o u l db e I p e r c e n a t A . 3 . 7 1 p e r c e na r B . a n d 6 . 4 1p e r c e na t C . H e r er h e t t r c r o s s v e rc r o w n l i n ec o n t r o l( T a b l eI X - l 4 . li s b a r e l ys a t i s f i e db e c a u s e r r h e o . a c r i t i c a ls e c t i o n , t h ea l g e b r a i c i l f e r e n c en c r o s s l o p er a t e s s 5 . - lI p e r c e n t . C d i s i I f r h er e m a i n i n gl e n g t h s f c t o D a n d D r o E a r e 7 m a p a r t ,r h ec r o s ss l o p e o t r a t ew o u l d b e 7 . 6 7 p e r c e n a r D a n d 8 . 9 3p e r c e na t E . t

slopeat all cross produce selected the scale. The final profilemay not precisely s p r o b l e mi s n o t s e r i o u s s l o n ga s t h ec r o s s l o p e a . o f t h ec o n t r o lp o i n t s b u t t h i s w i t h i nt h ed e s i g n o n t r o l i m i t s T h ep r i n c i p a l c r i t e r i o n . c an i c h a n g esp r o e r e s s i v e d to distorted the profilesthat do not appear of is rhedevelopmenl smooth-edge pa e s e n t a t i os t o p l o t rl in a o m driver. nother ethod f obtaining three-dimension A will drawin-g provide area.A scale contourlineson a Iayoutof the inrersection patterns. of draina-se advantage showing picturewith theadditional an accurate slopeconditions. and irregular sumps,

Design Speed of Exit or

Maximum Algebraic Difference in Cross Slope at Crossover Line

TRAFFIC CO]iTROL DEVICES waming.andguidingtraffic for Traffic controldevicesarenesessary regu[ating, of in andarea primarydeterminant the safeandefficientoperation intersections. with simultaneously the designbe accomplished that It is essential intersection is space provided that sufficient of development traffic controlplansto ensure design shouldnot be Geometric of for properinstallation trafficcontroldevices. until it hasbeendetermined nor complete shouldit be implemented considered traffic. effectin controlling will havethe desired traffic devices thatneeded i a t M o s t o f t h e i n t e r s e c t i o ny p e si l l u s t r a t e d n d d e s c r i b e dn t h e f o l l o w i n g t d i s c u s s i o na r e a d a p t a b l eo e i t h e rs i g n i n gc o n t r o l .s i g n a lc o n t r o l ,o r a s s o c o m b i n a t i o n f b o t h . A t i n t e r s e c t i o nn o t r e q u i r i n gs i g n a lc o n t r o l .t h e h n o r m a lr o a d * ' a vr v i d t h so f t h e a p p r o a c h i g h w a y sa r e c a r r i c dt h r o u g ht h e o * i n t e r s e c t i o ni t h t h e p o s s i b l ea d c i i t i o n f s p e e dc h a n g el a n e s .r n e d i a n r . l . l u n e sa u x i l i a r y a n e so r p a v e m e ntta p e r sW h e r ev o l u t l t e ls e s u f f i c i e n t o , l r c c l u i r e i g n a l c o n t r o l . t h e n u m b e r o f l a n e sf o r t h r o u g hn l o v e l n e n t sl l i l v s t s W I r l s o e e dt o b c i n c r e a s e d . h e r et h ev o l u m ea p p r o i l c h L 'h c u n i n t e r r u p t c d n o i e o I ' l o r v a p a c i t y t ' t h ei n t e r s e c t i oln g .t h e n u l n b e r l ' l r t n c sn c a c hd i r c c t i t l n c h t m a v h a v c t o b e d o u b l e da t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n ( ) a c c o m n t ( ) d a ttc e v t t l u t r t c t b c s t o p - a n d - g o o n t r o l .O t h e r g e o m e t r i ct e a t u r e s h a t m a - v -e a f f e c t c d under a a an b y ' s i g n a l i z a t i t . t r el e n g t ha n d w i d t h o f s t o r a g e r e a s l.o c a t i o n n dp o s i t i o n i r o l t t i w a v s .s p a c i n g t l f o t h e r s u b s i d i a r yi n t e r s c c t i < l n sl'c c c s s of turning t l x .n d t h c p o s s i b l co c l t i o n a n ds i z ct t f i s l a n t l so i l c c o l t l n l ( ) ( l a t c conncctions ( s i g n u ll l r l s t s ) r s t a l l d J r d : i . s t at n . \ r h i g h - r ' o l u r nie t c r s e c t i o n s g r a d e . h e d e s i g no f t h c s i g n a l s h o u l t li r c ttt to respond the varyingtrlrffic dcmlnds.the tlbicclirt' cnough sophisticatcd lf'l-ccting Frtctors beingtrl kc'epthc vchiclesrnovingthroughthe intcrsectrtln. arc interscctions covcrctlin procedures signalizcd tbr clpacitl'andconrputetion t h cH C \ l t 2 ) .
'"oluntc's.lntl i.lirrtl), thc g..orrt.tric tle.sign.clrplicrlv, amlrrsr.s.tlc'srgn htlLtr l o c l t t i t t no i t l t o s t t i r n t r st l f ' t r a i l ' i c p h v s i c l l c o n t r ( ) 1 5D c l l i l s o n t h e d e s i g n l n t l .

Curve (km/h)
30 and under 40 and 50 60 and over

(vo)
5.0to 8.0 5.0to 6.0 4.0to 5.0

Table lX-14. Maximumalgebraic difference cross slope at turnin ing roadwayterminals.

Thc critssslopeof theedge-of-traveled in frontof thc noseat E coulcl way bc rate,say 4 percent. secondtrial a betteradjustment stlnleintermediate On of superelevation transitiort re-.ults usinga lowerchange thecrosssloper:llc by in lbr rherunringroadrvay, suchas -l percent 30 nt lcngth. per t T h i s p r o c e d u r el f c s t a b l i s h i n s u p c r e l e v a t i o n o s ss l o p c s r ru i v c n p o i n t s g cr r i s a o r e l i n r i n a r s t e pi n t l e s i g nE l e v a t i o no n t h er o a d w a y t l g e s e s o l v c rflr o r t r . y s c r thesc crossslopesservcas controlpointsfor drawingthc edge-of-traveled way ( p r t t l ' i l c s) n t h e t u r n i n gr o a d w a v . . r c e l l e np r l c t i c a l r e s u l t s r e o b t a i n e d y E t u b p l o t t i n g t o l a r g e v e r t i c a ls c a l e t h e p r o f i l c s t i r r b o t h c d g e so f t h c r u r n i n g r o r l t l * r t v t n dt h c e d g ea n dc e n t e r l i n e f t h e t h r o u g h o a t l r v u i r r . j u r t ; . r p o s i t r o n r o r v o r t r t s i n g l c p r o l ' i l ed r a w i r t g .l m p o r t a n tp r l i n t ss u c h a s r r p p r o a c h o s o s( ) r n t t t c r g i n g t t d su l s t la r c l o c a t e dO n l v o n c p r o f i l e . i t h c rt h us t e t i ( ) n cc c n l c r il n c c . c d . t l r e d g e - o f - F a v e l e d u i t s d c p i c t e dn t r u el e n g t h b u t t h c i n u c c u r a c iv l c n g t h iv. i . n ( ( ) t ' t h c ) t h c r r o f i l e si s s r n a l l n d i t i s e u s vt o l o c a t e o i n t st h c r e o n n t h c i i c l t l p p i b r r l r t l i r tlln c t s u r e m c nttl - o r rtrh es t l t i o n e d i n e .T h c t h r c c - d i n r c n s i u nc t l n t l i l u v t r o nc u nt r cr e a d i l v i s u a l i z e d . v l \ l l t h c r n a t i c l l l yd c ' r i v c d c r t i c a c u r v e sa s u s c dt i l r o n c nh i q h w a v sl.r r cn o l .
r c l t t l i l v * ' i t h r t s p l i n c o r i r r c g u l a r c u r v e t e r n p l o t c sA l l n e c L ' s s i l re l e v a t i o r r s u n . c v n ( ' r ' L ' l t r il i l c c t l l ' l ' r t t t t r h c l t r o l ' i l c sw h c n t h c v a r c d r i l \ v l tt t r l t r r g ec n o u g h v c r t i c l t l t

AA.S O--C e()metr i c D esi,q oJ'H i g hn'uy,santl Str eeIs H'f n

tr At-Grade I nter sec' ons

741

eoRtrolsignals,includingthe generalwarrants,are given in Part IV of the MUTCD (5).

GE\ERAL I)iTERSECTION TYPES

General DesignConsiderations typesof at-grade General intersections tenninology indicated Figures and are in IX-52 and IX-53. The geometric formsarethe three-leg, four-le-q, rnultileg and intersections. Furtherclassiflcation includes suchvariations unchannelized. as {lale+1. and channelizedintersections. l Details and specific adaptarions each of general type are demonstrated under the heading "Types and Examples of At-GradeIntersections." M a n y f a c t o r se n t e ri n t o t h e c h o i c eo f t y p e o f i n t e r s e c t i o n n d t h e e x t e n t a o f d e s i g no f a g i v e nt y p e ,b u t t h ep r i n c i p a c o n t r o l s r er h ed e s i g n - h o utrr a f f i c l a volume, the characteror compositionof traffic, and the design speed.The c h a r a c t e r f t r a f f i c a n d d e s i g ns p e e da f f e c t m a n y d e t a i l so f d e s i g n ,b u t i n o c h o o s i n gt h e t y p e o f i n t e r s e c t i o nh e y a r e n o t a s s i g n i f i c a n ta s t h e t r a f f i c t v o l u m e . O f p a r t i c u l a rs i g n i f i c a n c e r e t h e a c t u a la n d r e l a t i v ev o l u m e so f a t r a f f i c i n v o l v e di n v a r i o u st u r n i n ga n d t h r o u g hm o v e m e n t s . L e f t - t u r nf a c i l i t i e s h o u l db e e s t a b l i s h eo n r o a d w a y s h e r et r a f l ' i cv o l s d w umesare high enoughor safetyconsiderations suff'icient witrrantthenr. are to T a b l e I X - 1 5 i s a g u i d et o t r a l ' f i c o l u m e s h e r el e f t - t u r nl l c i l i t i e s s h o u l db c v w --- -L'onstdEred. For the vollimesshown,left turnsancliight tuiri.if roni rhi nrinor s t r e e t a n b e e q u l l t o . b u t b e n o t g r e a t e r h a n .t h e l e f t t u r n sf r o n t t h e m a j u r c t s t r e c tS o m ee x a n r p l eo f l e f t - t u r n a c i l i t i e s r eg i v e ni n F i g u r c s X - - 5 1h r o u s h . s t a I t IX-57. Additionalinlbrmationon left turn Ianes well as suggested as lengrhof lcti (l) turn lanes canbe tirundin Ref-erences and(6). In thecase doublcleti turns. of t clpacity analvsis the intcrscction of shoultibe pcrtbnnedto ilctenninclvhut tnrft'ic controlsarc nccessarv ordertbr it to lunctionpropcrly. in L o c l l c o n d i t i o n sn d t h e c t t s to f r i g h t - o t - w a v i t c n i n t l u e n c c h ! ' r y p e( ) t l o r i n t c r s e c t i o n l e c t ca sw e l la sm a n yo f t h ed e s i c n e t a i l . L . m i t c ds i g h t i s r a n c c , se d d si d l i l r c x l n r p l e . a y n l r k c i t n e c r ' s s a r o c o n t r o lt r a f ' f i c y y i c l d s i g n s s r o ps i g n s . m v . b or trafiic signals whcn the trafllc densitiesare less than rhose ordinlrily considcred neccssarv suchcontrol. for Thc alinernerrt gradcoi theintersectand ing nrad.s thcanglerlf inrer.s!'clion makeit advisable channelizc usc lnd may or ro

UNCHANNELIZED-T

TURN LANF WITH RIGHT T_INTERSECTION

intersections' typesof at'grade lX-52. General Figure

mentsthe nunrbcrof'crossmove benefitof through-trafTic For rhe general streetsshould be minirnal' Wherc roads,or intersecting roatls.inteisecting to possible on rtrc intcrsections cltlsclyspacetl o two-wav thcility' it is seltlorn rtt traffic nlovemenls rcastlnablc coortiinlred providesignalstbr cornpietely rorl(l rcsultilnt on ,p..,t., in.iposing directions thlt facility.At thcsamctinrcthc otherthan thc prc(lornlnxnt roadways nrustpermit travelon or streetpiltterns 'Irlft'ic lnalysis is rcqurrcdto highway without too rnuch inconvenience. thc lcti pattcrn. tlpcn acr()ss prcdtlntiltrttc the rvhethcr roatlor strect dctcrmine ;lttr plus thc trlt'tlc divcrtcdt'rottt to highway.is ttiequatc scrvenormalrraflic
tcrminatcd road tlr strcct' t'll t
n(t

on cachlpproach.incl

oirrxtcTexk pc'riodsofrhe frans,d-uring<jr*.*

ltr ncccsslrv' thc roatlvv of dlv ltre i n d i c l t i v e o f t h e rype trlflic control devices

AA SI't TO-{j ertnretr i c D e.s n oJ'H i g h u,a v.sand S i,g t r eet.s

N-Grade Interseclions

lt ll| |

II
)'
+

lI

o t, a l , ( a w i d r h s e q u i r e di n c l u d i n g u x i l i a r ya n e s )a n dw h e r e p p l i c a b l eh ed e g r e e f r of to needed expeditethe movement all traffic.The differing channelization on and lengthof auxiliarylanesdepend and the shape of arrangement islands whether signalcontrolis necessarl'.

N'-]i

C h o n n e lized

A d v a n c i n gV o l u m e / H o u r SVo Opposing Volume/Hour Left Turns l\Vc Left Turns 20Vo Left Turns 30Vo Left Turns

60 km/h Operating SPeed

800 600 400 200 100

330 410 510 640 120 280 350 430 550 6 t.5

210 305 380 1'70 5r5 210 260 320 .100

180 225 275 350 390

160 200
t,t <

305 340 135 170 210 ?10 295

80 km/h Operating SPeed

800 600 400 200 l(x) It(x) 6(X)

l6-5

r95 2.10 300 315

1 0 0k n r / h O p e r a t i n gS P e e d

Flored

_--

l'rr
t ./

lllll
ll\ rl \

I
\_

/l--------t----i

Jl'((
// /
)t'

{(x)
l(x) I00

230 190 .16-s

I {/t

.s05

170 Il0 270 -r-t() 170

tif

160

l{x) l-)0
l7 -5

il5 l -10 17.5 I l.s t-10

--])

lr rt

F-r |

Unchqnnelized

Table tx-15. Guide for left-turnlanes on lwo-lanehighways(6)'

erlrrtnositiontrntl cltaructcr tli trlt't'ic arc r dcsign cttntrol llovctltcttts il[)pr()ilcll a l i r t v o l y i n g l l t r t c t r u c k s t t c c c s s i t l t t lc t r g c ri n t c r s c c t i t l n r c l l s1 n d l l a t t c r prctltlnlittrttttlr r g r n t l c st l i r n r l r o s cr c q u i r c t l : r ri n t c r s c c t i o n s v l t c r et r l l t ' i c c t l n s i s t s thc l v I , ' r t ' p " r r a n g " r a l r s . l u s s t o p s l ( ) c u t c d n c : . r r i l n i r l l c r s c c t lt(t)l 1t1 t ' u r t h c r r r t t l d i l - r ,'\pprtlltcltsJlcctlstlt'trltl'l'icltlso hltvc l bcering on thC {c()l'llctrlc ilrTllnllcttlctlt.
-l-ltc

-l'hc

Figure lX-53. Generaltypes of at-gradeintersections.

Ic I ot rv t t t t t t t b c r l t n t l l t l c l t l t t l t t s o l r h,-' l44r r.r.r. h rtra,1 lris lrntllliCt r-t1u

g c r r t t t c t r i cp l t t t c r l l . l h c intcrscctiotr ltrc tttlt.itlrc()lltr()ls firr thc itttcrscction

AASHTO--GeometricDesign of Highways and Streets

A t -Grade I ntersections

PLAIN ,T'INTERSECTION -A-

tTt

GHT TNTERSECTION [WlrH Rf LANE} HAND PASSING

-A-

,T'INTERSECTION fWifh RightTurn Lonol

' T ' , t N T E R S E C T I O(N l r H R I G H TH A N D W P A S S I N GL A N E A N D R I G H TT U R N L A N E )

- BFlgurelX-S4. ,.T"intersections.

- Bf igure l X-55- .rTainterseetisns-

AASHTO--{;eometricDesign of Highways and Streets

tions At -Grade I ntersec

747

locationof islands,and the types of control devices.At-grade intersecrrons preferably shouldbe iimited to no more thanfour approach regs. Two or more cl0ssroads intersecting arterial an highwayin closeproximity shouldbe com_ b i n e di n t o a s i n g l e r o s s i n g . c The distances between intersections influence degree channelizatron the of at any one particularintersection. example,where intersections For are closely spaced. tum restrictions may be imposed someintersections petjestrian at and crossings may be prohibited others at and thusmakesomechannelizing israncrs and au.xiliary pavement areas unnecessary, it may be necessary introduce or to

to roadsor streets two or moreintersecting auxiliarylanesbetween continuous are where crossroads widely spaced' handlea buildupand weavingof traffic. tuming' all accommodate crossing' mustnecessarily intersection eachat-grade movements. and pedestrian

ill I
I

WITH SINGLE TURNING ROADWAY -A -

WITH DIVISIONAL ISTAND AND RIGHI PASSING L .NE -A-

WITH A PAIROF TURNING ROADWAYS -BFigure lX-56. Channelized,.T" intersections.

WITH DIVISIONAL ISUNO ANO TL'RNIN6 ROADWAYS -B-

"T" FigurelX-57. Channelized intersections'

AA.SHTO--Ceomelric. Dasign of Highu,ay-s Streets and

t At -Grade I nter sec' ions

CHANNELIZATION
Channerization theseparation regulation is or of conflictingtraffic movements inio definitepathsof travelby trafficislandsor pavemenr markingto f acilitate the safe and orderry move'ents of both vehicles and pedest'ans.proper channerization increases capacit-v, improves safety. provides maximumconve_ nience' and instir.s driver.confidence. Improper channerizarion rheopposire has effectand may be worsethannoneat all. 0verchannelization shouldbe avoided because courdcreate it confusion andworsen operations. somecases simpre In a channerization improvement can result in a dramaticreductionrn accidents. i\{ostof these cases invorvesometypeof reft-turn treatment. Lefi_turnranes at intersections reducerear-end exposure and providea comfortabre meansfor makinga left turn. -trannelization of at-gradeinGrsecrionsis geneialy warranted fbr one or moreof the following factors: l. 2. 3' +. -5. 6. l. ri. 9. 10. The pathsof vehicles confinedby channelization are so rhatnot more thantwo pathscrossat any one point. The angleand locationat which vehicles merge,diverge,or crossare controlled. The amountof pavedareais reduced and therebydecreases vehicre wanderand narrowsthe areaof conflictbetween vehicles. Clearerindications providedfbr rhe properpath are in which nrove_ nientsAreto be made. Thc preclontinant movcments gir.enpriority, are i\rerrsare providedlirr pcdcstrian rcfirce. 5 r ' l ) i l r i l t rs t o i i i g e I a n e sp e r r n i t r u i n i n g v c h i c l e s , to wilit clear oi' t hrough-t raff'iclane-s. Spaccis providcdrbr trafficcontrortrc'iccsso that thcv carr bc rnrtrc rcacll-vpcrceir,,ed. i p r o h i b i t e du r n sa r ec o n t r o l l e d . t Thc'specds vchicres restrictc'd so'rc c.\tcnt. of are to

l. 2. 3.

.1. 5. 6.

7. 8. 9. 10. I l.

at with more thanone decision a Motoristsshouldnot be confronted time. and or than90 degrees sudden paths tumsgreater thatrequire Unnatural curvesshouldbe avoided. sharpreverse Areas of vehicle conflict should be reducedas much as possible. a s b a H o w e v e rm e r g i n g n dw e a v i n s r e a s h o u l d e a s l o n ga sc o n d i t i o n s . s p e r m i t . C h a n n e l i z a t i o n h o u l d b e u s e d t o k e e p v e h i c l e sw i t h i n pathsthat minimizethe areaof contlict. well-defined thatcrosswithout mergingand weavingshouldinterTraftic streams with a range acceptable. of60- I 20 degrees at sect desirably rightangles shouldbe merging streams trafTic of of between The angle intersection to sightdistance. appropriate provideadequate The points of crossing or conflict should be studied catet'ully to would be better separated consolidated or if determine suchconditions saf'e to controldevices added ensure with appropriate to simplifydesign operation. shouldbe provided clearof through tbr Refugeareas turningvehicles traft'ic. with or obstruct shouldnot intert'ere usedfor channelization Islands a b i c y c l el a n e s t i n t e r s e c t i o n s . possible. turnsshouldbe blockedwherever Prohibited as b o f e s s e n t i a lo n t r o d e v i c e s h o u l d ee s t a b l i s h e d a p a r to l c l Location o n d e s i g n f a c h a n n e l i z eid t e r s e c t i o n . the trafl'icmovcthe to nraybe desirable separate various Channclization rvhcremultiplcphascsignals usetl. are ments

( I.]D- ] H A N ( ; F] I. A N F]SA1' I N]' I.]RSE CT I () N S SPF] spccd to rtre required reduce ut Drilers leavinl a highwa,v an itttersection usually betirreturninq.Driverscnteringa highrvayfrom a tuming roadrvlyacccleratc trr When unduc tlccelcrlttitltl ttpetr-roatl speetlis reached. until the dc'sired on bv ruccelcnrtion lcavingor cnteringtrlffic takcspllcc dircctl,n., thc highn'rtr r t w t t r r v L ' l c d u r . i t d i s r u p t sh c f l o w o f t h r r l u g hr a f f i c . - l i tp r c c l u d cl r t n i n i r r t i z c rtrc latrcs speed-chlnllc rt rrspects operation intr'rscctions. of thescundcsirublc rtnd chlrnctcristics arc I'rchavingcxprL'sswltY practicc hiUhrvays on stan(Llrd t q u e n t l l u s c t l r no t h e rm a i nh i g h w l v i n t c r s c c t i t l t l s . ' . d g a . . \ s p c c d - c h l n glc n ci s a n l u x i l i a r r ' l a n e i n c l t r t i i n t t r p c r c r t r c l s p r i r n a r i l r o o t i l r t h c a c c c l c n t t i o n r d c c e l c r a t i o n f r ' c h i c l c sc ' n t c r i n !t:l r I c a v i n g t h e
"lccelcralittrt llrnc." as usctl hcre, appll' brrxrtllv to tht' lttltictl[]irvclltL'nt j()tnlng t t h e t r a v c l c d * l r v o t ' r h c h i r t h w a v o r \ t r c c t r v i t h l l t l t r r i ' l l t c t u r n i n g r t x t t l r v r t vt n t l

t ) c s i g n l a c h a n n c l i z e id t c r s c c t i ou s u a l l v n v o l v e s o n n i r h ct i r l l o , , v i ns i I n i f i q c i l l l r ( ) r t r ( ) l sl:t ct v p cr l t ' d c s i t n c t I h cc r t r s s e c t i t t r r r nt h cc r . s s r . l r t r s , ts " i t h Lp r ( ) i c c t ct(rl a l ' l ' i v o l u r n r .is r c lc th oc ltc ,c a p i l c l t \ . , ' c n l i n o t h cn u n r b c o t . p c d c - s t r i a n s . r l l h c s p c c t t r r ' r ' c h i c r c sh c r o c l t i o no f r r n vr c q u i r c d r. b u ss t o p s a n , ti t r ct v p c a n t r , I . c 1 1 1 1r.l,tr''trr a l i' c c o n t r o ld c v i c c s F u r t h c r n r o r c , f . r h cp h v s i c . a lo n t r o l s s u c h . s c . a r r s h t - o l - w l - r ' u nc lr r r i nh a v eu n c f t ' c co n t h cc \ t c n t tr t o f c h a n n c l i z u t i o h r r it s tn c c ( ) n ( ) n l i cIt l f ' c i l s i l c . v b p C c r t a i n r i n c i p l cs h o u l t l

AASHTO-Ceometrit Design of Highu,aysond Srreets

c At -Grade I nter se t ions

do not necessarily imprya definiteraneof uniformwidth.A speed-change rane shouldbe of sufficienr width andlengthto enable driverro maneuver vehicle a a intoit properly, onceinto it, to makethenecessary and change between speed the of operation thehighway street thelowerspeed theturning on or and on roadway. Deceleration acceleration and lanesmay be designed conjunction-with in each other.the relationship depending the arrangement the intersectron on of and trafficrequirements' They may bedesigned pansof at-grade as intersections bur are especiallyimportant at ramp junctions where turning roadways meet high-speed traffic lanes. warranrs the useof speed-change for lanes cannor srated be definitery. Many factors mustbeconsidered, asspeeds. such trafficvolumes, p"r..n,ug. oitrucks, capacity, typeof highway,service provided, anangement frequency the and of intersections, accidentexperience. and observarions and considgrable experiwith speed-change errce linei haveled to the following general conclusions: l. Speed-change lanes warranred high-speed on high-volume are on and highways wherea change speed necessary vehicles in is for entering or leavingthe through-rraffic lanes. All driversdo not usespeed-change in thesame lanes manner; someuse littleof theavailable facirity.As a whole,however, these Ianes used are sufficiently improvetheoverallsafety to andoperation thehighway. of Useof speed-change lanesvarieswith vorume, majorityof drivers the u s i n gt h e ma t h i g h v o l u m e s . The directional rypeof speccl-change consisring rongtaperfits lane oi'a t h e b e h a v i ' ro f m o s td r i v e r sa n c l o e sn o t r e q u i r e r a n e l i v e r i n g a d n o' revcrse-curvc path. D e c c l c r a t i oln n c s n t h ea p p r o a c h c o a t - r r a t l cn t e r s c c t i . nts a t . l s ' a o ts i h functionas storage lancst.r tuming traltlc are particularrlatJvantaq e o u s a n d e x p e r i e n cr v i t ht h e mg e n c r a l l y a sb c e n . c h t a v o r a b l eS u c h . Ilnes inrprovesat'ety increase and caoacitv.

a n o p p o r t u n i t yt o m e r g e w i t h o u t d i s r u p t i n gt h r o u g ht r a f f i c . A c c e l e r a t i o n w on a l a n e s r ea d v a n t a g e o u s r o a d s i t h o u ts t o pc o n t r o la n do n a l l h i g h - v o l u m e w i t h s t o p c o n t r o l w h e r e o p e n i n g sb e t w e e nv e h i c l e s i n t h e road.s ven e t a p e a k - h o u r r a f f i c s t r e a m s r e i n f r e q u e n a n d s h o r t .( F o r a d d i t i o n a ld e s i g n t o a n t g u i d a n c e e l a t i v e o l e n g t h s f d e c e l e r a t i o n n da c c e l e r a t i oa u x i l i a r vl a n e s . r X t ret'ero Chapter .)

}IEDIA}i 0PENINGS

General DesignConsiderations of IV in are Medians discussed Cnapter chieflyas an element thecrosssection. in ranges width aregiven.and the width of the medianat intersections General conditions medianwidth,the lengthof the the is treated briefly.For intersection to in and the designof the medianend aredeveloped combination fit opening, and thecharacter volumeof throughandturningtratfic. Wherethetraffic pattem that nearlyall traffic travelsthroughon the shorvs intersection at an at-grade of opening the a andthevolumeis rvellbelowcapacity, median dividedhighway This typeof openingpennlts costlydesignmay bc sufficient. andleast simplest but in doing so they may' vehiclesto rnake cross and tuming movements, space clearof on encroach ldjacentlanesand usuallywill not havea protectcd andtunringmovements showing appreciable cross othertraffic.A trafficpattern j i a a o t o r t h r o u s h r a l ' f i c f h i g hs p e e d n dh i g hv o l u m e u s t i f i e s d c s i g n n w h i c ht h e perhaps to to turningmovsrnents be nratle, rncdian of l shlpc andscale enable is lanes with littlc anti withoutencroachment adjacr'nt on spced at tbovc-rnininrurn nrovcrnents. bctwecntra{'fic or no intcrt'ercncc -fhe on ope of design a rncdian ning andmedianendsshouldbc bascd treft'ic I . n v o l u l n c s n t l n p e o l ' t u r n i n gv e h i c l e sa s d i s c u s s e id C h a p t e r I . C r o s sa n t l u trafficon thedividc'd with thethrough in operate conjunction tumingtraflicrnust makcsit nccessarv know thevolumcantlctttrtnoto rcquircrncnt . higlrrvul 1'his h s dy l tc s i t i o no t ' r r l n r ( ) \ c t l l c t l os c u r r i n g i t n u l t l t n c t l u s l u r i n gt h cd c s i g n t l u r s " f h c is rvhattrlrt'fic to i'c a opcningbccomcs muttcroiconsidering dcsignot'l nrctlirrrr lirr thc designvehiclettl usetirr lavoutc()ntr()ls crtcit choosing luccorrrnrodutcd. c w i c r o s sr u r dt u n t i n gm o v c m c n t . n l c s t i U a t i n g h c t h c rl a r g e rv c h i c l c s e n t t l n l t c l.n d f i n a l l ; " h e c k i n gh c i n t c r o l w i t h o u tu n d u c n c r < ; a c h t r t c n tl d j l r c c n t a n e s c scctiontilr clprrcity.If thc clpacity'is cxcccdcdb-vthc traffic load.the ticsrgn w c r l u s l b c c x p l n d c d ,p o s s i b l yb v u i d e n i n go r o t h c r r v i s a d j u s t i n g i d t h s t i t r to mrttirslrnllwrr.lv bc rcquircd r
i()ns. i rnprovc thc ct'ti'cti vcrtcsstlf' ()pcrat

2.

3. '1.

5.

. \ n r c d i a na n ep r o v i d e sc f u g ct i r r v c h i c l e s r v a i r i n a n o p p o r t u n i r r o t u m . l r a g v lnd thcrebv keeps highwavrraveled the rvatclcartirr throushtrat't'ic. rvidrh. l.hc l l e n g t h . n d g e n e r a d c s i s nt l f n t t d i a n l a n c sa r e s i r n i l a rt ( ) t h ( ) s c t a n v o t h c r l o d c c ec r a t i o n a n eb u t t h e i rd e s i g n n c l u d c s o m cu d t l i r i o n i t l i l t u r e , j i s c u s s c u l l i s fc s "Au.riliarvLanes"di.rcu.ssed in untlcrthc hcacling Jarer rhischirorcr. D c c r - . l c r t t i r l a n c sa l ' , v a v l r e a d v a n t a g e t > u s , r t i c u l t r r l v n h i u h s p c c d n s pa o r o a d sh c c r u s c h c d r i v c r o f a v c h i c l e e a v i n g h c h i t h w a y . h a n o c h o i c cb u t . t I t s t o s l o r r ,d o r v n o n t h c t h r o u g h - t r a f f i cl l n c i f a d c c c l c r l t i o n l a n c i s n o r
a l c r t r n s s r . u u s c sn l l n f r c a r - c n d c o l l i s i o n s . , . \ c c e l c r l r t i o nl r r c s l r c n ( ) l l r l r v a v s l l d c s i r l h l c i l t s t ( ) p - c ( ) n t r o l l c dn t e r s c c t i o n sw ' h e r ce n t c r i n g d r i v c r s c u n w a i t l i r r i

itCl\ tlll(l

Control Radii for Minimum Turning paths An imponantfactor in designing medianopenings the path of eachdesign is vehiclemakinga minimumlefttum ar l5 to 25 km/h.Whererhevolumeandtype makingthe left-turn of vehicles movement call for higherthanminimumspeed. the designmay be madeby usinga radiusof rum corresponding the speed to appropriate. However, minimumturningpathat low speed needed deemed the is for minimumdesignandfor tesring layouts developed onedesign vehicle for for useby an occasional largervehicle. v T h e p a t h s f d e s i g n e h i c l e s a k i n gr i g h tt u r n sa r eg i v e ni n C h a p t e r I a n d o m I i a r e d i s c u s s e d n t h i s c h a p r e ri n t h e s e c t i o n" l n t e r s e c t i o nC u r v e s . " A n y differencesbetweenthe minimum turning radii for left turns and thosefor r i g h t t u r n sa r e s m a l l a n d a r e i n s i g n i f i c a n i i nh i g h w a yd e s i g n .M i n i m u m 9 0 degrees left-turnpathsfor designvehiclesareshownin FigureIX-58. Figure IX-58A shows these paths positionedas they would govern median end d e s i g nf o r v e h i c l e sl e a v i n ga d i v i d e dh i g h w a y .F i g u r eI X - 5 8 8 s h o w sr h e m positioned for left turns to enter a divided highway. In both casesit is assumed that the inner wheel of eachdesignvehicle clearsthe medianedge a n dc e n t e r l i n e f t h e c r o s s r o a b y 0 . 5 m a t t h e b e g i n n i n g n de n d o f t h e t u r n . o d a For comparison,circular arcs of 12, 15, and 23 m radii and tangentto the c r o s s r o a d e n t e r l i n e n d t h e m e d i a ne d g e a r e a l s o s h o w n . T h e t r a n s i t i o n c a p a t h s o f t h e i n n e r r e a r w h e e l s a r e l o n g , p a r t i c u l a r l yf o r t h e s e m i t r a i l e r v e h i c l e sw h e n c o m p l e t i n gt h e t u r n . W h e r e t h e c o n t r o l l i n gc i r c u l a r a r c i s l p , s h a r p e t h a nt h e s e o n g t r a n s i t i o n a t h s d r i v e r s a n ,a n dh a b i t u a l l y o , s w i n g r c d ide and turn on a reverseor S-curve path insteadof turning directly to t t r a v e r s e h e m i n i m u m p a t h ss h o w n . way edges The travelecl thatmostcloselyfit thepaths turningvehicles of are however,for sharpturns at intersections, transitional: design.s closely fitting pathsarethree-centered these curves. Designguidance coveringthree-centered "lntersection is in curyes discussed thesection Curves"in thischapter. samc The to curyesareapplicable leti turnsand shouldbe usedwherethereis a physical way cclge-ot'-traveled tbr left turns. in a channelized as intersection on ramps and tirr the predominant highway. The customarv at-grade intersection a divided highwaydoesnot havea on physical edgeof traveled way delineatine leti-turnpath.Instead, continuous the the driver hasguidesat the beginning and at the end of the lefi-tum operarion: (l) the centc'rline an undividedcrossroad the medianedgeof a divided of or and crossroad. (2) the curvedmedianend. For the centraloart of the tum the ror clrcumsranccs mlnrmumoeslgnoI tne meotanenrl.the preclslon comot poundcurvcsdoesnot appear necessary, simplecuryesfbr the minimum and c'dgcof leti tum huvebeenfbund satistlctorv. rlssulnL'{l The largerthe simplc.

@Ga o, ltlYluo

wAY

0.3m

--

toct

Of ttlVElO

wAY

wL|oJ

r-12mr'
l-l5n

,-rr^J
LEFTTURN FROM DIVIDED HIGHWAY T O CROSSROAD

6
')t t
t^

IE
NOrl: fornim polhr .hown t. i.m. rs in t.lsiion wA..l cnd d.t kdl df,tsg lo (onFol rcdlldl2, l5 dd ll ffi _---. __su t _ _ _w!tz

T
E 8

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o

LEFITURN FROM CROSSROAD TO DIVIDED HIGHWAY -a-

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i-2Jm trl2m
l-t5il

y..a-70

IDOI Ot n@urx --.

ctxrnuLa n^wuo waY

left for lx-58. controlradllat intersections 90-degree turns. Figure

AASHTO-Ceometric Design of Highways and Steers

A t -G rade I nt er.rec t io ns

c u r v er a d i u s s e d t h eb e t t e rt w i l l a c c o r n m o d aa e i v e nd e s i g n e h i c l e , u . i rg v b u tt h e r e s u l t i n ga y o u tf o r t h el a r g e r u r v er a d i u s i l l h a v ea g r e a t elren g tt h l c w ng of median openi andgreater nin-e paved areas thanonefor a minimumradius. These areas mav b e s u f f i c i e n r l ya r g er o r e s u f ti n e r r a r i c a n e u v e r i nb l , s m a l lv e h i c l e sw h i c h l m s , may interfere with othertraffic, By considering rangeof radii ior minimumrighr tums an<l the the needfbr accommodation more thanone type of'vehicle the usualintersections, of at the fbllowing conrrol radii can be uscd tbr minimum practical designof median e n d sa c o n t r o l a d i u s f l 2 m a c c o m m o d a t e s e h i c l c s u i r a b l y n d : r pv o a occasional s U v e h i c l e s i t h s o m es w i n g i n g i d e :o n eo f l 5 m a c c o m m o d a r e s v e h i c r e s w w SU a n d o c c a s i o n aw B - 1 2 v e h i c r e s i t h s o m es w i n _ e i nw i d e ; a n d l w g oneof 2i m accommodates wB- l2 and wB- r5 vehicres with only minor swingingwide at theendof the tum. (All wheerbase, wB. lengths in merers, pugJr20 and are r..

T m o v e m e n t o t h e rt h a nt h o s ef b r r r h i c h t h e d e s i g ni s d e v e l o p e d . h e f i g u r e s s n t . m f h d i n d i c a t e o ' ' r ' t h e e s i g n a y b e t e s t e do r p r o t e c t i oo f c r o s s r a f f i c T h i s t e s ti s in of for b1'development medianopeningdesigns traffic conditions fbllowed t s a s w h i c ht h er . o l u m eo f t h r o u g h n dt u m i n cm o v e m e n ta r es u c h h a ti t i sd e s i r a b l e clearof throughtrafflc. in to providespace the mediantbr turningvehicles

Shapeof ,lledian End i T e i O n e f b r m o f a m e d i a n n da t a n o p e n i n g s a s e m i c i r c l e .h i s s i m p l ed e s i g n s ends The disadvanta-ses of semicircular tbr actory' narrowmedians. several satisf and recognized. other thanabout3.0 m in width arewidel,v tbr medians sreater are used. shapes generally moredesirable for Altemateminimum designs medianendsto fit the designcontrol radii I I o f 1 2 , 1 5 ,2 3 . a n d 3 0 m a r es h o w ni n F i g u r e s X - 5 9 t h r o u g h X - 6 2 .T h e p a t h s l a o v a o f d e s i g n e h i c l e s r es h o w no n t h eb a s i s f t h ei n n e rr e a rr v h e eb e g i n n i n g n d ending.the left-turn maneuver0.5 m from the edge of the medianand the a m c T o c e n t e r l i n e f t h e u n d i v i d e d r o s s r o a d . h e a l t e r n a t e i n i m u md e s i g n s r ea P l f e s e m i c i r c u l a rn da n da b u l l e tn o s e o r m .T h e i n d i c a t e d Co f t h ec o n t r o r a d i u s end.The bullet is on the medianed,ee a commonPC tbr both fbrmsof med'ian arcs and ltn portionsof control raciius nose is tbrmed by two syrnmetrical T e r t a s s u r n es r n a l lr a c l i u s . . g . , 0 . - 5n i s u s e d . o r o u n dt h e n o s e . h e b u l l e tn o s e d c l e s i - uc l o s e l v f i t s t h e p a t h o f t h e i n n e r r c a r * ' h e c l a n d r e s u l t si n l e s s n l t i n t c r s e c t i op a v e n l c na n c la s h o r t e r e n g t ho l o p c n i n gt h l n t h e s e r n i c i r c u l a r n ar c n d . T h c s c ' u t i v u n t u g c se t l p e r a t i o n ai ln t h a t t h c t l r i v e ro f t h c l e f t - t u r n i n g portittttof the pathhastt betterguitlefilr thc litr vchiclechrtnnc'lizc.tl a greater i tl n n r l n e v c r .l n r l t h c e l o n g a t c d r e d i a ns b e t t c rp o s i t i t t n c co s c r v ea s a r e l ' u g c u t tr f i r r p c d c s t r i u r cs o s s i n s h c t l i v i d c dh i g h * ' a t . betlvcen t\\ o thc ['or rnctlilnsaboutl.] nr wiclcthereis littlc or no diftcrencc nr tirnnsot'rncdiancnrl. For a ntetlianrl'idthof -1.() or nl()rethe bullct nost'is i . s b e t s u p c r i o r o t h e s c m i c i r c u l l r n c la n d n r e t e r a b l v h t t u l d c u s c ' dn d c s i g n O n o i l v t s u c c c s s i v c lrv i d c rr n c d i a n sh e h u l i . t n o s ec t r t lr e s u l t sn s h o r t t ' r c n g t h s t ' t t p c r r i l r r : s . F ( ) r t n c ( l i r l n * . i t l t h s g r c l r t c r t h l l r l - l . l r n l n d l t r l t t it tcrts t tF r gttlt r c l l l( ti t b t ic o 1 1 - - 5 9 t h c r r r i n i r r r u n tn g t h l ' o p c n i n rt:o p n r v i t i ct i r r c r o s s r a t ' t i c c c t l t r t c s . t ). w b p o s i l i v e ( ) r l t r oT.h c n r i n i r n u n rn r l s i r r l n c d i r l nls t t u t- l . l r l to r l t t ( ) r c i d cl t l s t r e l c l h b t or t l k c t h c s h l p et r l ' s ( l u i t r c d t l ; l t t c n c d u l l c te n d s . h c t l l t c ' n d c i n gp a r l l l c lt o ov T t lc t h c c r o s s r t r ; cd r r t c r l i n c .h i s s h a p cr c t a i n s h c i l d v 0 n t i t r t c s c r s c n t i c i r c u l r t r cg w c o t i r c n t l s c g u r t l l c s ls t h cn r c d i a n i d t hb c c l u s c t ' t h c h l r n r r c l i z i r to r t t r o l . rncdiun c l t { ls s n ( ) s d- ' r r r \ c r r e u c hl s t o p o s i t i t l nh c l c l ' t - t u r n i nrg h i c l c s ( )t t t mt ( ) Thcbullcr
rnor r'tttt'tlt rlttttl tl** oppasI tul FlllllL ()t lltt' L'r(r\5r(xld.

equivalents). width Median M 1.2 l.ti

:.+

L = Nlinimum Length of iVledianOpening (m; Semicircular

BulletNose

1.0 .1.6 1.2 -1.8 (r.0 1.2 ri.+

9.6

22.8 22.2 2I . 6 21 . 0 20.1

l9.ll I9.l I t{.0 16.t3 |.5.6 ll.-t

22.8 rti.0 r5.9

t4.l 12.9 12.0 in. M 12.0 in. M 12.0 in. M ll.0 lvlin. ll.0 iVlin. 1 2 . 0l v l i n . 12.0 lin. V ll.0 l\lin. ll.0 tulin. ll.0 lvlin.

I0.tt ll.0 1.i.0 18.0

t.r.l
l l . ( )N l i n . ll.0 !lin. ll.t) \lirr.

Table lX-16. Minimum design of medianopenings (P design vehicle,control radius of 12 m).

l - h c s c c l a t i o n s r es h o " v n c n c r u l l vn F i g u r c s X - - _ ir9 r t r u , : I X - 6 | l n d r h c r a g i I h h
co11tft)l rurlius rlcsirln is tcstctl litr usc ltr. llrr{cr l.chielcs antl litr ()ccusi()nill

AASHTo--Ceometric Design of Highu'aysand Streets

At -Grade I ntersec! ions

Minimum Length of iVledianOpening

,ll 3lr \lr

I

I o

o it

E
ol

o u,
f

E 6 o () -g .g
o

of on intersection a dividedhighwaythelength median or Forany three- tour-leg way plusshoulders traveled shouldbeasgreatasthewidthof crossroad opening wav plus 2.4 m). Where and in no caselessthan l2 m (or lessthanthe traveled equal be the of should at least is thecrossroad a dividedhighway. length opening waysplus thatof the medianplus 2.'l m' traveled to the width of the crossroad withoutregard the width of to The useof a l2 m minimumlengthof opening exceptat verv mlnor medianor the control radiusshouldnot be considered for of doesnotapplvto openings The crossroads. l2 m minimumlength opening elsewhere. U-turns.as discussed

.9
!l

o o

width Median VI 1.2

IQ
1A L.a

L = Nlinimum Length of lledian Opening (m) Semicircular Bullet Nose

890

.s c
o oo .g E o

oo o)

28.8 28.2
!t.o

3.0
J.O A'

27.0
io-.+

s
t -L

25.8
!).!

li
lr
ll

ti tl ll

-)
I I

i
I I I I I
I

E o

4.ll 6.0 7.2

28.8 22.8 20.4 r8.6 t7.4 r5.9 1,5.0

l -1.i

u.-r
9.6 l0.tt l].0 1.5.0 I ti.0 I1.0

24.0 22.8 2t.6 20.-l

to 1

.9
Iri
,ll 'rl
l'l
I

o o E
f

ttl

E =
o; r')

'
I

li

I
I

ll

I
I

lr l;
I

I I I I I

e99 al, t { af a a 5

rli

IU.0 r5.0 ll.0 lvlin. ll.0 illin.

ll.0 NIin. ll.0 lvlin. ll.0 Iv1in. ll.0 tv{in. ll.0 lvlin. ll.0 lvlin. ll.() iVlin. ll.() illirt.

$t ttr

tit

x
o

TabtelX-17. Minimumdesign of medianopenings(SU design '15m). vehicle,control radius of

Median OpeningsBasedon Control Radii for DesignVehiclesNoted

Passenger Vehicles
Figure IX-59 shows minimum medianopening designsbasedon a control radiusof l2 m for a 90 degrees intersection. controlradiusis madetangent The to the upper median edge and to the cnterline of the undivided crossroad, therebylocatingthe semicircular medianend or forming a portion of a bullet noseend. The resultinglengths openingvary with the width of median,as of shownin the tabulation thefigure.For eachof the medianwidthsindicated, on thechannelizing areadifferences and between semicircular bulletnose the and ends are apparent. p The control radius of 12 m accommodates design vehiclesmaking rums somewhataboveminimum, the actualpath of which is not shown. (SeeFigure IX-58 instead.)

Thepathso|theWB-l2andWB-l5designvehiclesmakingminimumleft IX-59 to indicate tumsboihoff andontothedividedhighwayareshownin Figure cars. for designed passenger can largevehicles tum at an intersection how these onlytheinnerwheeltrackandouterfrontoverhangpathsareindicated.The pathsaredepictedfromapositionparalleltothemedianedgeorcenterlineofthe thatswingingwide of .rosrroadandat the beginning theturn,andtheyindicate making vehicles of large at are andreversing required theendof thetum. Drivers However'pathsmight sharpleft turnsalsomay swing right beforeturningleft' the swingingout beforebeginning left two extremes, of be a combinarion these on the outer lane of the divided highway and also tum with infringement swingingwideandreversingattheendofthetum.Thepathwiththeparallel it indicates the rnouJlnJnt at the beginning of rhe rum is shown because maiimum encroachment. InFigureIX-sg,theWB.l2designvehicleturningfromthedividedhighway edgeof traveled crossroad about I m beyondthetwo-lane(projected) encroaches way,andthewB-l5u"hi.l""n.toachesabout3.3m.withwidecrossroadsthis as crossroads. is enc.oochment within the median opening,but with two-lane may be beyondthe medianend' shown in Figure IX-59, the encroachment As of havinga minimumlength opening. theleft *itt *ia" medians particularly way the bebeyond edge-of-traveled for may the iurn iscompleted, encroachment rightturns-locateddiagonallyoppositethebeginningoftheleft-tummovement does nor this oii ti,. divided highway.with wide crossroacls encroachmenr way (notshownin FigureIX-59)' edgeof traveled beyondtheright-turn extend extendbeyond'By it etnd but with two-lanecrossroads narrorvmedians may thetum' before highway' on overa shortdistance theclivided leqinning swinging remainon the pavedareas' and openings passthroughthese ntostdriverscoulcl througha it is Althoughthisprocetlure usedextensively, shouldbe discouraged designwherepossible' nroreexpansive varying degreesof For tunts onto the tlivided highway'the paths show encroachmentonthcrightlanetlfthedividedhighwav.ThesUdesignvehicle dividedhighway' thc ubout0.-l m on the right laneof a tbur-lane cncrttilches d J ' 0 r n 'T h e s e i s t a n c e s a v a W B - l l v c h i c l c b o u tl . - it r l .a n t it h eW B - l - 5 c h i c l e b o u t swingingright betbrc by can be lcsscneti tlredrivcrslnticiparingrhe tum and on tlepends the lnedianwidth. the lcft. it splcc is lvailablc.This space turning and on of bythe number lancs thccros.\road. other ls openinq qovcrnctl lcngth.rf Inovcmcnts' right-turn for lirnl1lti.nssuchas tria'gular isllurds channcliz.inu FiguretX..5gindicatcsthatntinilnunrnrcdianog:ningsbasedonacontrol crtlssroads tilr trvo-lane of of radius ll rn lrc not well suitctltbr lcngths opcning lnd clntrottum h:ti withoutdiftlcultmlneuvcrinq encroachmenl trueks
trlvelcd wlvs, but tirr thcsccasesit is ldvantaqcous lilr bc suir;.rblc widc crossrtlatl than ll ln. w hich cnlblcs lll vchiclcsto tunl lrt I little r:ttlttts {rclrcr lr t()usL. c()ntr()l

width Median M 1.2 1.8

)L

L = Minimum Length of Median Opening (m) Semicircular Bullet Nose

3.0 3.6
+-:
/1

4.8 6.0 7.2 8..1 9.6 l0.rl r2.0 r8.0 24.0 30.0 31.0 -r6.0

43.8 43.2 42.6 43.0 41.4 40.8 10.2 39.0 37.8 36.6 35..1
J+.i

36.6 34.5 33.0 3l.5 30.0 28.8 21.6 25.5

:).+

10.0 21.0 2t . 0 15.0 ll.0Min. r 2.0 Mi

21.9 20. r r8.6 t].l

ll.0 lvlin. 1 2 . 0l V I i n . 1 2 . 0i V i i n . 12.0 in. M 1 2 . 0t u ifn .

Table lX-18. Mlnimumdesignof medianopenings(WB-12design vehicle.control radius of 23 m)

AASHTO-Ceometric Design of Highways and Streets

e At-Grade I nters ctions

ter speedand enablestrucksto maneuver and tum with lessencroachment. Figures IX-59 throughIX-61 showthesquared truncated or bulletnosedesign in with the l2 m minimumlength opening. conjunction of Provision longer of tapers notonly avoidsthis somewhat awkward-looking designbutalsoprovides forother important objectives as well. This topic is discussedfurther in the section "Above-Minimum Designsfor Direct Left Turns."

ro
t
I

o
t
I

I
I

o o o

Single-Unit Trucksor Buses

x

I I I I I I I I I I

FigureIX-60 showsminimum medianopeningdesigns a 90-degrees for intersection, basedon a controlradiusof l5 m. The basisof development, median

an{ a{e ends. lurni4gpaths shgw4 similattothosgof Flgurg IX.59,As irrdicated

in FigureIX-58, the control radiusof l5 m accommodates su designvehicle the making minimum left tums without encroachment adjacent on lanes.The paths of thewB- l2 andwB-15 design vehicles makingleft tumsbothoff andontothe dividedhighwayareshownin FigureIX-60 to indicate how these largevehicles can tum at an intersection designed the SU vehicles. for The WB-15 design vehicle would encroachabout I m beyond a7.2 m crossroad tumingoff thedivided in highway, butencroachmentcould reduced be by swinging wide at the beginningof the turn. In turning onto the divided highwayit would encroach about2 m on theadjacent lane,a distance could that but be reduced not eliminated swingingwide at thebeginning theturn;but, by of to do so,thelengtholopeningwouldhaveto be greater thanthe l2 m minimum. FigureIX-60 indicates minimumlengths medianopenings that of based a on eontrolradius l5 m aresuited truckoperation, of for excepr tharWB- l5 vehicles will encroach adjacent on lanes. these For cases additional advantage gained is bv usinga controlradius greater thanI -5 whereturnings WB- I 5 semitrailers m by are expected.

o o -g o o) ctl at, o

-1 tl

l/ I

!,

a
o) ,= c o
@

CL

o
.(!

o)

E
tl ll tl tl tl ll
ll ll ll ll

EI
I
!

ii

ttl 6 E

Semitrailer Combinations FigureIX-6 I showsminimum medianopeningdesigns a 9O-desrees tbr inrerwhich arebased a controlradius lJ m while FigureIX-62 is based section. on of on a control radiusof 30 m. The 23 m control rrdius is sutficienrlylargeto a c c o m m o d a ta W B - 1 2 d e s i g nv e h i c l ea n d t h e m i n i m u mp a t ho f t h e W B - 1 5 e , vehicleindicates that it can alsousethis designwithout undueencroachments. The leti turn to leave rhe divided highway can be mlde within a two-lane encroach the ad;acent on laneabout0.5 m. This encroachment be avoided can by swingingwide at the beginning the turn. of

I tt I ! tt

e l9
ri
,l

E
= c; x
q)

i
E il !t
I

tl tl ll ll tl ll

i$ t

o)

AASHTO-Ceometric Design of Highways and Streets

At -Grade I nter sec ti ons

E
5
(Y)

:
o It x

(\I

o
o ! (E

ilil itil
\\i
I I

; l-l

t
I

I d

I
I I

ilil
ovoltJorc 1c-\ \ri

o o () o o o o) .n o
I

l,li Ii

I I

)
I I

o e) o
6

!t 6

=
o CD tr c

E ol

(D -n
7

o c .E
E
d)

< = .-7:::;i=:=*ll

o o) c c o o. o
E q)

E o c .9
o 1t
6

E
l,rl

E
'll

.E
.= = c.i

',/2<

r, 'l
il EI

t\l tt It
I

tl tl tl tt tl tl tl tt ll tl tl ll ll

Irl ttt
tl

o c .9,
@

liri
!i:!

3ti
999

llll
; tiii
trll

x o

tlt
Y inn

' ril

,= =
@

.91 g-

x
o :

AASHTO--GeometricDesign of Highways ancl Streets

c At -Grade I n[erse I tons

Effect of Skew A c o n t r o l r a d i u s f o r d e s i g nv e h i c l e sa s t h e b a s i sf o r m i n i m u m d e s i g no f median openingsresultsin lengthsof openingsthat increasewith the skew ingie of rhe inrersection. Although the tullet nose end remainspreferable. t h es k e w i n r r o d u c e o t h e rv a r i a t i o n sn t h es h a p e f m e d i a ne n d .A t a s k e w e d s i o crosslngrt ls necessary usethecontrol radiusR in the acuteangleto locate to t h e P T o n t h e m e d i a ne d g e ,p o i n t ( l ) a s s h o w ni n F i g u r eI X - 6 3 . T h e a r c f o r t h i s r a d i u s i s t h e e q u i v a l e n t f t h e m i n i m u m i n n e r p a t h f o r t h e v e h i c l ei n o turning more than 90 degrees.with this pr as a design control, several alternatedesignsthat dependon the skew angle,median width, an<J control radius may be considered. channelizingcontrol for vehiclesmaking a left turn with lessthan90 degrees in the turning angle. A symmetricalbullet noseB with curvedsidesdetermined the control by radiusand rangentat points ( I ) and (2) is a layout similar to thosein Figures IX-59 through IX-62. This design also has little channelizingcontrol for vehicles rurning left less than 90 degreesfrom the divided highway, An asymmetrical bullet nose(c in FigureIX-63) with radii R and R, hasthe most positivecontrol and lesspavedareathandesigns and B. The second A radius R , , w h i c h e x c e e d s , i s t h a td e t e r m i n e do b e r a n g e n a t p o i n t ( 2 ) a n d a l s ot o R t t the crossroadcenterline.In this design the nose is offset from the median c e n t e rp a t h s . The length of the openingof thesealternates a given median width for de-ercases the order discussed, to D. For wide mediansand a largeskew the in A lengthof openingsmay not be sufficientto accommodate crossroad the and tlattened ends.or an above-minimum designmustbe used. with design endsB. C' or D. a t-lattened bullet nosetreatmenr adequate for lengthof openingwould be madeparallel thecrossroad, shownat thelowerleft,C-E,in FigureIX-63 to as tbr the lengthof openingL, In suchcases useof a controlradiuslareerthan the the minimum shouldbe considered T a b l c I X - 1 9. s h o w sy p i c a lv a l u e s b t a i n e d o r t h e m i n i m u m m e d r a n n d s t o f e d e s i g n e d i r h a c o n r r o l r a d i u so f l 5 m ( t h e s a m ea s i n F i g u r e I X - 6 0 ) t b r a w r a n g eo f s k e w a n g l e sa n d m e d i a nw i d t h s . L e n g t h so f o p e n i n g s , e a s u r e t l m normul to the crossroad, shownfor medianencls B, and c. as in Figure are A, I X - 6 3 . F o r a n y o n e m e d i a nw i d t h w i t h s e m i c i r c u l a e n d s a n d s k e w o f 2 0 r d e g r e e s n d 4 0 d e g r e e s t h e o p e n i n g s r e a b o u ro n e - t h i r da n d t w o - t h i r d s a , a l o n g e r , r e s p e c t i v e l y t h a n r h a t f o r a 9 0 - < t e g r e e r o s s i n g .L i k e w i . s e . h e , c t
r r . r r d r c d u ( r u ru n c a n o O n e - n a t li l m e s . a n d t o r a 4 0 _ d e g r e e s k e w a b o u t t w o . t i n r e s , t h e l e n g t h s f o r a 9 0 - d e g r e ec r o s s i n g .

I
I l'.
I
I

IR

(A Sgqlc!1culargnds in Flgure re5ulr verylongopenings minor in !X163) and

(effect skew). of openings of design median lx-63. Minimum Figure

AASHTMeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

At-GradeI ntersections

Length of Median OpeningMeasured N o r m a l t o t h e C r o s s r o a d( m )

-Skew Width of Angle Median (degrees) (m)

Semi. circular A 27
l4

Bullet Nme

Symmetrical Asymmetrical BC
I9 l2 l2 l2 l2 Min. Min. Min. Min. 24
lt

R for DesignC (m)

endsD and In of practicalaspecrs symmetrymay makeit preferable. somecases studies. in considered the altemate C-E may well be the design controls for minimum median For the precedingdiscussion are summarizedin Table IX-20. openingsfor left turns

3
6 9 t2 l5 l8 3 6 9 t2 l5 l8
JJO

(m) ControlRadius
Accommodated DesignVehicles Predominant Occasional

2l l8 I3 32 28 25
)l

t2
P SU

i5 SU wB-12

23 wB-12 wB-15

l8 l4

l4 l2 Min. l2 Min. l2 Min. 29 22 I8 l4 l2 Min. l2 Min. 34 27 23 l9 l5 t2 38

-)! !t

l6 l2 Min. l2 Min. 12Min. l2 Min. 'r1 20 l4 l2 Min. l2 Min. l2 Min.

)l AA

20 l9 t8 l8 29 28
26

TablelX-20.Designcontrolslor minimummedianopenings'

632 928 t2 15 18

24 20 16

25 23
zl

ABOVE.MINIMUM DESIGNS FOR DIRECT LEF*T TURNS and vehicles turnon minimumpaths, at l5 to 25 to that Medianopenings enable where traffic for the most part proceeds for km/h, are adequate intersections are andspeeds volumes Wherethrough-traffic the through intersection. straighr with interference through undue are movements important, highandleft-turning that openings permittumswithout median by be trafficshould avoided providing would enabletums to be This arrangement lanes. on encroachment acljacent for andprovidespace abovethal for lhe minimumvehiclepaths ar. nrade speeds pattemfbr minimum The general while turningor stopping. vehicleprorecrion designcan be usedwith largerdimensions. on that may arrangements beconsidered depend opening A varietyof median or (width of medianand width of crossroad street'or dimensions the control other)antlthe sizeof vehicleto be usedtor designcontrol' control radii and bullet nose lvtedianopeningshaving above-minimum are controls the threcrrdii tre shownin FigureIX-64. The design ends rncdian portionof thc turn' Rldius R is thecontrolradiustor thesharpcst R. R,. lntl R.. rhe R, del'incs rurnoffcurveat the medianedge,and R. is the radiusof the tip' tuming speedtor vchicles largeR, i.sused,an acceptable when e sufficiently and a sizablearel insidcthe inneredgeof is ensured leavingthe major road change points l) and(2) maybeavlilabletirrspeed t lanebctwecn rhrough-rrlffic R, vehicles. Radius may varv trom about15 ttl ll0 from turning lnd piotcction
or mote.

30

341 636 9
l') .

32
z3

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11

t7 l2 Min l2 Min

15 18 344 639 935 t2

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23 18

42 39 36 33 30 27 63 -58 5-3 42
-)o

35
lt

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1r

a-)

IU

19

I9 l5

2() l5 l2 Min. l2 Min.

TablelX-19. Effectof skewon minimum designfor medianopenings (typicalvalues basedon controlradius 15m). of
In general. medianopenings longerthan30 m shouldbe avoided. regardless of skew. This plan mav call tor specialchannelizarion. leti-rurn lanes,or adjustment reduce crossroad to the skew,all of which resultin above-minrmum designs. Preterably. each skew crossingshould be studied separately with rrial grlphical solurions a suitable on scaleto permitthedesigner makecomparito sonsandchoosethe prefenedlayout.In general. a.symmetrical the bullet nose end B i.+nor g+eatlyJifferenl.{rc'

nre tabulated v-alues shown. of ly-. of tbr tuming speeds 30. 40' and50 km/h. respective In thiscasetheease

AASHTO--GeometricDesign of Highwaysand Streets

tions At-Grode I nter.tec'

turxingprobablyis moresignificant thantheturningspeeds, because vehicle the will needto slowdown ro aboutI 5 to 25 km/h ar thesharp partof theturnor may needto stopat thecrossroad. Radius canvary considerably, is pleasing R" but in proportion appearance and whenit is abbutone-fifthof themedian width.Radius R is tangent rhecrossroad to (oredgeof crossroad centerline median). Radii R and R, comprise two-centered the curve between terminals the left tum. the of Forsimplicity, PCis established point(2).Radius cannor smailer the ar R be rhan the minimum conrrolradiusfor the designvehicle,or thesevehicleswiil Lre unableto tum to or from the intended laneevenat low speed. avoid a large To opening, shouldbeheldro a reasonable R minimum,e.g.,l5 m, asusedin Figure

where the median is too narrow to provide a lane for At intersections or vehiclesand the traffic volumesor speeds, both, are relatively' left-turning Vehiclesthat slow troublesome. high, safe,efficientoperationis particularly down or stop in a lane primarily usedby throughtraffic to tum left greatly for collision. the increase potential rear-end

tx-64.

The lengthof medianopeningis governed the radii. For medians by wider thanabout9 m coupledwith a crossroad fourer more lanesrthe of control radius R generallywill needto be greaterthan l5 m or rhe medianopeningwiil oe too short.A roundedvaluecan be chosenfor the lengthof opening, e.g., t s or g l m, andthatdimension be usedto locatethecenterfor R. Then R becomes can a check dimensionto ensurethe workability of the layout. The tabulationof varues in Figure IX-64 showsthe resurtant lengthsof median openingsover a rangeof medianwidthsforthree assumed valuesof R, and for R assumed be l5 m. to Dimensionb is includedas a general designcontrorand for comparison with otherabove-minimum desisns. The medianend designs Figure IX_64do not positivelyprovideprorec_ in t i o n a r e a s i t h i n t h el i m i t so f t h em e d i a nw i d t h .A d e s i g nu s i n gR , = 3 0 m w or more providesspace at leasta singlepassenger for vehicleto pause an area in clear of both the through-trafficlanes and the crossroadlanes;with wide m e d i a n ss u c h r a d i i r n a y p r o v i d ee n o u g hp r o t e c t i o n p a c ef o r l a r g e rd e s i g n s vehicle.s. skew intersections, At above-minirnum de.sign.s with bullet nose m e d i a ne n d sc a n b e a p p l i e d i r e c t r y w h e r e r h e . s k e ws t 0 d e g r e e s r m o r e . d . i o ad,iustments R and R, from the valuesshown are requiredto provide the in necessary lengthof opening.

ASUMEO t-l5m . /5

INDIRECT LEFT'TURNS AND INDIRECTU-TURNS GeneralDesign Considerations

Dividedhighways require median openings provideaccess to forcrossing rraffic dcai with the variousdesign methodsthat accommodate thesemovements predicttedon medianw i d r h .

Figure lX-64. Aboveminimum (typicalbulletnoseends).

AASHTO--4jeometric Design of Highways and Streets

At-Grade I nlersections

h e r f a c t o r s t h a t r e q u i r es p e c i a ld e s i g nc o n s i d e r a t i o n so r l e f t - a n d f U - t u r n i n gm o v e m e n t s r e t h e r e q u i r e d u r n i n gp a t h so f t h e v a r i o u sd e s i g n a t v e h i c l e si n c o n j u n c t i o nw i t h n a r r o wm e d i a n sT h e n e c e s s i t yo t u r n l e f t o r . t u - t u r n i n t h e u r b a no r h e a v i l yd e v e l o p e d e s i d e n t i ao r c o m m e r c i a l e c t o r s r l s a l s o p r e s e n t s e r i o u sp r o b l e m sw i t h r e s p e c t o s a f e t ya n d e f f i c i e n t o p e r a s tlon. The design plans shown in FiguresIX-65 and iX-66 offer several o p t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c tt o i n d i r e c r l e f r t u r n s a n d a l s o p r o v i d e f o r i n d i r e c t . U - t u r n i n gm o v e m e n t sF i g u r eI X - 6 5 i n v o l v e s j u g - h a n d l e - t y pre m p o r a a d i a g o n a lr o a d w a y t h a t i n t e r s e c t s s e c o n d a r y r o s s i n gr o a d w a y .T h e m o a c t o r i s t e x i t s v i a t h e j u g - h a n d l e - t y p er a m p , m a k e s a l e f t t u r n o n t o t h e c r o s s r o a da n d t h e nm a k e sa l e f r t u r n o n r ot h ed i v i d e dh i g h w a yt o c o m p l e t e , l e f t - t u r no r U - t u r n i n g m a n e u v e r . Figure IX-66 showsan at-gradeloop that can serveas an alternateto the j u g - h a n d l e - t y p er a m p . T h e l o o p d e s i g n m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e dw h e n t h e j u g - h a n d l e - t y p ea m p sn e c e s s i r a tc o s t l y r i g h t - o f - w a y , h e o p p o s i t e u a d r e q t r a n t b e i n g l e s sc o s t l y .T h e r e m i g h t b e o t h e rj u s t i f i c a t i o n si n s e l e c t i n g h e t l o o p i n s t e a d f t h e r a m p ,s u c ha si m p r o v e dv e r t i c a la l i n e m e n a n dc o m p a r a o t t i v e g r a d i n gc o s t s . A n a d d i t i o n a la d v a n t a g e f t h e l o o p o c c u r sw h e r et h e i n t e r s e c t i n g o a d o r i s o n o n e s i d e o f t h e d i v i d e d h i g h w a y .T h e a c c o m m o d a t i o no r a n i n d i r e c t f l e f t t u r no r i n d i r e c t - t u r nc o u l db e a c c o m p l i s h ei d p l a c i n g h el o o po n t h e U n t g t s i d eo p p o s i t e h e i n t e r s e c t i nr o a d w a y . F i g u r el X - 6 7 i l l u s t r a t e s d e s i g nt h a tp r o v i c l e f b r i n d i r e c tl e f t t u r n st o b e a s n t a d e r o m t h e r i g h t ,v i a s e p a r a tte r n i n gr o a d w a y s o n n e c t e do x c r o s s r o a d . f u c t S l e h a r r i r n g e m e n th a v e t h e a d v a n t a g e f e l i r n i n a t i n ge i i t u l n s l r o m t h e s o l t h r o u g hl a n e s n dp r o v i d i n gs t o r a g eo r l e f t - t u r n i n g e h i c l c s o t a v a i l a b l c :r r a f v n o t h e h i g h r v a y t s e l f .T h e l e f t - t u r n i n g e h i c l e s v i t hl i t r l e e x r r ar r a v e ld i s r a n c e i v r a r e a b l e t o c r o s st h e m a i n h i g h w a ys a f ' e l y i t h a p p r o p r i a t er a f f i c c o n r r o l w t t i e v i c e sF i g u r eI X - 6 7 i l l u s t r a t ets r e ed e s i g n p t i o n s h l t m i g h t b e a d a p t a b l e . h o t p . t o v a r i o u s o a d w a y a t t e r n sT h e t u r n f r o m b o r t o n t o l e f t i s a c c o r n p l i s h ev i a r d { h c a d d e dl e f t - t u r ns l i p r a n r pa t t h c l o w c r r i g h t ( s i m i l t r t o p r c r . i o u s i s c u s d s i r t n s )I.' h i s a r r ; t n g e m c n t c r n t i t ss a f c l c f t t u r n so l l t ( )t h c n r i n r l rr o a t l u n d e r p s i g n a l[ ) r o t c c t i o nn d p r e v c n t s l r s m l k i n g l e f t t u r n s f r o r n b l < l c k i n g trafl'ic l c t h c l a n c a d j a c c n t o t h c m c d i a n s W h c r c t h c r ci s a p a r l l l e l r o a d w a vn e a r b y , . t h c l d d c d r a n l pl n i l v c o n n c c t o i t , u s s h o r , , nn t h c u p p e rl e f t o r a l t c r n a t e l y s i a b s h o w ' n v t h c t i a s h c t l - l i nc o n n c c t i o nl.{ o w e v e r . h i s d c s i g ni s l c ' s sl c s i r a b l c t t l ' r c c l t t r slc cv c h i c l c sm u s tp a s st h r o u g h h ec r o s s r o l t l n t c r s c c t i o e n dc r c a t e t r t i n d c l l . v "b v r c d u c i n gs p e e d n t u r n i n gr i e h r .T h i s p r o b l c n r i g h t b e o v c r c o m e s i m

rampwith crossroad' FigurelX-65. Jug-handle-type

loop)with crossroad' toop(surface FigurelX-66. At-grade

AASHTO--{|eometric Desisinof Highways and Street.s

At-Grade I nter sections

Indirect Left Turn or Indirect U-Turn-Using Local Streets

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t Highwayswirhoutcontrol of access hat involve narrownontraversable e o t , J d i u n , a n dw h e r et h e a d j a c e np r o p e r t y w n e r s n t e rt h ed i v i d e dh i g h w a y of w t t b y r i g h t t u r n o n l y m u s tg a i n a c c e s so t h e o p p o s i t e r a v e l e d a y b y o n e i s t o u s et h e i n t e r c o n a t t i r e et y p e so f o p e r a t i o n n d c o n t r o l .T h e f i r s t o p t i o n turn. m r T r n e c t i n gs r r e e p a t r e r n s . h i s o p e r a t i o n e q u i r e s a k i n gt h ei n i t i a l r i g h t to the median p r o . . . d i n g b y c o n t i n u o u sr i g h t i u r n s a r o u n d t h e b l o c k left. , o p e n i n g t h a t s e r v i c e st h e s e c o n d a r yc r o s s r o a d sa n d t h e n t u r n i n g prevail for the t variations of access o the divided highway would also p r o p e r t y o w n e r s o n t h e a d j a c e n ts t r e e t p a t t e r n s 'H o w e v e r ' t h e to w a r o u n d - t h e - b l o cp r i n c i p l ew o u l d s t i l l c o n t r o l m o v e m e n t s i t h r e s p e c k careful oprion would rcqu1re iiit unA returrririps.The around-the-5loCk e o f e x i s t i n gt u r n i n gr a d i i t o a c c o m m o d a t S U v e h i c l e sa n d t h e examination r h a tm a y b e r e q u i r e dt o u s et h i s m e t h o do f i n d i r e c tl e f t t u r n s wB vehicles with o r i n d i r e c t U - t u r n s .T h i s s y s t e m r e q u i r e sc a r e f u l d e s i g n a t t e n t i o n s p r e s p e c t o r e s r r i c t i v e a r k i n g ,r e g u l a t o r y i g n s ,a n d s i g n a lc o n t r o l d e v i c e s i n t h e p r o x i m i t y o f e a c hi n t e r s e c t t o n . , T h e s e c o n da l t e r n a t i v ew h i c h w o u l d o n l y b e n e f i tt h e p r o p e r t yo w n e r s the a b u t t i n g t h e d i v i d e d h i g h w a y . i s t o p r o v i d e m e d i a n o p e n i n g sf o r T h i s o p t i o n w o u l d d e f e a ta m a j o r p u r p o s eo f t h e individualproperties. m e d i a na n d w o u l d l e a c it o c o m p l e t ee r o s i o no f t h i s c o n t r o l f e a t u r e . a T h e a r o u n d - t h e - b l o c k l t e r n a t i v ei s n o t a l w a y s f e a s i b l e le s p e c i a l l v w h e r e r a d i a l r o u t e st r a v e r s ea r e a st h a t a r e o n l y p a r t i a l l y d e v e l o p e da n d no r . p w h e r et h e r ei s n o e s t a b l i s h e d a t t e r no f a d j a c e n t o a d w a y so t ' t e nw i t h p a r a l l e lt o t h e t h r o u g hh i g h w a y .E v e n r o e x i s t i n gr o a c l s r s t r e e t s u n n i n g t r w h e r ef h e r ei s a s u i t a b l en e t w o r ko f a d j a c e n t o a d w a v st,h e a d v e r s e r a v e l a t p a s s i n g h r o u g hf o u r i n t e r s e c t i o n sn t l y T i s o b j e c t i o n a b l e .h e n e c e s s i t o f t a s m u c h o f a h i n d r a n c eo t h e i r e e t l o $ t h e l e f t t u r n t o t h e a r t e r i a lm i g h t b e of traffic asa left turn might be. d p i T h e t h i r t j a l t e r n a t i v es u s et t f t h ed e s i g np r i n c i p l e s r e v i o u s l y e s c r i b e t j t o j u g - h e n d l c - t y pre m p s r : l l - 8 r i l ( lic t t e r s c c t i r t ! a w l t h r e s p e ctto c o n s r r u c t i n g loops. J r i d F r o m t h e p r e c e d i n g i s c u s s i o nt i s a p p a r e ntth u t w h c r e v e p o s s l D l e ' r h a v e a r n t : d i a n v i d t ht h a t c a n n e w l y d e s i g n e rtli i v i d e dh i g h w l v s h o u l d lane U n a c c o m m t t d l t e o r m a ll e f t t u r n sa n t J - t u r n sb y u s i n gI m e d i a ns t o r a g e tru r n i n gv o l u m c ' l t h a t w i t l p r o t e c t n d s t t l r et h e d e s i g n - h o u

lrl ill
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highwaywlth n.rrow median.

AASHTO--4]eometric Design of Highu,altsand Streets

At -Grade I ntersections

Indirect Left Turn or Indirecl U-Turn-Wide Medians FigureIX-68 illustrates indirect turn for two anerials an left whereleft turnsare heavyon both roads.The north-south roadwayis undivided and the easr-wesr roadwavis dividedwith a wide median. Because tums from thenorth-south left road would cause congestion because the lack of storage, tums from the of left nonh-south roadareprohibited themainintersection. at Left-tuming trafficturns right onto the divided road and then makesa U-tum at a one-waycrossover Iocated themedian thedividedroad.Auxiliary lanes highlydesirable in of are on eachsideof the medianbetwee thecrossovers storage turningvehicles. n for of The crossover shouldbe 100to 200 m awayfrom theintersection allow the to left-tum traffic to a the on Tltis scheme lpploagt' intersecrion a greensfg44l. provides slightinireisJ in capuiityat very little cost with no additional a capacity acquisitionof right-of'-way. The maindisadvantage thattheIeft-tumtraffic has is to pass through the same intersection twice. This maneuveralso may be confusingto motorisrsunfamiliarwith the designand thus requiresspecial signing. Specialleft-turnconsiderations may also be requiredat major crossroads, particularly isolated at intersections suburban in areas, whereoneor moreof the lefi-tumingmovements so largethattheycannot handled theconvenare be by tional medianlanesand whererhereis insufficient width to installtwo median lanes.In suchinstances. jug-handle-type the rampor the at-grade loop pattern thatprovitles exit or entrance an rampin two of thecrossing quadrants would be required.

Location and Designof U-Turn j\ledian Openings vehicles makingU-tumsonly are to designed accommodate Medianopenings and provided cross for in to dividedhighways addition openings needed some on may fit at thefollowU-tum median openings Separate movements. left-turning ing locations: m t L o c a t i o n sb e y o n d i n t e r s e c t i o n so a c c o m m o d a t e i n o r t u r n l n g o n m o v e m e n t s o t o t h e r w i s ep r o v i d e d i n t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n r i n t e r areais kept free for the imporchangearea.The major intersection r e o t a n t t u r n i n gm o v e m e n t si.n s o m ec a s e s b v i a t i n g x p e n s i v e a m p s or addirional slructures.2 . Locationsjust ahead of an intersectionto accommodateU-turn movementsthat would interfere with through and other turning Where a fairly wide median on the at movements the intersection. t a p p r o a c hh i g h w a y h a s f e w o p e n i n g s ,U - t u r n i n g i s n e c e s s a r yo openingsto accommodate reachroadsideareas.Advanceseparate proper will reduceinterference. them outsidethe intersection wheretraffic with minorcrossroads occuningin conjunction 3. Locations to is to is not permitted crossthe major highwaybut instead required weaveto the left, U-turn. turn right,enterthe throuehtraffic stream. a s or e . t h e nr e t u r nO n h i g h - s p e e d h i g h - v o l u mh i g h w a y t h ed i f f i c u l t y n d makethisdesign with sat'ety usually for required rveaving longlengths are unle.ss volumesintercepted light and the the patternundesirable u'idth. This condition may occur where a median is of adequate area.or other traffic with high voiumetraffic, a shopping crossroacl gencrator requires nicdian and nearby additionllmediln a opening that rvouldnot be practical. openings .1. Locations facilitate mainopenings spaced occurringwhereregularly vehicles. other or policing, of repairservice stallcd operations, tenrnce tln mavbc neericd tbr Openings thispurposc lv-rclatedactivities. highw u s l n t l r l nd i vi d c dh i g h *l y s t h r o u g h n t i c v c l hi ss c r r n t r o l l c r . l - a c c eg h w l r r opcdarclts. *heri' w < L o c l t i o n so c c u r r i n g l nh i q h w a v ' s i t h o u t c o n l r o ls f 3 c c c 5 5 t p r o v i t l c d o s c r v cc \ l s t l n g l l r n c d i l no p e n i n g st o p t i m u ms p a c i n gr e t n f r o n t l g et l c v e l o p m e n tl s d a t r h e s a m et i r n c r n i n i m i z cp r c s s u r ei r r ll00 nt ts s t i u t u r e m c d i o n o p e n i n g s . . \ p r c f ' c n e d p a c i n r a t ' 1 ( X )t o n F s u i r l b l ei n r n o s ti n s r a n c e s .i x c d s p a c i n gi s n o t n e c e s s c r v .o r i s i t L
requlrcmcnls

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Figure lX-68. Indirect left turn through a crossover.

776

AAS p HTO--G eometric D e,si n

s and Streets

rade Intersections

777

one requirement a satisfactory for designfor a u-tum is thatthe width of the highway, including the median,be sufficientto permit the turn to be made withoutencroachment beyondtheouteredges rhetraveled of ways.Desirably, the median should be wide enoughto permit rhe turn to be accomplished from the lanenext to the medianontothelanenearest shoulder the roadwayof the on opposingtraffic. Medians of 6.0 m and wider are neededfor passenger and truck traffic, to permitvehicles turn from the innerlane(nextto the median) one roadway to on to the outer lane of a two-laneopposing roadway.A medianleft-turnlane is highly desirable advance the U-turnopeningto eliminatestopping the in of on through lanes. This scheme would increasethe required median width by approximately m. 3.6 de mediansareuncommonin highly developed sectors. Consequently, it is necessaryto consider u-turn designs of a lower standard.where right-of-way is restricted,speedsare low, and signal control is used to provide sufficient gapsin the traffic stream,medians3.0 to 4.5 m wide may be usedfor U-turn openings. This designpermitspassenger vehiclesto turn from the inner lane to the shoulder a four-lanedivided highway and from on the inner to the outer lane on a six-lane facility. preferably,openingsfor U-turnsshouldbe Iocatedin advance ofan intersecting roador street,at least 30 m fiom the median end, to keep the entranceonto the U-turn free of vehiclesstoppedby traffic signals. Normally, u-turns shouldnot be permittedfrom the throughlanes.However, where medianshave adequate width to shielda vehiclestandingin thr: m e d i a n p e n i n g i t m a y b e p e r m i s s i b l e . i n i m u m w i d t h so f m e d i a nr e q u i r e d o , M for U-turnsby differentdesignvehiclesturningfrom the lane adjacent the io medianaregivenin FigureIX-69.These dimensions for a four-lane are divided facility.

specialU-tum designswith narrow medians'In Figure IX-70 illustrates loops ngure tx-loA the u-tuming vehicleswingsright from the outer lane, gap in the clearof the dividedhighwayuntil a suitable aroundto rheleft, srops traffic stream develops,and then makes a normal left turn onto the divided of the on highway.In FigureIX-708 the u-turningvehiclebegins theinnerlane left, and to loopsaround the lanes, the crosses through-traffic dividedhighway, on from stopping throughlanes, with the traffic.To detervehicles merges then capacityshouldbe providedto accommodate a left-turnlanewith properstorage turningvehicles.

Nr
+

FigurelX-69. Minimum deslgnsfor U-turns.

FigurelX-70. SpecialindirectU-turnwith narrowmedlans'

AASHTHeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

At-Grade I ntersections

CONTINUOUS LEFT-TURNLANES (TWO-WAY)

T h e f o r e g o i n g d i s c u s s i o no f d e s i g n f o r i n d i r e c t l e f t t u r n s a n d i n d i r e c t U - t u r n s b r i n g s i n t o f o c u s t h e d i f f i c u l t i e si n v o l v e d i n p r o v i d i n g a c c e s s to a b u t t i n gp r o p e r t y ,e s p e c i a l r y h e r es u c ha c c e s ss b y c o m m e r c i a v e h i c r e s . w i l T h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r e v e r y c o m m o n i n c o m m e r c i a la n d i n d u s t r i a la r e a s w h e r e p r o p e r t y v a l u e s a r e h i g h a n d r i g h t s - o f - w a yf o r w i d e m e d i a n s are d i f f i c u l t t o a c q u i r e ' U n d e r s u c h c o n d i t i o n s ,a p a v e d . f l u s h , t r a v e r s a b l e m e d i a n3 . 0 t o 4 . 8 m w i d e , w h i c h c a n b e u s e df o r l e f t - t u r ns r o r a s e v t r a f f i c b i n e i t h e rd i r e c t i o n ,i s t h e o p t i m u m t y p e o f d e s i g n .F i g u r eI X - 7 - l i l l u s r r a t e s t w o k i n d s o f t y p i c a l m u l t i r a n er w o - w a y m a r k i n g a p p l i c a t i o n sw h i c h , are v e r y e f f e c t i v ei n s e c t o r s e q u i r i n go p p o s i n gr e f t t u r n s t o i n d i v i d u a l p r o p r , e r t i e s . n g e n e r a l c o n t i n u o u se f t - t u r nl a n e s h o u l db e u s e do n l y i n a n u r b a n I l s s e t t i n gw h e r e o p e r a t i n gs p e e d s r e r e l a t i v e l yl o w a n d w h e r e t h e r ea r e n o a m o r e t h a nt w o t h r o u g hl a n e si n e a c hd i r e c t i o n .T h e o p e r a t i o n ac h a r a c t e r _ l istics of left turning lanes with more than two through lanes in each d i r e c t i o ni s t h e s u b j e c to f o n g o i n gr e s e a r c h n d c a u t i o ni s r e c o m m e n d e d t a a t h i st i m e w h e nc o n s i d e r i n g o r et h a na f i v e - l a n e r o s ss e c t i o n T h i s s u b i e c t m c . i s d i s c u s s e dn C h a p r e rI V a n d i n t h e M U T C D { 5 ) . i

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AUXILIARYI.ANES General Design Considerations

Fmrnthc tbregoing discussions is appropriate dealwith theclcsign it to clerncnts of auxiliary lanes theyrelate median as to openin-es lcft-tumir.,g and ,r.,,ru.,r..,.n,r. In generul. auxiliarylanes usedpreceding openings describecl this are the as in section and arealso usedat at-grade intersections preceding tbllowingright ancl tumlngmovenlents accommodate to speed changes. weaving maneuvering and of tr.f'fic. ."\uxiliarvlanes may alsr.l added t. incrcusc be clpacirv throughurr intcrscction.

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FigurelX-71. Multilaneand two-lanemarkings.

AASHTO--ljeometric.Design of Hi,qhu,ay,s Streer.s and A u x i r i a r yl a n e s h o u r d e a t r e a s3 m w i d e s b t a n dd e s i r a b r s h o u r d q u a lt h a t y e oithe through anew,ere curbings to r ' i b e u s e d d j a c e nrto t h ea u x i r i a r y a n e , a l a na p p r o p r i a tc u r bo f f s e r h o u r d ep r o v i d e d . e s b T h ei e n g t h f t h ea u x i r i a r y a n e s o r f o r t u r n i n gv e h i c r e s o n s i s t s f t h r e ec o m p o n e n r s : c o ( r ) d e c e r e r a t i orn n g t h 2 ) e ( storage length,and (3) enteringtaper. D e s i r a b l y t h e t o t a l l e n g t ho f r h ea u x i l i a r y . l a n es h o u l db e t h e s u m o f t h e Iengthfor thesethreecomponents. Commonpractice, however,is to accepta m o d e r a t e m o u n to f d e c e r e r a t i o ni t h i n a w t h et h r o u g h a n e s n d t o c o n s i d e t h e I a r raper as a part of decereration rength. where intersections occur as ,the frequently every 400 meters. is customari/ as it to foregomostof the decelera_ tion lengthand to provideonry the storage length prustaper.Eachcomponent of the auxiliary length is discussed ln ttt"e fottowing ,..iion.

At-Grade I ntersections

Deceleration Length Provision for decereration crear of the through-trafficlane.s is a desirable objective on arteriarroads and streets and should be incorporatedinto design wheneverfeasible.The totar. length requiredis that neededfor a safe and comfortable 'stop from thedesign speea oi'the highway.Minimum deceleratron lengths auxiriarylanes grades fbr on of 2 percent ress, or with an accompanying stopcondition'fbr designspeeds 50, of 60, and g0 kmlr are70, 100.and lJ0 rn, respectively. Theselengths exclude.the len-eth tapcrwhich shourdbe appr.xir.natery of ri to l-5rn longitudinatyto r nr transverrery. Long tapers intiicate pathdrivcrs the

lanes. The storage lengthshouldbe sufficiently long so thattheentrance rhe ro auxiliarylaneis not blocked vehicles by sranding rhethrough in lanes waitingfor a signalchange for a gap in the opposing or traffic flow. At unsignalized intersections storage the length,exclusive taper,may be of b a s e d n t h en u m b e o f t u m i n gv e h i c l els k e l yt o a r r i v e n a na v e r a g t w o - m i n u r e r o i i e periodwithin thepeakhour.As a minimumrequirement, space at leasttwo for passenger shouldbe provided: cars wirhover I 0 percent trucktraffic,provisions shouldbe madefor at leastonecar andonetruck.The two-minute waitingtime may need to be changedto some orher inrervalthat depends largely on the opportunities completingthe lefi-turnmaneuver. for Theseintervals, turn. in dependon the volume of opposingtraffic. where the volume of tuming traffic is high, a traffic signalwill usuallybe required. At signalizedintersections therequiredstorage lengthdepend-ontht sig-al cycle length, the signal phasing arrangement, and the rate of arrivals and departuresof left-turning vehicles.The storage length is a function of the probability of occurrenceof eventsand should usualty be basedon one and one-halfto rwo times the average numberof vehiclesthat would storeper cycle, which is predicated thedesignvolume. on This lengthwill be sufficient serve ro heavy surgesthat occur from time to time. As in the caseof unsignalized intersections, provisionshouldbe madefor storingat leasttwo vehicles. Traffic signaldesignfundamentals discussed are furrherin MUTCD (5). where turninglanes designed two-lane are for operation, storage the length is reduced approximately to one-half thatrequired single-lane of for operarion. Ref'erence shouldbe made to the Higlrn,rl CapacitvManuat (2\. y

sltorter tapers protluce bette.r'.tar_cets'. tbr apprrtaching clrivcrs give positive and v i s i b i t i t y t ' t h ea d d e da u x i l i a r v a n e . o l on many urban faciritiesii rvi, n.r be l'e.sibre providetirlr rengrhtbr ro decclerrrtion. .such In ca^ses reast pan of the deccreration at a nrustbe acc.rnpli.shed befbre entering au.riliary the lanc.However. lenqrlrs thc siven shoul(lhc 'rccepteasa dcsirable d goarandshourrr pr.vidcrrwhcrc be p'rcricar.ntr f.casrbrc. Decclcratitln lcngthssh.wn areapplicablc borh rr lcfr. a'rl '.igt,-,,,,.,',i,rg t"n"r. b u t s p c e d s u s u a l l yl o w e ri n t h c r i c h t l a n c i t h u nt n t h c l c l . tl i l l t c .

s dportion e ;=i::i::j':'j:i some: :: ii: :l : intorhe tr" "'u'l* "; ;;;;': ;;;* ",;" :: "i rhrough tjri'crs tjccel...,in,., r,,n...-cj; il;,,,;il;,i ::::.,::::':1.

Taper on high-speed highways taper the oian auxiliarylaneshould generally contbrnr to thatdiscussed under"RampTerminals" thesection "Speed-Change in Lanes" in chaptcr X. However.on mosrurbanstreets approaching at-gracle inrersectlons,shorter tspers satistactorv erc because lower operrtingspeed.s. of SonteStltespennit the tapered section decelerarign of auxililrrylancst9 t'c c o n s t r u c t eid a " s q u r r e d - o f f 's e c r i o n r t u l l p a v i n g w i d t h a n d d e p r h .T h i s n a construction requires painted a delinearion thetaperand is only applicablc of ro noncurbed sections. The design rcquircstransitionof tire outcr or nrcdiun shoulders aroundthe squared-oif beginning the decclc*rrion of llnc. The squared-off design principle beapplied rnedian can to decelrrltionlanes. and it can llso bc usedat the beginning deceleration of risht-turn e.ritterminals "Speetl-changc designs discusscd thesection in Lanes"in Chapter is rccornX mended.

S t o r a g eL e n g t h T h e l u x i l i a r y l a n es h o u l t lb c , u f f i c i c n r l v s
,,^rry rr, .rLcunruliue dunng!-t criticlrl ;nritfi. Thc skrrilr:clcnttlr shtlulrl bc s u f l l c i c n tt o a v . i d r h e p o s s i b i r i t v f r e r i - t u r n i n g o v e h i c r c ss r o p p i n gi n t h c r h r . u r : '

AASHTO-Ceometric Design of Highwaysand Streets

A t -Grade I ntersections

Additional guidance for lengthsof tapersmay be found in theManual of Uniform Traffic contror Dev'ices(5) which recommendsthe foilowing for designspeeds equarto or grearer than70 km/h: lengthof taper(L) equars of 0.6 the designspeed murtipried theoffset(w). L: 0.6sw. (S) by For design speeds equal to or less than 60 km/h: the lengthof taper (L) equals the offset (W) multipliedby thedesign (S) speed squared, thendivideduy i ss, or L = wS?/l 55. SomeStatehighwayagencies berieve rharrheabruptsquared-off beginning of deceleration exitsoffers improveddriver commitment theexit maneuver io and alsocontributes driver security to and safetybecause the elimination of of the unusedportion of long tapers. For example,a l5:l taperratio is recommendedfor designspeeds to g0 km/h.If rheauxiliarytane up is 3.0 m wide,rhe taper length would be 55 m. This approachsectioncould be 3.6 m wide an6 .olstructed fof irs-fullle4gth.The painteddelineationtaper could be 12 ft wide and constructed for its full length. The painted delineation tapr could be estabrished a 4: l ratio that wourdproducea stripeapproximateiy on l5 m long. This design principle courd be appriedto a, declreraiion aesrgn speedsarid shouldoperate with relatively quickexit maneuvers thefull-widthlaneunder to low designspeeds and still providefor the longerexit maneuvers the higher at designspeeds. The longitudinal location alongthehighway, wherea vehiclewill movefrom the throughraneto a furt-widthdecereration lane,will vary depending many on fhctors. Thesefactorsincludethe type of vehicle, driving characterisrics the of the vehicleoperator, speed the vehicre, the of wearher conditions, and righting conditions. This designprincipre courdarsoimprovecapacity oft'ering earryexit to by an thc'dailv usersthat would diminish slow-down interference to the throuuh ntovcnlcnts. Thediscussitlns tbllow andtigureret-erences notrelate the"sauarecl-of' to rjo to f design.secrion. However, design the principres described thepreceding be in can applied. Straight-rinc tapers fiequentry are usetr, shownin FigureIX_72A. as Thetaoer r l r c l n l v b e t J : l t i l r t l e s i g n p e e d u p r o 5 0 k m / ha n d t 5 : t t b r d e s i g n s s s p e e do t . s lJ() km/h' A shortcurveis desirable eitherend.asshownin FisureIX-728. but at ttravbe omittedlirr cascof construction. Wherecuryesareusedat thc ends.thc t a n { c n ts e c t i c ls h o u l db e a b o u t n e - t h i r do o n e - h a lo i t h er o t a l e n c t h . n o t f Figure IX-7lC shtlwsa taperwith a svmmetrical reverse curye:u lengthof abourJ0 rn ()r lll()rcis appropriate. lt>w At speeds. taper(2) will opcratc desiretl taper as and 1I ) probablywill not.A moredesirable reverse.curye taperhasthetumoff curvc r a t l i u s b o u t w i c et h a to f t h es e c o n c u r v el F i g u r e X _ 7 : D ) .w h e n a r d I l g m ( ) rm o r e
r n c ( l l l n c n s l o n sa n d c o n t r g u r a t l o n ss h o w n in Figure IX-72 are applicable ro r i g h t - t u r n l a n e sa s w c l l a s l e l ' t - t u ml a n c s .

MedianLeft-Turn Lanes A medianleft-tum lane is an auxiliary lane for storage speedchangeof or left-turningvehicleslocatedat the left of one-directional roadwaywithin a medianor divisionalisland.Accidentpotential, inconvenience, considerand ablelossin efficiencv operation evidenr dividedhighways of are wheresuch on lanes not provided. are IVledian lanes. therefore. shouldbe provided intersecat wherethereis a highvolumeof left tumsor tionsandat othermedianopenings wherethevehicular speeds high.Minimum designs median are openings of are I s h o w no n F i g u r e s X - 5 9 t h r o u g hI X - 6 3 a n d i n T a b l e s X - 1 6 t h r o u g hI X - 1 8 . I for Medianlanedesigns variouswidthsof medianareshownin FiguresIX-73 and IX-74. Ivledianwldths ot' 6 m oa mdre are de.jirableaf intErsEcions*ith single medianlanes, widthsof 4.8 to 5.4 m permitreasonably but arrangeadequate ments.Wheretwo medianlanesare used,a medianwidrh of at least8.4 m is desirable permit the installation two 3.6 m lanesand a 1.2m separator. to of Althoughnot equalin width to a normaltraveled lane,a 3.0m lanewith a 0.6 m curbedseparator with traffic buttonsor paint lines,or borh,separating or the medianlanefrom theopposingthroughlanemay be acceptable wherespeeds are low and the intersection controlled traffic signals. is by FigureIX-73A showsa minimumdesign a median for left-tumlanewithin a rnedian to 4.ttrn wide.A curbed 4.2 dividerwidth of L2 m is recommended and t h em e d i a n e f t - t u ml a n es h o u l db e 3 . 0 t o 3 . 6 m w i d e .F i g u r e X - 7 3 B s h o w sa l I t y p i c a m e d i a ne f t - t u r n e s i g n i t h i na m e d i a n i d r ho f . 1 . lti o - 5 . 4 . T h e o n l y l l d w w m change thisdesign in fionr thedesign FlgureIX.73A is a 0.-5 minimumoft.set in nr to the appr()xch nose.FigureIX-7-l illustrates ntoreliberalrnedian a left-turn wiilth of 5.-lm or more.On thesc designwithin u mcdiarr nredians elongatecl the tapcrs For ntavbedrsirablc. nredians,5..1 nt rvide more,Illush, or color-contrasted dividcr is rccorrrnerrticd delineatc areabenvecn turninglaneand.the to the thc adjlcentthroughlcne in the samedirection travel. clf Pavernent mlrkings.contrasting pavement texture, signs antlphvsical sepanltorsntavbe usedto discouraqc through thc driver fronrint(lvertcntlv cnterinS
thc rvrong Ilnt'.

l - c t i t u r n i n gv c h i c l c s e a v ct h c t h r o u g h a n e s o e n t c rt h c r n c d i a n u n c sr r r l l l t s i n g l ct ' i l c ,h u t o r r c cw i t h i n i t . s t o r ei n t * t l l a n e s n d . t t n r c c c i v i n g h c g r c c n l t i n d i c a t i o rtr , n ts i n r u l t a n e o u s rv r n o t hl a n e sW i t ht h r c c - p h a s cg n ac o n t r o l . u fl o b i l . suchln arrilngcnlcnt rcsultsin ln increesr' cliucitv oi apprr.lxirnutclr in l3(l p c r c c n t t ' t h r r to t ' a s i r r g l e c d i r n l a n e .O c c l s i o n a l l r 't.h c r cl r c o p e r e t i o n a l o m problerns ;'r rcsult ol' the two-lbrcast turns, cspeciellr thc ls ents tlf
f!t+51v1pf..1ceicLy11.5-!he5glusu:rl|.r-r,es+ltJront too slaFl]a ruming nrrJiu,r'rr:r roadw'n thirr is torl nlrrrow. Thc rc'ceiring lcg rlf thc intc.rscctitln must havc J(lc(lu:ltcwitlth to uccomrntldatc'tw'o lancs of turnin{ tr:rl'fic..'\ witlth rtit) nr is

AASHTA--CeometricDesign of Highways and Streers

At-Grade I ntersections

IAPER MTE 6:l TO

STRAIGHIUNE IAPER

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rAsYA{rr4ErRtOAl TEVEiSI CUTVE

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OIMNSIONS

FigurelX-72. Taperdesignfor auxiliarylanes.

AASHTA--Ceometri('Design of Highw,ays and Street.s

At-Grade lnterser'!

u s e d y s e v e r a l i g h w a y ' a g e n c i Ds .u b r eu r n i n g b h eo t r a n e s h o u r d n r yb eu s e d i t h o w s r g n a l i z a t i o n o v i d i n g s e p a r a tte r n i n g h a s e . pr a p u

Iledian End Treatment The form of treatment given rheendof rhenarrowedmedian adjacent ranes to of opposing traffic dependsrarger-v- the on availabrewidth. The narrowed m e d i a nm a y b e c u r b e dt o d e l i n e a t eh e l a n e t edge,to separate pposing o movements,to provide space for necessary signs. markers, an,J iigf,,ing standards and to protect pedestrian.s. a discus.slon ..ramped For on down,, approachends used for curbedmedians, ref'erto the sectionin tiris chapter rrqPrsr relatingto approach-end tre41me4q serLethese To purposes satisfactorily; the

| '8 to 2.4 m wide. Thesedimensions can be provided within a m e d i a n4 . 8 t o 5 . 4 m w i d e a n d a t u r n i n gl a n e w i d t ho f 3 . 6 m .

mlnimum nanotadil;alji*,otr, oi"o r.lr,r,on1.2 is recommended m and is pref'erably

F o r m e d i a n s i d e rt h a na b o u r 5 . -m a ss h o w ni n F i s u r eI x - 7l . i t i s w l usualll. p r e f e r a b l t o a l i - e nh e l e f t - t u r n a n ei n a m a n n e r h a tw i l l r e < i u c e e t l t t h ew i d t h o f t h ed i v i d e rt o I . 8 t o 2 . - lm i m m e d i a r e liy a d v a n c o f ' r h e n r e r s e c r i o n . n e i rather t h a nt o a l i n e i t e x a c t r yp a r a l r e w i r h a n d a d j a c e nt o t h e r h r o u s h l l a n e .T h i s a l i n e m e nw i l l p l a c er h e v e h i c l ew a i r i n gr o m a k er h er u r n a s f a i t o r r h eI e f i a s p r a c t i c aa n d t h u sp r o v i d ea p p r o p r i a t v i s i b i r i r y f o p p o s i n e h r o u g h l e o r rraffic. T h e a d v a n r a g eo f a l i n i n _ eh e l e f t - r u r nl a n e sa r e : ( l ) b e r t e rv i s i b i l r t y s t of o p p o s i n g h r o u s h r a f f i c ;( 2 ) d e c r e a . s e d s s i b i l i t y f c o n t r i c t e r w e e n r t po o b opposi n g l e f t - t u r n o v e m e n tw i t h i nt h ei n r e r s e c r i o n ; a ( 3 ) m o r el e l . t _ t u r n m s nd vehicles s e r v e d n a g i v e np e r i o do f t i m e .p a r t i c u r a r ra t a s i g n a r i z e id t e r s e c t i o n . i y n A n y e x c e s s r e aw i t h i n t h e m e d i a n o t h e r i g h to f t h e r e f t - t u r na n e a t l shourd be paved,pref'erably with contrasring pavement, provided with painted or c h a n n e l i z a r i o n dm a i n r a i n e dr u s hw i r h t h er o a c i w aiy r f a c ea sd e s c i i b e d an f u in the preceding section. F o rc u r b e d i v i d e r sl . 2 m o r m o r ei n w i d t ha r t h en a r r o w e d n d , d e t h ec u r b e d nosecan be offset fiom the opposin-r through-traffic rane0.5 m or more. with g r a d u a r a p e r e y o n d o m a k ei t l e s sv u r n e r a b rte c o n r a c b y t h r o u g h l b t o t traffic. a s s h o w ni n F i g u r eI X - 7 3 B . T h e s h a p e f t h e n o s ef b r c u r b e dd i v i t l e r s o 1 . 2m w i d e u s u a l l yi s s e m i c i r c u l a rb u t t o r w i d e r w i d t h t h e e n c l s . are normall,y s h a p e d o a b u l l e t n o s ep a t t e r nr o c o n f b r mb e t r e rw i t h t h e p a t h s t of turnrns vchicles.

SIiVIUL'TANEOUSEFI-'TIJRNS L S i r n u l t a n c ' o I cs f t u r n sn r a yb c c o n s i t l c r c.tn a n i n t c r s e c t i oo f u ' l n two nraJor i l t - g r a d e i g h $u r , s . i g u r eI X - 7 . 5i n t l i c l r c s r a f ' f i c u r t c r n s h l t h F r p r s h o u l dh c c . n s i d c r c di n t h c t l c s i g n .i V l a r k i n sl c t l i l s u r c , r i v c n i n p a r t t III ot-rhc ( N I L I T C D5 ) .

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f:rtlntagerortd cr()ss-scctittnal cletncnts. functional chunrctcrisrics. lrnti scrvrcc v a l u e l s c o l l c c t o r su r c d i s c u s s c di n c h a p t c r s I V , v l , a r r dv l [ . ' l ' h c r l r s c u s s r t lr t l n tilllow conccnls lr()ntaqertlati design elernentswith rcspcct to tlrc opcrationel lL'llturcs$here thc t'rontagcroad intcrsectsrhc mlj.r hiuhw,av. Frontlge roatls rurcgenerirlll requircdcrlnti lus to lrlcrills rlr f'rccrvllvs wh,.re

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AASHTO--4]eometric Design of Highu,avsancl Streets

At -Grade I nter.s ct ions e

:
I

u s e .a n i n t e r s e c t i od e s i g n e do m e e tm i n i m u ms e o m e t r i c e q u i r e m e n t si l l n t w r seldomoperare sati.sfactorily unless certaintraffic movements prohibited. are separate signalindications be usedto relieve.some theconflictsbetw'een can of the variousmovements only at the expense delay,to but of mosl of the traffic. The prefened alternativ_erestricting to turnsis to desisntheintersection with panicularly' width of outersepararion. expanded dimensions, the This desisn permits intersections the between crossroad thefrontage the and roads be well to removedfiom the crossroad intersection with the main lanes. For satist-actory operationwith moderate-to-heavy trafflc volumeson the fiontage roads. outerseparation the shouldpreferably 50 m or morein width be at the intersection. 50 m dimension derivedon rhebasis the following The is of considerations: This dimensionis about rhe shortestacceptable length neededfbr placingsignsandothertratTic controldevices _{ive properdirection ro to traffic on the crossroad. z . It usually affordsacceptable storage space thecrossroad advance on in of the main intersection avoid blockingrhefrontage to road. J. It enables turningmovements be madefrom themain lanes to onto the tionta_se roadswithout seriously disrupting orderlymovement the of trafflc. 4 . It tlcilitates U-turns between the main lanesand two-wav frontagc road.(Sucha maneuver geometrically is possible rvith a sonre',vhat narro\\'er separation is extremelydifficult with commercialvebut h i cl . ' s . ) I t l r l l c ' v i a t eh ep o t e n t i ao f w r o n g - w a v n t r yo n r or h ct h r o u g h a n c s l ' l ts e I o t h ep r e t i o m i n a n ti - t h w a r . h Accordinglr.outer separations intersections at shouldbe -50nr or more ln width whereverpracticaland f'easible. Narrowu'r separltions ure lcceptablc lvheretiontase road trafflc is vcry light. where the tiontageroatl operates onc ,," onlv,or $ here av somemovernents beprohibited. can Turningnovcmentsthat rrrcat'ti'ctc'd nrostby the width of outer scparation r l) lcti tums frorn thc rrrc (l) l}ontagcrt ud onto the crossroad. U-tums t'ronrthc throughlancsof thc prr'dorninlnt hirhway ontoa two-\\'uy liontageroad,antlt.l) righttumsI'romthc l h r o u s h r r n c u r i t h c r e d o m i n a n ti g h w a v n t ot h cc r o s s i r . r rBd .i n r p o s i n t h c p l s h o rv r rcstrictions, nrtv be appropriate s()mcor all ot' thcscrnrlvcrncnts. lrs on outcr separations narrowas 2.J m mav operate Js With such narrow satisthctorilv. scpilrations cJutionmust be exercised lssessing risk of wrong wilv cntrv in the E.rccpr thervirlth thcouterseparation. dcsicnclcmcnrs inrersec. tirr of thc litr t r o n si n r ( r l v i n g ' r o n t a g r o a d sa r c m u c h t h c s a n t e l s t h o s ct i r r c o n v c n ( i o n a l t c i l.

rlr 't'

rir I
FigurelX-75. Four-legintersection providingsimultaneous left turns.

improvementin capacity and sat'etymay be off.scrby the adtled contlicts introduced wherethe fiontageroadandarterial intersect at-grrdccrossroatl. the N o t o n l y i s t h e r ea n i n c r e a s e t h e n u m b e r o fc o n t l i c r i n g l o v e m e n t s .u r t h c in n b confusingpattemof roadrvavs and separations leatl to wron,'I-rvuy can cntry. lnevitablv. wherean arterial flanked frontage is by roads. problems design the of and trafficcontrolat intersections tar morecomplexthanwherethe arterial are consistsof a single roadway.Three inter.section.s {Irv().if there is only onc frontlqe road)actuallyexistat eachcros.s street. In lightly developed areas, .such throughsinglc-famil-v as re.sidential neighareas, pantcularlythroughcommercial districtswherel'rontrrlc roadsrecciveh c a v v

AASHTO-Ceometri( De.t

hv'avs and

At-Grade Intersec

i n t e r s e c t i o na t g r a d e .F i g u r eI X - 7 6 s h o w st w o a r r a n g e m e n to f h i g h w a y s s s with frontage roadsintersecting crossstreets grade. ar Turningmovements are shownon the assumption frontage that roadvolumesare very light and rhatall movements will be undertraffic signalcontrol. As illustrated, decelerarion storage or Ianes may beprovided rheright-turn fbr movements adjacent the through to roadway. Because trafficturningright must crossthe path of traffic on the frontageroad. the need fbr suchstoragelanesis usual greater thiscase ly in thanin thecase ofconventional intersections. Storage and speed-change lanes clearlydelineated pavement are by markings. Contrasting surfaces alsodesirable. are FigureIX-76A shows simpleintersection a design with anoutersepararion of 50 m or more in width.The intersections the two-wayfrontage of roads andthe -are suffircientlyremoved from the thr-Otigh r.oactwaytlia- they mighf operateas separate intersections. The major elementsin the designof the outer intersections adequate are width, adequate radii for right turns,and divisional islands the crossroad. on FigureIX-76B showsa design thatwouldbe adaptable two-wayfrontage for roads in areaswhere right-of-wayconsiderations would precludethe design shown in FigureIX-76A. with narrowouterseparations between intersections a bulb treatment the outerseparations, shown,formedby a reverse-curve of as alinement thefrontage of roadon eachsideof thecrossroad required widen is to the outer separation a desirable to widrh at the crossroad. The len-eth thc of reverse curveis a matter fiontage of, roaddesign, governed dcsignspeeds by and right-of-way controls. The widthsof theoutersepararion bulb.s shouldbe basr:d qqlhe patternand volumesof tratfic, but the light-of'-wtiy eontrolsmay also govern because extra areais requiredat the intersection. The width of oute r separation the crossroad at openingshouldbe at least l8 m. which rlight hc acceptable light-to-moderare fbr frontage roadrrafflc.burpref'erlblv should it bc 5 0 m o r m o r e .A w i d t h o f 9 . 6m t b r t h eo u t e rs e p a r a t i oin r h er n i n i m u m h a tw i l l s t permita u-turn by a passenger tiom thethroughlanes car onrothefrontarre road, Widths of 2l m or more are necessary trucks and buses.Where such tbr movements likelv to occur frequently, width of separations are the shouldbc qreater. considerably desirably m or more. 50

\.1i*\\F\

..t,iti ,,

BICYCLES INTERSECTI0NS AT
Whenon-street bicyclelanes and/oroff-street bicvclepaths entcrln intersecrion. thc designoi the intersection shouldbe modifiedaccordinclv, This mlv rncan lanes;specill lane markingsto channelize and scparate bicvclesfronr righr . t u r n i n gv e h i c l e sp r o v i s i o n t b r l e t i t u m b i c y c l em o v c r n c n t s ,r s p c c i l lr r e l 'ifc s o
TWO WAY FRONIAGERO^OS B U t S E OSEPR.ATION +

FigurelX-76. Intersections with frontageroads.

792

AASHTO--<ieometric' Design of Highwavs and Streets

At -Grade I ntersections

(suchasconveniently signaldesigns located pushbuttons actuated at signals or evenseparare signalindications bicycrists). for Further guidance providingfor in bjcycles intersecrions be found in the AASHTo ar can Guicle ihe Desi,qn oy for B ic-yc' F aci Ii ries (19). Ie

DRIVEWAYS intersections shouldbe designed Drivewaysare,in effect,at-grade and consiswith the intended use.For furtherdiscussion driveways referto Chapter tent of is IV. The numbe of accidents disproportionately r higherat driveways thanat thus consideration. otherintersections; their designand locationmerit special within thefunctional Driveways shouldnot be situated boundary at-grade of intersections. boundarywould includethe longitudinal This limits of auxiliarv and designof drivewaysare intimatelylinked with the The regulation lanes. right-of-wayand zoning of the roadside. On new highwaysthe necessary right-of-waycan be obtainedto providethe desireddegree driveway regulaof tion and control. In many casesadditional right-of-way can be acquired on sr existing highway-s agrementsean be made ts improve existing undesirable Often thedesired degree drivewaycontrolmustbeeffected of access conditions. through the useof police powers to requirepermitsfor all new drivewaysand of throughadjustments thosein existence. is The objectiveof driveway regulation desirable spacing anda properlayout plan. Its attainmentdependson the type and extent of legislative authority granted highwayagency. Many States the and citieshavedeveloped standards unitsto handle details the incidental checking to fbr driveways haveseparate and permitsfor new driveways changes drivewayconnecrequests issuing and or in Major features design of tionsto theirroadsystems. andcontrols suggested are (9 i n R e f e r e n c e s ) ,( 1 0 ) ,a n d ( l l ) .

WHEELCHAIRRAMPSAT INTERSECTIONS
when designing a project that requirescurbs and adjacentsidewarksto accommodate pedestriantraffic, proper attention should be given to the requiremenrs persons of with disabirities whosemobility depends wheeron chairsand other devices. Designcriteriaand figure ilrustrations given in are ChapterIV.

LIGHTING AT INTERSECTIONS Lighting may affect the safetyof highway and streetintersections as well as efficiency of traffic operations. Statistics indicatethat the evenlngaccident rareis higherrhantharduringdayrighthours.This fa.,, ro a rarge degree, may be attributed impaired to visibility.In urbanandsuburban areas wheiethereare concentrations pedestrians roadsideand intersectional of and interf'erences, fixed-source lighting tendsto reduce accidents. Whetheror not rural at-grade i n t e r s e c r i o n s o u r db e r i g h t e d e p e n d s n t h e p l a n n e d e o r n e t r i c s sh d o g and the t u r n i n s v o l u m e s i n v o l v e d . I n t e r s e c t i o n sh a t g e n e r a l i y d o n o t t requirc t'hannelization are seldom lighted. However, for the benefit of nonlocal h i g h w a yu s e r s 'I i g h t i n ga t r u r a li n t e r s e c r i o n s d e s i r a b l eo a i d t h e i t d r i v e ri n a s c e r t a i n i ns i g r rm e s s a g ed u r i n gn o n _ d a y l i g h te r i o d s . g s p I n t e r ' s e c t i o n si t h c h a n n e l i z a t i o n , r t i c u l a r l y u l t i p l e - r o a d e o m c t r i c s , w pa m g s h o u l d i n c l u c l el i g h t i n g . L a r g e c h a n n e l i z e dn t e r s e c r i o ne s p e c i a l l y i s nee<l illunrination because the higherrange turningradii rhatarenot within thc of of l l t t e r arl a n r l e f v e h i c u l a h e a d l i g hb e a m sV e h i c l e s p p r o a c h i ntg e r o t . a h interscct t o nl l s o t n u s tr e d u c e p e e dT h e i n d i c a t i o n f t h i sn e e d s h o u l d et l e f i n i r c s . o b and v i s i b l c a t I d i s t a n c e r o m t h c i n t e r s e c t i o r h a t m a y b c b e v o n dr h e f n ranr:c f' o h c r r d l i g h t s l l u m i n a t i r l n f a t - g r a d en t e r s e c t i o n,s i , f ,i l * . , t - r u u r c el i , : i t i n u I. o i u l u c c o r n p l i s htch i s n e e d , s -Ihc p l l n n e dl o c a t i o n f i n t e r s e c t i ol n m i n a i r c u p p o r t ss o u l t b e d c s i g n c t l o u s .h i in ltcctlrdattce with currentroadside safetyconcept.r. ,t,t,titiun.l discussions r u r rd e s i r r n u i d a n c e a nb e t b u n di n N C H R p R e p o r rl - 5 :( t t )a n dr h eA A S H T O d s c

RAILROAD GRADE CROSSINGS c i iy i. A r a i l r o a d i g h w a y r o s s i n gl , k ea n yh i g h w a y - h i g h w a n t e r s e c t i o nn v o l v e s h of The geometricsof a either a separation gradesor a crossingat-grade. of or highway and structurethat entails the overcrossing undercrossing a the sameas thosetbr a hiehway gradeseparation railroadare substantially w i t h o u tr a m p s . geometrics highway ola approaching at-grade an The horizontal vertical and in a railroad thatdoesnot necessllatc crossing shouldbe constructed a rnanner to conditions. driver divertattention roadwav

Horizontal Alinemenl

o n e a r b fi n t c r s c c t i o n sr d r i v e w a v sT h i s l a y o u tc n h a n c c t h c d r i v c r ' sv i e w t r l ' . s v r t h ec r o s s i n g n dt r a c k s r e d u c e c o n t l i c t i n g e h i c u l am o v c m c n t . so m c r o s s s fr a ,

AASHTO--I7eometric Design of Highways and Streets

e At -Grade I nters ctions

roadsand driveways,and is preferred bicyclists. the extentpracricar, for To c r o s s i n gs h o u l d o t b e l o c a t e c ln e i t h e r i g h w a y r r a i l r o a d u r v e sR o a d w a y n o h o c . - i u r v a t u r e i n h i b i t sa d r i v e r ' sv i e w o f a c r o s s i n g h e a d n da d r i v e r ' sa t t e n t i o n a a be directedtoward negotiating curve rarherthan looking for a the train. 1a1 R a i l r o a d u r v a t u r e a y i n h i b i ta d r i v e r ' sv i e w d o w n t h e t r a c k sf r o m c m b o t ha stoppedpositionat the crossingand on the approach the crossings. to Those crossingsrhat are located on both highway and rairroad .uru.i present marnrenance problems andpoorrideabilityfor highwaytraffic due to conflicting superelevations. where highwaysthat are para[erwith main rracksinrersect highwaysthat cross main fracks, the thereshouldbe sufficient distance between tracksand the the highway intersections enablehighwaytraffic in all directions to to move

General jointly grade The geometric design railroad-highway of crossings mustbe made with the determination the warningdevices be used.When only passive of to warningdevices, suchas signsand pavement markings used, highway are the driversare wamedof thecrossing location, mustdetermine whether not but or for therearetrainmovements which theyshouldstop.On theotherhand,when devices activewarning suchasflashing gates used, lightsignals automatic are or thedriveris givena positiveindication thepresence theapproach a train of or of A at the crossing. largenumberof significant variables mustbe considered in determining the type of waming device to be installed at a railroad grade crossing.For certain low-volume highway crossingswhere adequate sight distanceis not available;it may be necessary install additional signing to to provide a safecrossing. Traffic control devicesfor railroad-highway gradecrossings consistprimamarkings, rily of signs,pavement flashinglight signals, gates. and automatic Standards design,placement, for installment, andoperationof these devicesare passive covered theMUTCD (5) aswellastheuseof various in wamingdevices. Someof theconsiderations evaluating needfor activewarningdevices for the at a grade include typeof highway, the volumeof vehicular crossing traffic,volume of railroadtraffic,maximumspeed the railroadtrains,permissible of speed of vehicular traffic,thevolumeof pedestrian traffic,accident record, sightdistance. and the geometrics the crossing. of The potentialfor complete of elimination without active traffic control devices,tbr example,closing grade crossings and installing lightly usedcrossings activedevices othermore heavilyused at b c r o s s i n e s .h o u l d e g i v e np r i m ec o n s i d e r a t i o n . s h I f i t i s e s t a b l i s h etd a t a c t i v eg r a d ec r o s s i n g r a f f i c c o n t r o ld e v i c e sa r e t n e e d e dt.h eb a s i c c t i v e e v i c e f l a s h i n gi g h ts i g n a l si.s u s e d W h e na d d i t i o n a l a d . l . warningis desirable, criteriaor warrants the recommended evaluating for the gatesat a gradecrossingin additionto the above,include needfbr automatic t h ee x i s t e n c o f m u l t i p l em a i n l i n c t r a c k s m u l t i o l et r a c k s t o r i n t h ev i c i n i t v e : a

glpedltiously saf'ely. an{ Wherg physically resrricred areas makeit impossible to obtainadequate storage distance between maintrackand a highway the
intersection, following shouldbe considered; the l. Interconnection thehighwaytrafficsignars of with the gradecrossing si-enals enablevehiclesto clear the gradecrossingwhen a train to approaches. Placement a "Do Not Stopon Track"signon the roadway of approach to the gradecrossing.

2.

V e r t i c a lA l i n e m e n t It is dcsirable that the intersection highwayancirailroad nraclc lcvcl as of be as p o s s i h l ek r n rt h cs t a n d p t t i n tf s i g h t l i s t a n c e i.d c u b i l i r v .r a k i n en d a c c c l c r r r f o r b l t i . r r t l i s t u r r c c s .e n i c a l c u r v c ss h o u l c b c r r t ' s u f ' t ' i c i c r . , . , g t hr , , i r r s u r c r r v l lrt u viervof (hecrossing. Irdetluate In stltrleinstances' roadwayverticalalinement the tnavnot meetacceDtablc gcontctricsior a given dcsitn speetlbecause restrictive ol' topographyrlr Iirttit:rtirtns ol'rieht-of-way. qeornetrics .r\cceptable neccssarv prevent drivcrs to ol lttrv-clcarancc vehiclcs fiorn becornine caught thetracks on wttuldprovitlethc er o s s i t t s lt t r l r tc u t t h c s a t n e l a n e s t h et o po l 't h c r a i l st i l r a d i s t a n c et t ' 0 . 6 r e p a r n outsitlc rllrls. thc Thc surtirce the'highwa-v ttf shtluklalsonot be rrrore than7-5 rnrn I t i g h c r r l ' 5 ( ) 1 ) rln r v e r h r t t t h c t o p o t ' n e a r e s t i l r t J p o i n tg m f r o r l t h c r l i l o 1 o t r ra t l r l l ! ' s s r a c k s u p c r c l c v a t i od i c t a t c s t h c n v i s cr r s s h o w n o n F i g u r c I X - 7 7 . t n o Vcrticalcur\'csshouldbc trsed travcr.se to grldc to thc lcvcl frorn thc. highwa-v p l : r r ro l t h c r n i l s . c

i-

it

t._ I
I

,*l-

----l | tl

FigurelX-77. Railroad hlghwaygradecrossing.

A t -G rade I nt ersec't i o ns

w o f t h ec r o s s i n g h i c hm a y b eo c c u p i e d y a t r a i no r l o c o m o t i v e o a st o b e s u r e b s t h em o v e m e no f a n o t h etrr a i na p p r o a c h i ntg ec r o s s i n ga c o m b i n a t i o o f h i e h t h ; n speeds and moderatelyhigh volumesof highway and railroadtraffic; and a substantial number of school busesor trucks carrying hazardous materials u s i n gt h e c r o s s i n g . guidelines not all inclusive. These are Therewill alwaysbe situations are that not covered these guidelines musrbe evaluated by and usinggoodengineering judgnrent. Additionalinformation railroad-highway on gradecrossings be can (12),(13), (14),(15), (16) and (17). found in References Numeroushazardindex formulashavebeendeveloped assess relative to the potential hazard a railroad at grade crossing thebasis on ofvariouscombinations

l X - 2 1i n d i c a r e s v a l u e s o f t h e s i g h t d i s t a n c e s f o r v a r i o u s s p e e d s o f t h e v e h i c l e a n d f d s d t h et r a i n .T h e s e i s t a n c ea r ed e v e l o p e f r o m t w o b a s i c o r m u l a s : VT d,.=0.2tlVt*
l< 1+'

+D+d

and

of itscharacteristics. Although silClgfollglqlqs u!!y9q4l3cc9p!44!S,94Sh no hasitso*n values establishing index, when in an rhat withsound used engineering judgment, provides basis a selection the typeof warningdevices a for of to be installed a given crossing. at The geometricdesignof a railroad-highway gradecrossinginvolvesthe elements alinement, of profile,sight distance, and crosssection. The requiremenrsmay vary with the type of warning devicesused. where signs and pavement markings theonly means waming,thehighwayshouldcross are of the railroad or nearlyat rightangles. at Evenwhenflashing Iightsor automatic gates areused, smallintersection angles shouldbe avoided. Regardless thetypeof of control, the roadwaygradientshould be flat at and adjacentto the railroad crossing permitvehicles stopwhen necessary thenproceed to to and across thc trackswithoutdiffi culty. Si-qht distance a primaryconsideration crossings is at withouttrain-activatetl rvamingdevices. complete A discussion sightdistance at-grade of at crossings (l'l) can be lirund in Ref'erences and (17). A s i n t h e c a s eo f a h i g h w a yi n t e r s e c t i o n , e r ea r es e v e r a e v s n t st h a tc a n th l o c c u r a t a r a i l r o a d - h i g h w a y r a d e i n t e r s e c t i o nw i t h o u t t r a i n - a c t i v a t e d g w a r n i n s d e v i c e s .T w o o f t h e s ee v e n t s r e l a t e dt o d e t e r m i n i n gt h e s i g h t r.Jistence ere': l. 'l'he v c h i c l e p e r a r oc a no b s e r v eh ea p p r o a c h i ntga i ni n a s i g h tl i n e o r t r that will sat'elv allow rhe vehicleto passthroughthe gradecrossing prior to thc train'sarrivalat the crossing. T h c v e h i c l e p e r e t oc a no b s e r v eh ea p p r o a c h i ntga i ni n a s i g h tl i n c o r t r thatwill permitthevehicle bebrought a stoppriorto encroachmcnt to ro in thc'crossrng arce.

V: V-[ +2D+L+w) d----r l(0.28)vr + ' ]5.1f v, [

where: d,, = leg sightdistance along the highwayallows a vehicleproa eventhough train V" tracks saf'ely to ceeding speed to cross or to sat'ely stop d. at is observed a distance from thecrossing area(rn) of the vehiclewithoutencroachment the crossing sight distanceleg along the railroadtracksto permit the (rn) described fbr cl,, as maneuvers (km/h) v e l o c i t y f t h ev c h i c l e o v e l o c i t y f t h e t r a i n( k m / h ) o s to tirne. perception/reaction which is assunletl be 2.-5 (this t I i v i st h es a m c r l u eu s e dn C h a r r t cIr I t o d e v c l o ph cr t t i n i r n u n l sat'e stopping distance ) valttcs rvhichis assutttctl hc satltc to nt cocf'l'icie of l'riction. n a u s c t J n c ls l i o u ' ni n l - a b l cI l l - l t b r t h c d c v c ' l o p r t r eo l t t l t c ( r n i n i r n u r s a f t s t o p p i n gl i s t l l l t c c n t t d i s t a n c e ' r o n r h c s t o p l i n c o r f r o n t o f t l i c v c h i c l ct ( ) t h c r r b n c a r c srta i l . w h i c h i s a s s u r r r ctd> c J . . 5 r t v s t t t l i s t a n c f ' r o m h cd r i v c rt o t h c I ' r o n o f t l r cv c h i c l c . r , l t i cih e to nr lrssunrcd bc .1.0 to l c n g t ho t ' v c h i c l cw h i c l i i s r t s s i t t t t c t l h c l ( ) r t l . r t . t l i s t a n c h c t \ \ ' c c r l t t t c r l t i l s( l i l r r rs i r t g l cr l t c k t h i sv l t l t t c : c l . - in r t

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l n C t l r r c c l t o t t s l u s t b c t r l l t t l ct i r r s k c r v c r t l s s i t t q s t t t t l ( ) t h c rt h i t l l l l l r t l t i g h r r r t r gntdcs. W h c n l r r c h i c l c h a s s t o p p c d u t l r r l i l r t l l r r l c r r l s s i r t g t. h c t t e r t t l l ; t l l c t l \ c t ' t \ t ( ) h l t d c p a r t l ' r o r r r h c s t 6 p p c dp r l s i l i < l nI.l i s n c c c s s r t r vh t l t l h c v c ' h i c l ct r p c r a t t l r l t rt ' ' , ' c h i c l c r r t t c l c u r t l r ec r o s s i n qp r i o r t o t h t ' l t r r i v a lo l ' a t r l t i nt r c t t t l t t r u g ht h c t r l t r r t l l

t r r r i r i q l c 'o n s i s t so { ' t h e t w o m a j o r I e g s .t h a t i s , t h e s i q h t d i s t a n c e , , , , a l o n g t h e c d I t t r l t r ' ' r t r ' : t t t tl lh c ' s i s h t r l i s t a n c e d.- . a l o n c t h e r a i l r o l r t lt r u c k s .C a s c r \ t t f ' f u b l c '

AASHTO--Geometri(. Design of Highways and Streets

A t-G rade I ntersecti on.t

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AASI IT O-C ( |)nterr i ( D e.r n rtf' H [,q i,q l*r,a t's u cl Str eet.r tr

c' At-GradeI nter se t i ons

- n r i . ! : h t c o r n ei n t o v i e w ' a s h e V e h i c l es b e g i n n i n gt s d e p a r t u r p r o c e s s . i g u r e t i i e F I X - 7 9 i n d i c a t c sh i sm a n e u v e r . a s e o n T a b l eI X - 2 1 c o n t a i n s a r i c l uv a l u e s t C B v s of'clcparture sishtclistance a range trainspeeds. fbr of are Thesevalues obtained fronrthe tirrnrula: L+

+W

+ Jl I l

VT VC

sightdistance alongrailroadtracks(m) velocitl,of train(km/h) m a x i m u m p e e d f v e h i c l en f i r s tg e a r . h i c hi s a s s u m erd s o w i o

of vehicleat a crossing shouldseeenough the For safety, driverof a stopped the even trackto be ableto crossit beforea trainreaches crossing. the railroad starts cross. to afterthevehicle the though trainmaycomeinto view immediately must be track in view on eachsideof the crossing The lengthof the railroad for thetimenecessary thestopped and ofthe trainspeed thantheproduct sreater along the vehicleto startand crossthe railroad.The requiredsight distance vehicle manner it is for a stopped as in trackmay bedetermined thesame railroad previously this Chapter. In in highway,which is covered crossing prelerence a with the frontof position, to orderfor vehicles crosstwo tracksfrom a stopped t s 4 t h e v e h i c l e . 5 m f r o m t h e c l o s e s r a i l , s i g h td i s t a n c ea l o n gt h e r a i l r o a di,n for by should determined theformulawith a properadjustment theW be meters. value.

bc2.7 mls
ar =
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acceleration vehiclein first gear,which is assumed be of to 0.45 m/sr l e n g t h f v e h i c l ew h i c h i s a s s u m e t o b e 2 0 m , o d clistance fiom the stop line to the nearestrail, which is assumecl be 4.5 m to Sum of perceptiontirne and tilne to activateclutch or a u t o m a t i s h i f i .w h i c h i s a s s u m e t o b e 2 . 0 s c d d i s t a n c e e t r v e eo u t e rr a i l s :f o r a s i n g l ct- a c k . h i sv a l u ci s b n t r 1 . 5n r

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t t r d i s t a n c cv c h i c l c 't r a v e l \ r v h i l e l r c c c l c r - l l t i ntg r n i l x i n r u r r . r o spcetl in t'ilst gear: V,;

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. . \ L l . j u s t t n c r t itrs s k c u c l o s s i n g sl n d f i t r l r i q h w ; r vg n r t l c so l h c r ( h u n f l a t u r c r r ll cr'cssit f\.. S i g l r tt l i s t l r r r e cts l ' t l t ct t r t l c r s l t o ' , l nn ' f a h l c t X - l I u r c d c s i r l b i e . r tr r n vr a i l r o a r l l i 'fhcif ! l l t l c e r o s s r n g l l ( ) t c ( ) l t t r ( t l l c db v i . r c t i v cw i l r n i r r g d c v i e c s . irttllinntcnt. I t o r r c r ' c r .i s t l i l ' li c L r i tr t r t t lt l l t c r t i n r p r i l c t i c a b l ec \ c c P t i n t l r r t .o p c r r t c r n r i n . . I r t o t l l c r t l t l t t t l l ittc r r l t i n . i t n t i t v b c r . l c c c s s a r ) t o r c l r o n s p c t ltn t r o l s i g n s u n c l ( c l t l c r i c es l r n r lt t l p r c t l i c l t c s i g h l r l i s r a n c c l n a r e d u c c t lv c h i c l c s p c c t lr l f ' t l l t c n r t i o n . t \ \ ' l t c r c : i g l t t o l ' r s t r u c l i t l r t t r c [ ) r c s c n t i.t r t r a vb c n c c c s s a r \ . t tirn s t : r l l a e l i \ , cr a l ' f c is l i l n r e k sl r r r t lr r ' i l l * l r r n t l r i v c r s l u t o r r t l t i c a l l v i n t i m c t i r r u n u n t r r o l r c h i n gn r i n . t
ffistua@ ,@ Mtl*v@wrc r_{

ol Figurelx-79. case ts:uepanure

to cross single railroadtrack.

AA.S O4 ttT

e()mctt'i ( D csi,q oJ'H i,q u v.sancl Str ee!s n hw

t At -GrucleI ntersec ions

The highwaytraveled way at a railroad crossing shouldbe con.structed a fbr s u i t a b l ee n g t hw i t h a l l - w e a t h e ru r i ' a c i n g . r o a d w a y e c t i o n q u i v a l e n t t h e l s A s e to currentor proposed crosssection the approach of roadwayshouldbe carried t . q c r o s s h e c r o s s i n gT h e c r o s s i n g u r f a c er s e l fs h o u l dh a v ea r i d i n g q u a l i t y s i equivalent that of the approach to roadwav.If the crossing surfaceis in poor c o n d i t i o nt.h ed r i v e r ' s t t e n t i o m a _b ed e v o t e do c h o o s i n gh es m o o t h e s ta t h a n v t t p overthecrossing. This elfbn mav well reduce artention the givento observance of the warning devicesor even the approaching train. Infbrmationregarding varioussurfacetypes that mav be usedcan be fbund in "Railroaci-Hishwav G r a d eC r o s s i n g u r t a c e s("1 6 ) . S

BEFERENCE.S
l. 2. I n t e r s e c t i oC h a n n e l i z a t i o ne s i g n u i d e .N C H R p 2 7 9 . n D G Transportation Research Board.Highnut' CupucitvMantul. special Report No.209. Washington, C.: Transporration D. Research Board,

198-s.

"Symposiumon Geomerric Design fbr Large Trucks: Transportation Research Record l0-52."National Research council, Transportarion Research Board. 19u6. ' 1 . " T w i n - T r a i l e r T r u c k ss" e c i aR e p o r2 l L N a t i o n aR e s e a r cC o u n c i l , .p l t l h Transportation Rescarch Board. 1986. ( U. S. Departrnenr o f T r a n s p o r t a t i oF e d e r aH i g h r v a y d n r i n i s t r a t i o n . n. l A iVlurtttul UtriJ'ornt7'ruJJ-ic tstr Contt-rtl Do,ict,s.Washingtttn. C.: U. S. D. Government PrintingOl'flcc.I9Utt. 6 . Hrrmclirrk. ful. D. "VolurrrcWarranrs lbr Left-Tunr Storare Lancsat t l n s i g n a l i z eG r a d c n r e r s c c t i o n s '.l"i g h r v aR e s c l r c h e c . r t lN o . l I l . d I t y R t961. F a n c h e r . .s . . u v l r R I . " V c h i c l e \ c c e l e r a r i o n e r a c t e r i s t i cn f l u e n c P r ch Is i n g F l i g h r v a D e s i g n . " \ p p e n d i x . N C H R PR c p o r tN o . 1 7 0 . l g l l - 1 . y r F W a l t o n . N . E . a n d R o w a n .N . J . " W a r n r n r s i r r H i g h r v a vL i g h t i n g . " t N C t I R PR u p o r r - i l . 1 9 7 1 . l r) " G c n e r a lF * r n r e " , , o rtkt r I m p l c n t c n t i . g , . \ c c c s so n t r ' l ' f c c h n i q u c s . " i C V o l . I . T c c h n i c l lG u i t l c l i n cts r rt h cc o n t r o lo t ' D i r c c r - \ c c c srs A r t c r i l l i . o l l i s h r v r y s .R c p o f lN o . F F I W . . \ - R D - 7 6 - f i 7 . | 0 . " D e t a i l c d c s c r i p t i orn f, . \ c c e s so n t r ' l T ' c c h irq u c s". V o l . l l . T e c h n i c a l D t C r Guidclincs tirr thc Conrrol of' Dircct ,,\cccss ..\rtcriulLiishways, ro R e p o r tN o . F H W . \ - R D - 7 6 - t t 7 . 3.
ngl()n

" T r a f f i cC o n t r o D e v i c e s n dR a i l - H i g h w aG r a d e r o s s i n g s N a t i o n a l y C ." a l ReBoard.Transportation Research Research Council,Transportation s e a r c h e c o r dI I 1 4 , 1 9 8 7 . R G ea T a g g a r t R . C . e t a l . " E v a l u a t i n g r a d e - S e p a r a tRd i l a n d H i g h w a y . 2 N A C r o s s i n g l t e r n a t i v e s " C H R PR e p o r t 8 8 . 1 9 8 7 . G l + . " R a i l r o a d - H i g h w a y r a d e C r o s s i n g H a n d b o o k . "R e p o r t N o . 1 S F H W A - T S - 8 6 - 2 1 5 ,e p t e m b e r .9 8 6 . "RailroadGradeCrossings." Chapter H. Richards A. andG. S Bridges. to I in Traffic Control and RoadwayElements-Their Relationship 1968. SafetyFoundation, Automotive HighwaySafety. IA "Railroad-Highway PackImplementation Surfaces." GradeCrossing A a g e7 9 - 8 .F e d e r a l H i g h w aA d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,u g u s t ,1 9 7 9 . y t1 Nichelson,Jr., G. Rex. "Sight Distanceand ApproachSpeed."The Associatioilof on 1987 NationaleonferenCe Highway-Rail Sa-fety, I September, 987. AmericanRailroads, 18. AASHTO. RoadsideDesign Guide. Washington,D. C.: AASHTO' I 989. 19. AASHTO. Guide for rhe Design of Bicyc'le Facilities. Washington' D . C . ; A A S H T O ,1 9 9 1 .

t2

ntnsp()rtilti()n Engineers,

X Chapter GRADE SEPARATIONS AND INTERCHANIGES

INTRODUCTION AND GE\ERAL TYPES OF INTERCHANGES

The gbilily to accqqmo{ate htgJr yglumqs of 1ra!fig sqlely qnq eq!c!en!!f is dependslargely on what arrangement provided for through intersections and capacity are handling intersectingtraffic. The greatestefficiency, sat'ety, An in lanesareseparated grades. through-traffic whenthe intersecting attained rvithoneor in roadways conjunction is of interchange a system interconnecting two or that moregradeseparations providesfor themovementof traffic between or more roadways highwayson differentlevels. along with its design,is and interchange, The type of gracleseparation characterand influencedby many factors,such as highway classitlcation, controls These control. speed. degree access and of of composition traffic,design a . e p l u s s i g n i n gr e q u i r e m e n t s .c o n o m i c st.e r r a i n a n d r i g h t - o f - w a y r e o f g r e l t accommodate rvithadequate to capacity saf'ely f in importance designingucilities the trafllc denrands. dcsignsmade to site should Lrestudiedand alternate Each interchange of antl the r'letermine ntostfitting arrangement structures rampsand acconlrnoarca. Intcrtraffic throughthe interchange tlation of bicycle and pedestrilrn vary firlm single rarnpsconnectingltrcrrlstreelstt'l complex itltd changes i le c o m p r e h e n s i va y o u t s n v o l v i n ct w o o r m o r c h i g h r v l y s . are of interchanges shownin FigurcX-1. Any onc type cltn The basictypes tvpesthrtt cornbinetl antl and are in shape scope. there numerous varvcxtensivelv by scparltcllillttes.i\n irrtportlntelement()f irlterarc difficult to designatc tti is design the assembly trneor ntoretli thehasictypcsoi ramps'which changc rlmp andtl pe thischlpter. The lavoutlor ltnvspecific in elsewhere arediscussctl . y w i l l r c t l c c ts i t ec c l n d i t i o n sf t o p o g r a p he n dc u l t u r ec o s t , o m t r ft r a f t ' i c o v c l n e n t d c s i r e dT h c l a s tt a c t o rs h o u l d . o 1 n dt h c d e g r e e f t l e x i b i l i t yi n t r l f f i c o p e r a t i o n t'ri prcdorninltein dcsign. but the practicillaspects ctlst und site contlitions scopeof ramps are frcquently decidingtbctorsin the tlpe antl
r s ] t n l m p e t - t y p eI n t c r c n l l n q L - .

. c o n f i g u n t t i o nF i g u r c X - l B i s r r t h r c e - l c v c ld i r e c t i o r t a l .t h r c e - l e g i n t c r :

AA SLITO-,{; eomeIr i (. D e.s n rf H i,g a v.s nc!Str eets i,q hu' a

Grade Separationsand I nterchanges

THREELEG DIRECTIONAL

e c h a n g eF i g u r eX - l C i s a n i n t e r c h a n gw i t h r a m p si n o n eq u a d r a ntth a ti s n o t . v b f s u i t a b l e o r f r e e w a ys y s t e m s u t b e c o m e s e r y p r a c t i c afl o r a n i n t e r c h a n g e f a b e t w e e n m a j o r h i g h w a y a n d a p a r k w a y .T h i s d e s i g ni s a p p r o p r i a t eo r i i p a r k w a y s e c a u s d e s i g ns p e e d s u s u a l l y n t h e l o w r a n g e sl,a r g et r u c k sa r e b e i s p r o h i b i t e da n dt u r n i n gm o v e m e n t a r el i g h t .A t y p i c a ld i a m o n d n t e r c h a n g e . o s i i s i l l u s t r a t e dn F i g u r eX - l D . D i a m o n di n t e r c h a n g eh a v en u m e r o u s t h e r configurationsincorporating frontage roads and continuouscollector or d i s t r i b u t o rr o a d s .F i g u r e X - l E i s a p a r t i a l c l o v e r l e a ft h a t c o n t a i n st w o a . l o c l o v e r l e a f - t y ple o p sa n dt w o d i a g o n ar a m p s V a r y i n gc o n f i g u r a t i o nfs v o r , . h e a v i e t r a f f i cm o v e m e n t sA f u l l c l o v e r l e a fa ss h o w ni n F i g u r eX - I F , g i v e s r i r a g e a c hi n t e r c h a n g i nm o v e m e n t n i n d e p e n d e n ta m p :h o w e v e r , t g e n e r a t e s to that must occureitherin the areaadjacent the through weavingmaneuvers rr l a n e so r o n c o l l e c t o r - d i s t r i b u t o o a d s .F i g u r eX - l G i s a f u l l y d i r e c t i o n a l interchange.

ONE QUADRANT

WARRANTS FOR INTERCHANGES AND GRADE SEPARATIONS solutionfor many intersection is An interchan_qea useful and an adaptable existingtraffic its useto reduce of problems, because the high initial cost, but wherethe required cases is or bottlenecks to improvesat'ety limited to those of can be justified. An enumeration the specificconditionsor expendirure is justityingan interchange a givenintersection diftlcultand,in some at rvarrants o . b v ca i n s t a n c e s , n n o t e c o n c l u s i v e l s t a t e dB e c a u s e f t h e w i d e v a r i e t yo f s i t e the layout's' rvarand highwaytype.s, interchange traffic v<llumes, conditions. that The conditions at may rantsthlt justity an interchange diff'er eachlocation. warrants. to shouldbe considered reacha rationaldecisionare the available a T h e s e r es h o w na s t h e l o l l o w i n gs i x i t e n r s : a o . l . D e s i g nd e s i g n a t i o nT h e c o n c l u . s i otn d e v e l o p h i g h w a vw i t h f u l l tbr the becomes warrant providing tcrminals sclected between controlof access Alhighwavstbr ttr highrvlv gradeseparatittns interchanges all intersecting of and elimination parkingrtnd control.provisitlnoi ntedians, thoughucct-'ss on of the pedcstrian trlit'ic arc important, separltion Uredes irecwcvsprovides rI to Onceit hasbeendecided develop route3s ttf'sal-etv. incrcment thc grcotcst s d w h g a i r e c * u r ' .i t t n u s tb c d c t c r m i n e d h c t h e r c a c i n t c r s c c t i nh i g h w a v h < l t l lt - + For or or rcroutcd. prttvidedwith I gradcseparltion intcrchangc. tcrminrrtcd, tirr the that thrlsc cressrolds citnnotbe tcrminatcd. individualrvrtrrltnt rt scparathc to in is tittnttr intercltrtnse rrbsorbcd thedccision devcltlp irecwlv. The chic'i
I on thc nr i nor road !\'i l l

PARTIAL

ALL

DIRECTIONAL FOUR LEG

FigureX-1. lnterchange types.

l i r r t c r s c c r i r .tn i l t m i g l t t warrllrlt ttnl-'-tral'l'icsignal ctlntrol, if consiclered:ls Jn

AASHTO-Ceometric Design of Highwavs and Srreet.s

and I nlerchanBes Grade Separations

isolated will warrant grade case, a separation interchange whenconsidered or as a oart of a freewav. 2. Reduction of bottlenecks spot congestion. or Insufficient capacity at t h ei n t e r s e c t i oo f h e a v i l yt r a v e l e do u t e s e s u l t sn i n t o l e r a b l c o n g e s t i o o n n r r i e n one o. all approaches. Inabilitvto provideessential capacitywith an at-grade facility provides warrant an interchange a for wheredevelopment available and right-of'-way permit. Even on f,acilities with partial control of access, the eliminationof random signalization contributes grearly to improvement of free-fl characteristics. ow 3. Improve safety.Someat-grade intersections havea disproporrionate rate of seriousaccidents. Lacking inexpensive methodsof eliminatingaccidents, a highway grade separationor interchange may be warranted.

Accidrn!-pryqg lqqelsegloqs teqqeq!!y aiCfq'ta{ at thqju4clon of cpqparatively light-traveled highwaysin sparsely settled rural areas wherespeeds are high.In suchareas, structures usually canbe constructed little costcompared at with urbanareas, right-o[-wayis not expensive, these and lower costdevelopments can be justified by the eliminationof only a few seriousaccidents. Seriousaccidents heavily traveledintersections, course,also providea at of warrantfor interchange facilities. additionto greater In safety,the interchange a l s oe x p e d i t e s l l m o v e m e n t s . a 4. Site topography.At somesitesgrade-separation designs the only are typethatcanbe madeeconomically. topography thesitemay be suchthar The at any othertype of intersection. meetrequired to standards, physicallyimposis sibleto developor is equalor greater cost. in 5. Road-user benefits.The road-user costsdue to delaysat congested -at-grade intersections large.Suchitemsas fuel, tires,oil, repairs, are time,and accidents require that speed changes, stops, andwaitinggenerate expenses well in excessof those fbr intersections permittinguninterrupted continuous or operation. general, In interchanges require somewhat moretotaltraveldistance thandirectcrossings grade. theadded at but costofthe extratraveldistance less is thanthesavingin costeffected thereduction stopping delaycosts. by in and Thc reliition road-user of benefits thecostof improvement to indicates economic an wlrrant firr that improvement. convenience, rclationis expressed rt For the ls ratio,the annualbenefitdividedbv the annual capitalcostof the improvement. Arrnual benefitis thedifference road-user in costs thecxistingcondition tbr and in thecondition atierimprovement. Annualcapitalcostis thesurnof interest and tbr lrnttrtization thccostof theimprovement. Iarger ratio,theqreater The the thc insotaras road-user benefits concerned. are Comparison thesc of .iustification rltios tbr designalternates an importanttactor in determining rypeand is the

with evenmorefavorably that benefits compare incremental stages may produce costs. incremental 6. TrafTic volume warrant. A traffic volume warrantfor interchange warant. Althougha would be the most tangibleof any interchange treatment as rationalized be cannot completely volumeof trafficat an intersection specific it an interchange. is an importantguide, particularlywhen the warrantfor pattern and theeffectof traffic behavior. with the traffic distnbution combined would intersection of the capacity an at-grade of However,volumesin excess with heavy at are desirable crossstreets certainlybe a warrant.Interchanges of but may be difficult to providebecause costlyright-of-way. traffic volumes the volumegreatlyimproves crossing of The elimination conflictsdue to high movementof traffic. Some warranqq sep4rqtiolts Srven warTants for !q1 4re

are walrants asfollows; additional

outsidethe that cannotfeasiblybe terminated Local roadsand streets right-of-way limits of freewaYs. 2. Accessto areasnot servedby frontageroadsor othermeansof access. gradeseParations. 3. Railroad traffic (for instance'a city park of 4. Unusualconcentrations pedestrian on developed both sidesof a major arterial). crossings. 5 . Bikewaysand routinepedestrian of within theconfines a major arterial. to o . Access masstransitstations and of 1 . Free-flowaspects certainramp configurations completingthe L of geometry interchanges.

-,

ADAPTABILITI' OF HIGHWAY GRADE S E P A R A T I O N SA N D I N T E R C H A N G E S highrval intersections, typesof intersections-at-grade Therearethreegeneral in Eachhasa field of usarle andinterchanges. withoutramps. gracle separations which it is practicel.but the limits are not sharplydetined.There is rnuch is typc frequently il c()rllproof ttverllppingand the final selection intersection cost.t()p(rqoidesigntreftlc volumeandpattern. consideration misclftcr.joint of right-of-way. e r a p h y . n dr v a i l a b i l i t y

TrafYicand Operation

Furti:ennttre, interchanqes usuallv adaptable stagc are lnd to constructi()n. initial

i o f i n t e r s e c t i o n sW h e r e t r a f f i c o n m i n o r c r o s s r o a d s s s m e l l l n d s u b t l r d i n a t c ' d .

AASHTO-Ceometric'Design of Highways and Streets

s G raclc Sepurati ons atd I ntcrc ha tr,q,e

to j@t on a major road, throughtraffic on the ma-lor road is lirtle inconven i e n c e do n a t - g r a d ei n t e r s e c t i o n s .a r t i c u l a r l yw h e r e t o p o g r a p h vi s f l a t . p is but !1ryugh traffic on the minor crossroads delayed, thaton rhemajor road withoutdifficulry ordelay.where theminorcrossroad pi"oceeds traffic volume is sufficientto justify traffic signalconrrols enableit to proceed to throughthe intersection, difficulty anddelayareexperienced all throughtraffic.where by throughandcrossroad volumesarenearlyequal.about50 percent ofthe traffic to stop. is required Through tratfic has no difficulty or delaysat highway gradesepararions exceptwhereapproach gradients long andsteep are and many heavytrucksare includedin the traffic stream. Rampsat interchanges haveno severe effect on through traffic except where the capacityis not adequate, the merging or speed-change lanesarenot of adequate length, a f ull complement turning or of Turning traffic can affect operationand is accommodated varying to degrees at-grade on intersections interchanges. interchanges, and At rampsare providedfor the turning movements. where turningmovements light and are someprovisionmustbe madefor all turningmovements, one-quadranr a ramp design may suffice. However, the left-turningmovements both through on highwaysmay provideno more fieedomof movementthanan intersection at gradewould at that site.Rampsprovidedin two quadrants may be locatedso t h a tc r o s s i n go f t h r o u g h o v e m e n to c c u ro n l y a t t h ec r o s s r o aa n dt h em a j o r s m s d highway is free of such interf'erence. interchange An with a ramp for cvery t u r n i n gm o v e r n e nits s u i t e df o r h e a v yv o l u m e s f t h r o u g ht r a f f i ca n c l o r a n _ y o f v o l u m eo f t u r n i n gt r a f f i c ,p r o v i d e d h er a m p s n d t e r m i n a l s r ed e s i g n e d i t h t a a w .suJlicient capacity. R i g h t - t u r n i n g o v e m e n t s t i n t e r c h a n g e sr l l o r vs i l n p l ed i r e c t o r n e a r l y m a ti d i r e c tp a t h s n w h i c h t h e r ei s l i t t l ep o s s i b i l i t y f d r i v e rc o n f u s i o nc l o v e r l e a f o o . intcrchanges requireloop pathsfor the left-turning rnaneuvers movernents. that confuse rnanvdrivers,requireaddedtrrvel distance. in sonre and cases induce rveavingnrL)vements. diamond patternof ramps is simple and is more The adaptable thanacloverleaf cases wheredirectleft turnsarefittingon therninrlr in rorrrl.tlowcver, rvheretraffic on the minor rorrd is sutficientto justify thc t c x p e n d i t u r eo c l i m i n a t et h e l t - g r a d el c f t t u r n s .a c l o v c r l c r r t ' oh i s h c r t v p c r s h o u l db e c o n s i d e r e d . intcrchangc f:xcepton frcewavs. intcrchanges usuallvareprovidctlonlv whcrccrossins 3nd turning traffic cannotrcrdilv be lccomnroriuted r lL.ss on costlv ilt-grroc i n t e r s e c l i o n .o n f u s i o n v s o m ed r i v e r sp p c a r su n r r v o i d a boc i n t e c h a n g c s , C b l ln r b u t s u c hd i f f i c u l t i e s r e n t i n o rc o m p a r e d i t h t h e b e n e t ' i ris r r h c r e d u c r i r l orf a w r r
r l c l l r v s s t o o s .u n d . ;rs thc qualitv lnd usc ol signing lnd other control tlc'iccs are incrcasctl

. ar r r i . c o n f u s i o ns m i n i m i z e cIl n a r e a s v h e e i n t e r c h a n g e sei n f r e q u e ntth ep u b l i c of properusage the rarnppatterns and education. enforcenlent-re!lar(ling it1.. o e i p r o v i c l e c l - a rv a l u a b l en e n s u r i n g l f i c i e n t p e r a t i o n e in to are Inrerchanges aciaptable all kindsoftraffic. The presence the traffic of pror.ision interchange.s of srream a high propoilionof hear.rtrucksmakes a o A d e s p e c i a l l y e s i r a b l e . v o i d a n c e f s l o w d o w n s n d s t o p sf b r h e a v yv e h i c l e s . ca g w h i c h h a r e m u c h l e s sa c c e l e r a t i na b i l i t vt h a np a s s e n g e r r s .r v i l l d o m u c h o s r n t c l w a r de t e n t i o o f t h ec a p a c i t v f t h e i n t e r s e c t i nh i g h u a v s '

S i t eC o n d i t i o n s usuallycan be well fitted to the interchanges In ro!!!ngor]rill.v ropography. to exisiinggrounO.nd tle thro-gh roadioften canbEdeii*encd highorstandards is intersection than gradeline.s would be the caseif an at-grade wirh separated provided.Such rerrainmay also sen,eto simplify the designof someramps. Other ramps.however,muy requiresteepgrades.be unduly long' or both' on depending the siteterrain. to design is simple in flat terrain.but it may be necessary Interchange s in Interchan-se tlat terrain operation. that grades maynot favorvehicle introciuce When to fittecl rollingterrain. as in tenerallyarenotaspleasing appearance those tt areaantl to landscape the regrade whole of the interchange to it is pgssible catl in thc cleficiency appearance be overcolne' tnttstof properly'. largelyo6 thc' is tbr recluireci an interchange dependcnt T[e right-of-rvav Thcto llL-c(l bc'providcd. ratttps pf punrbcr tunripg ntsfbr u hichseparate nroveme ol' oll also interchangc dcpcntis the t-vpcs any particular tilr actualurcarc-qgirerl tlcvcltlptllctrt' of the ovrmll stantlarcls interchangc and rrtpogrlphy. highrvav. -rvayrequirenrents thc impitctoll propertv ilcccss is to Definitclr r.clat.'d right-of trtrtl ot'grlltlc's pccurg ith prgvisionof an interchlngc.The scpilration thi.rr n1rt, css. localoce ltrrcl highrval'profilcs contplicrtte in a(liustntcnt theexisting rerluirc travelprtths' circuitous tlf or thL'provisit.ln rltlttpstnrv rc-quire .I'vpe F r o f H i g h r v a .a n d I n t e r s e c t i n g l c i l i t r rtntl h icill lrrtcrchrrrr 1rc[)rilct firrl ll typesof intersecring igltri'ltvs tirrlttrvrltngc {cs -l'hc x t t l r n s t ' l t ti l l t c r s c c t t d t t a r s t r t ' t l e s i gs p c c ( l s . c 0 n l ' l i c t t ' r o n s t o p p i n u n t lt l i r c c rr hid s r i n c r c u s c r i t h r l r ct l c s i u r r p c c ds o t h l r th i s h - ( l q - s i g n - : p c c u h t t l l v s! \ r l r r l t t l l rr.ithsintillrrtrll'tic rolrrls trclrnrclltclrlicr thartlo',v-tlcsign-spcctl irltcrchullxc
s h l v i t l c d f i r r h i c l t - d c s i s n - s p c c d i . s , h r v r l ls h o t t l t lp c n t t t t
l\sLlnlc sl cillcr Iltll)()rlllllcc

AASIITO--CeometricDe.si,qn Ilighu'avs and Strcets of

Grade Separat ons and I nterc' ng es i ha

For provideareassuitablefor landscape development. some Interchanges ie t w l it t c o n d i t i o n sh e n e c e s s a rty o - l e v ed e v e l o p m e ns a d i s a d v a n t a g n r e g a r d o and may block the view. On the other hand. due regardto the appearance and rounding in design and to the flattening features thestructural architectural controlandlandscape can treatment providea development for of slopes erosion p t ll A r h a tw i l l a l m o s ta l w a y s r o v ea e s t h e t i c a lpy e a s i n g . t t e n t i o n o s u c ha s p e c t s layouts rather thantheuseof thesimplest the may require useof above-minimum or of costlytypeof structure thedevelopment rampswith a minimumof or least gradin_e. With full control of components freervays. are of Interchanges essential importance are of gradeseparations required all crossroads sufficient at access. will The typeof interchange vary with the terrain, to prohibittheirtermination. but conditions, in generalit alongthe highway,and right-of-way development till be basedon ramilayouts io e1p-dite entianceio oi orii from the frEeway. roads. alsomay involve frontage Rampconnections to or mustbe maintained provided The extentor degree which localservice Local service can ofthe typeofintersection. also is ofconcern in the selection whereas considtypesof at-grade intersections, be providedreadilyon certain on erableadditionalfacilitiesmay be necessary sometypesof interchanges.

S t a g eD e v e l o p m e n t Wheretheultimate development consists a singlegrade-separation of structure, stageconstniction may be uneconomical unlessprovisionsare made in the original designfor a future stageof construction. Ramps.however,are well adapted stage to development.

Economic Factors Initial Costs The interehange the mosteos{lyrypeof intersection: combinedcostof the is The structure, ramps.throughroadways, gradingand Iandscaping largeareas, of and possible adjustments existingroadways in and utilitiesgenerally exceeds the costof an at-grade intersection. Directional interchanges involvemorethanone structure, theircost usuallyis greater and thanany simpleinterchange.

MaintenanceCosts Safet-v n a o E l i r n i n a t i o n r r n i n i m i z a t i o o i ' c r o s s i n e n d t u r n i n gc o n l l i c t si s e s s e n t i ailn Rcgarclless of at providinga reasonable degree sltety, especially interscctions. an cver present interscctious havc at-grade signingandsignalization. of de.sigrr. tvpe l'his is duc. in part.to c<lntlicting potentirllirr vehicle-ct'lntact accidcnts. a a linrited rea. m s a c r o s s i n g n d t u r n i n g o v e m e n l< > c c u r r i n g "r'ithin accidcnts caused by of roarirvavs. the B)' separating grades the intersccting -fhe structur. can and crossing tumingmovements be recluced. gradcsL'puration by this of ho'"vcvcr. can be mininriz.cd the use itsclt'. somewhat anobstruction: is rvidths prote'ctivc iccslt bridgcubutments and antl dcv ot'rrclequate roadwav clear rrlltlrvlvs nlust bc providctl.ltrt picrs.\!'hcrc lcccss bctwccnlhc intcrscctirrg o D t b tc is i n t c r c h a n g ea p p r o p r i a t c r p r o v i d i n gh cn r a x i n t u rd r g r c c t ' s r t l c t v . c p c n i l e i n g o n t h c t y p e o f i n t e r c h a n gu s c d ,i , : t ' t u r r l s| n i r \ l r c c n t i r c l ) c l i n t i n t t c dt t r trirl'l'ic bc accontcan crossroad. Right-tunring to cont'incd thc lowcr clirssified the on nrrttlatcrl high designtype rampsthrrtprovitlc opcriltionupprrtachinu v h r f c c q u i v a l e no f ' l ' r e e l o w . C o n t l i c t s l r u s c d 1 ' c r o s s i ntg a t ' t ' irc i l l b c e l i n r i n a t c d t t r rn t i t r i r t t i z e d . Each type of intersection has appreciable and distinct maintenance costs. Interchanges have large pavedand variableslope areas. the maintenance of '.viththatof the structure, which,together signs,and landscaping. exceeds that o f a n a t - q r a d ie t e r s e c t i o nn t e r c h a n g e st e ni n v o l v e a i n t e n a n c e do p e r l n I. of m an t i o nc o s t s b r l i u h t i n g . t

Vehicular Operating Costs I n a c o n r p l e t en a l y s i so f t h e a d a p t a b i l i t o f i n t e r c h a n g e ist. i s n c c e s s a rrvo l v compare vehicular operating costs all traffic with rhose otherinterscctions. ot tbr 'l'he v a l u e si t r e s ( ) d e p e n d e n o n t r a f f i c , s i t e , a n d d c s i g n t h i t t I g e n e r l l t c o m p a r i s oc e n n ( )b e c i t e d . h r o u g h r a f f i ca t a n i n t e r c h a n gu s u a l l v b l l o w s n t T t e f r u i r e c tp l t h * i r h t t n l ya m i n o rs p e e d e d u c t i o nT h e l d d e d v e h i c u l i lc o s r s o r d r . r f t h c r i s e l n t l l r r l l i n p a s s i n g v e r a n d u n d e rt h e s t r u c t u r c r a v n e e dt o b c o n c o n s i d e r eo n l v r v h e n r a d e s r es t e e p w h i c h c o n d i t i o n s u a l l yi s l i m i t c ' d o d g a . u t t h em i n o ri n t e r s e c t i n g a d sR i g h r - t u r n i ntg a f f i ci s s u b j e crto a d d e d e h i c u l a r ro . r v costsof deceleration acceleration may ulso bc subiectt() thc costs()l antl and : r t - g r a t l en t e r s c c t i o n . e t i - t u r n i n gt r a f f i c i s s u b l c c rr o t h e a d d e dc o s t so l i L I t c c c l e r l t t i r nn r l e c e l e r a t i o n du s u a l l y o t h el d d e t lt r : r v etll i s t u n cc o m p r r r c d lr d an t c

--Ceometric Design of Highways and Streets AA.SHTO

Grade Separations und I nterchan,<es

w i t h d i r e c tl e f t t u r n sa t g r a d e . i r e c t i o n ar a r n p s a y e l i m i n a t e a r g es p e e d D l l m c h a n g e s n ds a v e r a v e l i s t a n c e .sc o m p a r e d i t h a t - g r a d en t e r s e c t i o nF o r a t d a w i s. differences operating any one vehiclethese in insignificant, costsmay appear in but when considered cumulativetotals,they may indicatea pronounced benefitto traffic asa wholein theuseof oneparticular typeof intersection. For i n t e r m e d i a t e - t o - h e arv v f i c r h er o t a v e h i c l e - o p e r a r ic o s t s ta n i n t e r s e c t i o n t af , ng a l u s u a l l y w i l l b e l o w e r w i t h a n i n t e r c h a n g eh a n w i t h a n a t - g r a d e e s i g n , r d i m s e s p e c i a l l yf t h e t h r o u g h o v e m e n t p r e d o m i n a r e .

GRADESEPARATION STRUCTURES Introduction

Varioustypesof structures employedto separate grades two intersectare the of ing roadways a highwayanda railroad. or Althoughmany phases structural of designalso must be considered, discussion confinedto the geometric this is features gradeseparation of structures. designnecesSomephases structural of to sarilyarereferred because theireffect geometric of on design. This discussion highwaygradeseparations, mostof the geometric largelyconcems but design f'eatures apply to railroad also gradeseparations.

Types of SeparationStructures ( structures identified three (2) Cnrrle separation are general by types: I ) through, prrtitl through,and (3) clccktype.The deck type is most common fbl grade Ito'"vcver. throush partialthrough appri>priate raiiroad scplrations: the or are for where spans longandit is necessary severely structures. speciel In cases the to are linrit thc diflerencein elevation between trussbridgesmay be the roadways. uscti. 'fhrour:h g i r d e rb r i t l g e si.n c o m p a r i s o no t h r o u q h l e c k - t y pb r i d g e s w i l l t , c e d c c r c a s v c r t i c a lr c s t r i c t i o n sn t h ec a s ew h e r et h e u p p e rr o a d w a y u s ts p a n c l, m l . r o r nh i l l t t l p t o h i l l t o p l n d v e r t i c a lc l e a r a n e es n o t a p r o b l e m .d e c k - t y p e i s t r u c t u r cs u c he st r u s s c s r c h e s . i r d e r se t c . , o u l t lb ea p p r o p r i a t e . t h r o u g h s l. g , c A p l a t eg i r d c r b r i d g c i s o f t e n u s e dt b r r a i i r o a ds e p a r a t i o nw h e n t h e r a i l r o a d s ( ) \ / c r p a s . sh eh i g h w a y r s t r e e tT h e t h r o u g h l a t e i r d e r a n rtlh et h r o u g h r u s s t cs o . p g t p ' b r i t l q c s r o d u c c g r e a t Lsrc n s c f v i s u a lr c s t r i c t i o nh a nd e c k - t y p e t r u c t u r e s : a s o t thcrcfirrc.Iatc'ral clearances frorn the edge of lanc should be as qrelt as is n l n l n v s i n g l cs L ' p a r l t i os t r u c t u rc a r es h o u l db c e x e r c i s e id m a i n t a i n i n g e a n r"idth and lt unitilnn protective clclrrrotrthvuv L'()nstllnt rtiling or pilrapct.

The rvpeofstructure bestsuited grade to separations onethatgivesdrivers is l i t t l es e n s e f r e s t r i c t i o n . h e r ed r i v e r s a k ep r a c t i c a l ln o n o t i c e f a s r r u c t u r c o w t y o over which they' crossing, are theirbehavior thesame nearlythesameasat is or otherpointson the hishway,andsudden. erratic changes speed in anddirection a r eu n l i k e l vo n t h eo t h e rh a n d i r i s v i n u a l l yi m p o s s i b ln o tt o n o t i c e s r r u c r u r e . . e a overpassrng roadwav rhe beingused. thisreason For everyeffortshouldbe made to designrhestructure thatit fits theenvironment a pleasing functional so in and mannerwithout drawing unnecessarv distracting or attention. Collaboration between bridge the engineerand highway engineer throughout various the stages ofplanninganddesign canprovide excellent results thisregard. in Structures of thischaracter should haveliberallateral clearances theroadways eachlevel. on at All piersandabutment wallsshould suirably be offsetfromthetraveled way.The t'inished underpass roadwayrnedianandoff'-shoulder slopesshouldbe rounded and thereshouldbe a transition backslopes redirect to to enant vehiclesaway from protectedor unprotected structural elements. A grade separationstructure should conform to the natural lines of the highway approaches alinement, in profile, and crosssection.The strucrure shouldbe designed fit the highway. ro Finingthesrructures thehighwaymay to result in variablestructuralwidths, t'laredroadways,flared parapers bridge or railing.and non-syrnmetrical substructure units.Such dimensional variarions arerecoqnized essential bothhighwayandbridgeengineers resultin ls by and indiviclual designs tbreachseparate structure. addition theabove In to geometric c0nsiclerations, other conditionssuch as span lentths, clepths structure, of tbundationrnurcrial the sitc. aesthetics, at saf'ety. and especially skew mav s t t t l s t a n t i l t i n t l t t c t r ctc ec n g i n e c r i nis n d o s tf e a s i b i l i to l t h c s t r u c t u rb c i n g llt' h r c y e -l'hc c o n s i d c r c t l . b r i d g c n g i n e cs h o u l tb ec o n s u l t cdd r i n g l i n e m c n t h o n z o n c r l .u ( l talltncl crticrrl) I sttrtlies. closcct'rordination anrl should rnaintainet] be throughout t h ed c s i g n h a s c ' sr h a tt h e r n o s t r u d e nd e s i g n r o r nt h es t a n t i p o i n tl s a t ' e t r . p o p t i o f i r n c t i o n u l i t u.n t lc c < ; n o n r i o s' t h et o t a lh i g h w a y i n c l u c l i ntg eb r i c l g ec a nb c t cl ( h ) sclectcd. Nlunvtirncsir nrinoradjustnrent alinement substantially in can reduce scnousstrLrctural problcnrs. especiully w.ithwide structurc.s. I-irrthc()\'crplss highwav,thcdcck-n'pe srruclure mostsuitablc. is Although thcv nlilv prcsL'nt both latcrulrrntlvcnical clclrancc problcrns the lr.lr,,er on r0lltllvlrr. suytport.slativc to thc upperroadrvav undernelth tirc re lrc and ()uttlt' : i g h t . ' l ' h c l c c k - r r p c r i d g ca r t h c u p p c .n l a d r v l vh a su n l i n r i t c d e r t i c l lc l e e r t b r v r u n c cu t c r r r l c l c r r n r nscc n t r o l l c r l n l vb y I o c a r i oo f t h ep r r ) t c c t i v e r r i e r . ' f h c l: ico d n ba p a r i l p cs \ s t c l l !s h o u l dp r o v i d cr r t ' r c e d o n tt ' v i c r v f r t l r nt h c p a s s i n g e h i c l c s t o v i n s o l u rs p r l c t i c r r b l e :o w e v c rr e d i r e c t i oc : r p a b i l i ts h o u l d a v ep r c c e d c n c c . l h . n v h 'I'hc parrrpct rlrilinushouldhaveun appeantnce srrength theabiliry16 rrnd of lntl
c r t t r ( ) r 'n r u s t: r l s oh c r l i l c n t o c o n t l i n i n g a n d r c d i r e c t i n t l a r g e rv c h i c l c sc r o s s l n s l t h c s t r u c t u r c . ' l ' h c n t l p o s t s ( ) t t h r o u ! : hr r u s s c s h a l l b e p r o t c c t c db v l s u i t r r h l c c s

8t6

and Streets AASHTO--CeometricDesign of Highw,ays

and I nterchanges Grade Separations

8t7

pproachtraffic banierand transition at section. Spans highwaygradeseparaIn cases tionsshouldneverbe greatenoughto requirethroughtrusses. special where spansare long and it is necessary limit the differencein elevation to by all betweenthe two roadways, feasibledesignsare compared the bridge for considerations. engineer suitabilityincludingeconomic and aesthetic from the standpoint highwaythe mostdesirable structure For the underpass is crosssection and operation onethatwill spantheentirehi-ehway of vehicular providea lateralclearance from theedgeofroadwaythat ofstructuralsupports with designrequirements. lateralspace the between edgeof The is consistent to supports built as wide and flat as practicable is roadwayand the structural in vehicles to prevent distraction the provideusable recovery space errant for and roadways, lateral clearances peripheral field ofvision. In the caseofdepressed

r[ as be redueed, discussed the sestion Ln :Latcral eleaiansesl'l4ter this

chapter.On divided highwayscentersupportsshould be usedonly where the or medianis wide enoughto providesufficientlateralclearance nalrow enough ofan underpass at The standard lateralclearance to requireprotectivebarriers, lanes under piersorabutments may allow sufficient additional roomto construct In but the structureif necessary, at a sacrificeof recoveryspace. anticipationof widening, the piers or abutmentdesign must provide footings with future sufficientcover after widening.The bridge engineermust be advisedwhen with end results A of sense openness futurewideningis contemplated. greater can abutments thanwith full depthabutments. Perched stubor semistub spans providenecessarv visualclearance. also are areas all of thestreets cross mainroadway of sufficient not that the In urban prorninence warrant interchange to ramps with the main line. A sufficient the mustbe separated gradeto preserve continuityof in numberof,crossstreets howevcr.it is system. a matterof economics, As traffic flow on the local street to the all across main line. Most streets seldompractical continue crossstreets with it. experience a whether not theyconnect or thatcrossthe major roadway. in of rapidincrease traffic followingconstruction the rnajorroadwayasa result within the main-line land development local streetclosures and of intensified by corridor. Terminatedand through streetsmay be intercepted one-way the on tiontage road.s each side of the main tacility. AccessL'retween main intervals can by and roads beprovided slip rlnrpsatprcscribed rrtadway frontage to meettraiTicrequirements. streets relatively are with viaduct the tacilities construction cross On elevated savings can considerable however, all othertypesof roadwavs on undisturbed: Special some of the less imponantcrossstreets. by bc eft'ected terminating on and treltmentof crossstreets is relative the spacing to consideration needed separathe continucacross main line without intemrptionor deviatittn. not to tionsshouldbe of suitlcientnumberandcapacity hlndle adequately only

thenormalcrosstraffic but alsothe traffic divertedto crossstreets from theother streetsterminated the main facility and the traffic generated access by by connections and from the main line.Thus,determination the numberand to of location ofcrossstreets be separated graderequires thorough to in a analysis of traffic on the street system. in addition to that on rhe main line and its interchanges. Insofar throughway as operation concemed. is thereis no minimumspacing or Iimit to the numberof grade-separated crossstreets. The numberand their location alongonecorridoraregovemedby the localstreet system, existingor planned. Depending features thecity street on of networksuchas the lengthof block, the presence absence frontageroads,and degree adjacenturban or of of it development, may be necessary providemore crossings to than otherwise requiredfor the principal crossstreets.Where frontage roadsar not provided or wherethey are usedonly intermittently,more crossings may be necessary than would otherwise be required in order that all areas may be conveniently accessible. Otherfactorsthat may affectthe numberandspacing crossstreets of arethe locationof schools, recreational areas, andotherpublic facilities,school bus routes,and fire fighting equipmentroutes.Whereasin and neardowntown districts, cross streetscontinuing acrossthe throughway may be located at intervals two or threeblocks,and sometimes of every block, in intermediate areas theyarelikely to be threeto five blocksapart, andin residential outl)'ing or districts theyshouldbe at greater intervals. mustalsofit theexisting, Crossstreets revised. expected or futurepattemof transit operation the needs and ofpedestrians bicyclists. the mostpart. and For pedestrians and bicyclistsare accommodated structures on that also sen,e vehiculur traffic.Because extratraveldistance moreacceptable vehicular is for travel and bicycliststhan fbr pedestrians, is appropriate add separate it to pcciestrian wheretherearelargenumbers pedestrians. particularly crossings, of ls would be the casenearschools. churches, factories. and that areto crossthe major roadway Althorrgh streets the shouldbe selected it duringtheplanningstage, doesnot necessarily tbllow thatall crossings need to be constructed initially. Normally. structures canying the major roadwav s h o u l d ec o n s t r u c t eid i t i a l l y , si t i s i m p r a c t i c a l d i s r u p t h em a i nl i n ea f t e r b n a to it is open to traffic. However.someof the plannedstructures carry cross to justified by traffic streets over thr'major roadwaymay be deferred until lull.vg r o w t ho r ( ) t h e r l a n n e d e v e l o p m e n t s .h e s y s t e m f o v e r c r o s s i ns t r e e t s p d T o g s h o u l tb ec o o r d i n a t ew i t h a n ds h o w ni n t h ed e s i g n f t h em a j o rr o a d w a ya n d l d , o r p l a ns h t r u l d e d e v e l o p e d h o w i n g h o s et h a ta r et o b e c o n s t r u c t eid i t i a l l v b s t n and thosethat are to be providedlater.Such a plan shouldshow the traffic p c r i o d i c a l l a g l i n s tt r a f f i cn e e d s f t h em a j o rr o a d w a yt,h ei n t e r c h a n g els ,d v o n tncstrecsvslcm. t

8t8

AASLITO--Geometric De,signof Highways and Streets

Grade Sepurution.sand I ntarchurtqe.s

8lq

The new cross streetstructure and appro;rches usually designedlor are projected traffic l0 to 20 yearsin the future.In many cases existingcross the street ol a lower standard eithersideof the separation is at thanat the structure newly designed separation. Improvement the lowerstandard crossstreet of may not be scheduledfor severalyears.Therefore,there should be a suitable transition the new work to theexisringfacility in a mannerthat will promote of the safe,orderlymovement traffic. of In manyinstances existing the street the requires approaching majorroadway sonreimprovements f'acilitate to traffic and increase capacityto ensurefree to movement and from the majorroadway. are Typical improvements laneand widening,controlof parkingand pedestrians, shoulder improvements interof with traffic signals, sections marking,channelizarion, one-wayoperarion and Where a city streetunderpasses major roadway, the undersideof the a structureis a design featurethat deserves special treatmentfor aesthetics. Because numerouspedestrians of and slower moving traffic, the underside of a structureas viewed from the crossstreetis especiallynoticeableto the l o c a lc i t i z e n s I t s h o u l db e a so p e na s f e a s i b l e o a l l o w t h e m a x i m u ma m o u n t . t o f l i g h t a n d a i r b e l o w . A n o p e n - t y p es t r u c t u r a ld e s i g n i s a l s o n e e d e dt o i m p r o v et h e s i g h t d i s t a n c ee s p e c i a l l y f t h e r ea r e i n t e r s e c t i o na d j a c e n t o , s i thestructure. viaductsections roadwaythe local street On elevated of may be left systeln relativelyundisturbed unless is necessary realinethe crossstreet widen it to or it tor additional capacity. Structural shouldallow tbr futureapproach openings lvidth and verticalclearance. Crossstreetovercrossings undercrossings and havent:rnyt'eatures comin n r o n . ' f h e s en c l u d e u c hi t e m sa s l a n ea n d s h o u l c l e r i d t h s . o r n e r u r b r a r l i i . i s w c c storage turningvehicles. tbr horiz-ontal cleartnces. curbs.and sidcrvalks. A varietyoltypical highwayseparation are in srructurcs depicted Figures.X-2 and X--i. The bridgespanarran_qementdicratcdprincipallyby the required is c:lear roadside recovery area,althoughsight distancc irnportant all roadis on waysairddiarnond-type interchanses. girdcrbridgemay be use lvith spans up to approri.\ singk:simple-span tl ttf -l--r The sinulesirnple-span rnatelv rn. girderbritlgcaccommotlates conditions ot. scvereskcw and horizontal curvature. Spansof greatcrlcngth requiregreater 'l'hc structure dcpth and hi-uher approach structurcdcpth tbr ernbanknicnts. s i n g l e - s p ag i r d e rb r i d g e ss a p p r o x i r n a t e l y1 5 t o l i - 1 0 t r h es p a n . n i / o T h c c o n v c n t i o n atly p e o l o v e r p a s s t r u c t u r c v c r d i v i d c d h i g h w a y si s s o currcntlya two-span deck-type with two ()r nlorespans, bridge.When bridgirrg inueus in
r.lesrgrr reasonsof econclmv,somc sitving in structurctlcpth. and thc elrrnrntrlor

-B-

-c-

t i o n o t ' d c c k j o i n t s v c rt h ep i c r s . o .

FigureX-2. Typicalgrade separation structureswith closed abutments.

AASl l TO---u c()meIr i ( D e.s n oJ H i,q u r'.s nd Str ce!.s hu' u i,q

G rurle Separo tion.t u ntl I tttc rc lta n qes

t n a e t A s a n a l t e r n a t i v eo t h e g i r d e rb r i d g e . d e c k - t 1 ' ps i n g l e - s p ar i - q i d r a m e e c rng i d f r a m es l a n tl e eb r i d g cr n a yb e u s e df o r a e s t h e t ip u r p o ss i or a three-spa A. s p a n d r e a r c h b r i d g e a t s p e c i a lg e o g r a p h i c l c in favorable ircumstances v a r i l o c a t i o n s , , ' h e r ex c e s s e r t i c a lc l e a r a n c es a v a i l a b l e n d t h e s k e w i s n o t r a n d a e s t h e t i c a l ldv s i r a b l e v h e nt b u n d a t i o n -e s e v e r em a v b e e c o n o m i c a l l . v a . s u p p o r l i s a d e q u a t eT h e s p a n d r e l r c h b r i d g e i s i n h e r e n t l yo f p l e a s i n g appearance. with direct are not uncommonat interchanges Two or more structures r v i t hd i r e c tc o n n e c m I. l o c o n n e c t i o nfs r l e t i - t u r n i n g o Y e m e n t sn s p e c i ac a s e s T"vo may becombined fbrm onemultilevelstructure. to structures tions,several in at crossing threeor four levelsareshorvn FigureX--l' variations roadways of may notbemorecostlvthan andfbur-level structures threethatinclude Designs the equiyqleltnqmbeq qf cq4ve4liqnalstructuresQ Eoyidg lfe saqe qa{i9 costsare high. whereright-of'-way' in particularly urbanareas service.

Over Versus Under General Design Considerations s A d e t a i l e c l t u d y s h o u l d b e m l d e a t e a c h p r o p o s e dh i g h w a y g r a d e s e p a r a t r o n t o r l e t c r n r i n u ' r v h c t h e rt h c r n a i n r o a d s h o u l d b c c a r r i c d o v e r o r u n t i c r t h c s t r u c t u r c . O f ' t e n t h c c h o i c e i s d i c t a t c c lb y f ' c a t u r c ss t t c h l t s t o p o g r a p h ) o r to highrval classificltion. It ntay bL'necL-ssarv ltlakc scvcralncarly conlpletc p r c I i r r r i n r r rl a r , o u t p l a n s b c l i r r c a d e c i s i o n r e g i l l d i r t g t I r c t t r o s t d c s i r a b l L ' g c n t - ' r l t l of'ovcr'vL'rsus-urrtlcr plan can bc rcacherl.Sonte stlrtcrllr-.nts P|clcrencc firllo\\. g c n c m l g u i c l c s s h < l u i t lb c s u b o r c l i n u t c (tl o t l c t i t i l c d s t u c l i c so t ' l h c but such s c p a r i l t i o na s l t r v h t l l c . A t a n v o r t r -s' i t c t h c g o v c r n i n t c o n d i t i o n sa s t i t t v h i c h r o a d s h o u l d b e c a r r i c d t t v c r u s u u l l r ' f l l l i n t < l t t n c o f t h r e e { r o u p s : ( l ) t h c i n t l u e r t c eo t ' t o p o g r l p h l p r c c l o r n i n u t c sa n d t h e c l c s i g nn t u s t b c c l o s c l y f i t t c d t o i t : ( i ) t l t c t o p o g r l p h l . a I p c s p t l t l l v o r l l r v o n c i t r r a n g c l t r c n t : l t r l 1 , j ) t h c l t l i n c ' l r r c n ltt r t t l g r l t d c l i r l c t n c t l l t r e l s t l t ' o n c 'l r i g h r . r u v r c s u l ' f i c i c n t l \ i n r [ ) ( ) r t u t tlt t s t t b o r t l i n i t t cl ] o s c( ) f l l l c t ( ) ( ) l ] ct h a t l i t s t h c s r l c ( ) t h c r i l l t ( l .p o s s i b l v . l o u t l t l p t l u t l t r r l n g c n r c n tc o l l t r l l t \ ttlPogntpltt. . . \ \r rn l l c . r t . l c s i g ttth l t tb c s l l i r s t h c c r i s l i t t g l t l | o f r l t l ' l t ri ' t l t c t t t t t : lI l c l t s r r l g i l n ( l c e r ) n ( r n l t \ ' .l l(l) L ( ) l t s l l ' u L l . i l tt(t lr l t i r t t l r i l t .r t t lt l t t . l i l r ' l ( t tl ) c L ( ) l l l t 'l\l l t ' l i f . t r n c e o n s i t l c r l r t i t ri t r t l c s i g r r . ' l ' hc h i c t c \ c c [ ) t i o r 't ) r t h i s i : t l t c c ; t s cr r h c r c l t t t l l t i o r t i r o l r r l i s s u t t ' i c i c n t l l p r c t l o r r r i n l r n t n t l c s i q n t o o v c r r r c i S l t l o l - r r r g r l t l l l t ilc r t t l
clt:c ()l l'lll lrrp()gritl)h\. lt ntil\ hc ttcccrsltrt't() \[u(l\ \cc()ll(lilf\ iilct()r\. i.lll(l llt l o l l o s r r t r r t t l t l i t t t t t t l tIlr t t i t t l r o l { c t t c r ; t l i o t t r i t l c r l t t i o t l l ) c c t l l ( ) l t c c r ; t t t t i t t c t l :

FigureX-3. Typicalgrade separation structureswith open-end spans.

822

'\,\.\| | f( )-(;(|tnI([t

i( |)cti<tt rtIl t iqItn trvt

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G rade Separe I i o ns a tul I nt erc'ha n'qe.s

823

s b F o r t h e m o s tp a r t .d e s i g n e ra r eg o v e r n e d y t h e n e e df o r e c o n o m v . w ' h i c hi s o b t a i n e d y d e : i g n sf i t t i n g e x i s t i n gt o p o - r r a p h y ,o t o n l v b n g bu a l o n gt h e i n t e r s e c t i nh i g h r v a , v ' s t f o r t h e * ' h o l e o f t h e a r e at o b c a . o r u s e di n r a r n p s n ds l o p e sT h u s .i t i s n e c e s s a rtv c o n s i d ea l t e r n a t e s i n t h e i n t e r c h a n ga r c aa s a w h o l e t o d e c i d et h e o v e r - v e r s u s - u n d e r e ques{ron. o T h e r c i s a c c r t a i nt r u t f i c w a r n i n ga d v a n t a g e n a n u n d e r c r o s s i n - ! : a , h i u h u ' a y A s a t l r i v e ra p p r o a c h e t h e s t r u c t u r eo o n r s h e a dm a k e s . s, l w g i v c s a d v a n c e l t r n i n go f , o b v i o u st h e u p p e r l e v c l c r o s s r o a da n d w l i k e l y i n t e r c h a n gc o n n e c t i o n sn l c v e lt o p o t r a p h y h e r et h eo v e r e I. p a s s i g h w a yi s b u i l t u p t o c r o s s h i g h w a _ vt n o r m a lg r o u n dl e v c ' I . h a a . t h e r ea l s o i s s i n r i l a rw a r n i n ga d v a n t a g eW h e r e a n u n d e r c r o s s i n g lsvs1,thls i4lvantirge higltwa,v dlpq beqeqlh cryssJoad hori'4Jn a 1o 1s minimized. pret'erence a layoutin which the by l . Throughtraflic is given aesthetic front nroreimportant roadis theoverpass. wideoverlookis possible A o a s t h es t r u c t u r e n di t s a p p r o a c h eg i,v i n gd r i v e r s n r i n i m u n t ' e e l i n g f a restriction. -1. W h e r et u r n i n gt r a f l i c i s s i g n i f i c a n tt.h e r a r n pp r o f i l e s r eb e s tf i t t e d a l r t h c n r a j o r o a di s a t t h el o w e rl e v e . T h e r a m pg r l d e st h c na s s i s t "vhen e l t u r n i n rv eh i c l e st o d c c e l c r a ta st h e l e a v e h c n r r j o rh i g h r v a l ' a n t o : t v l' . r l u c c c l c r i lac t h c yl p p r o a c hi t . r a t h e t h a nt h c r e v L ' r s Ln.a t l d i t i o no r t ts l nt \ r l i a n t o n t l - t , v ip e c r c h u n g ct.h c n u n p t c r r t r i n ai l. sr i s i b l ct o t i r i v t ' r s t s t h c r l c l v c t l t c r n u . j olrt i r : h r v a 1 . ) l r r r o l l i n gt t r l ' t o g r u p h \r i n r u g g c r l c r r a i r rn r a . j orro l t t io v c r c t o s s i t l g s o . a u r r t l r v ' r c t t r t i r r a t roc t l r l r v l r l i r r c c t l l i n e r r r e n tr t t lr o l l i r t gg n t t l c l i r t c . t u lr \ \ ' l r c l ct l r c l co t l t c r r i s ci s n o p r o r t r l u r t c e(tllv l n t i r r ct r rt l t cs el ec t i t r t t r l ' l t or c i t h c ra n u r t t l c r P a s s l t n o \ e r l ) a s st.h c t \ l ) c t l L t tp t o v i t l c s h c l ) c t t c i o l ls i g l I t l i s t l r r c c r tt h cr t t l t _ jr o l t l t r l c s i n t h l s uI c p u s s i r tigr , s t a r t ic ct h c t or v r o u r li s t r v o - l l u t c ) s l r o u l r c p r c l ' c r r c t l . d o o s l , \ r ' r v c r p r s s l ' l ' c r t h c b c s tp o s s i h i l i t vi r r s t u g c o r t s t r u c t i o h o t l ti n c n. (t t h c l t i - g h r v l tlyr t t lt l t c \ t n l c t r l r c .r v i t l t t t t i r t i r t t u ritttt t p l t i r t t t c n ) t ' l l t c t .l'irc t ol o r i S r n l riln v c s t r r r c n t . i r r i t i u l l c rc l t r l t r r r c n t r r n l \ l ) i l r t( ) l -l l l c l.
L l l l r r n r . t t c r i i d l i s l t c o n t g l l c l c \ ( r ' u c l r . l r c l r r r oll r t l r r l r rr t t t l s c l l . [ ] \ l i r t ! ' f i l l lt tt ctlcttsi0tt rll'b0llt r)rf()n\lflre li(rn rll :t scp;tr;tlc\lt'ucturc lttttl rrllttlrrltr lirr':r tlir itlctl highrrll . t i r c u l t i r r r ; r t c r l c r c l r r I r t i , : r t t r r r e : . t c l t c t l\ \ l t i l ( ) r . l l

I o r so l . t h ci r r i l i l l l ' l c i l i t r .

Figure X-4. Multilevelgrade separation structures.

t l l o r r l r l c s o r t t c l r l t i t t l t g cf r r l l ) l c n t \ n l i t \ l)c rc rlttect I t r n l r . l olrt i r h w i r \ ' ( ) \c r * r t l r o r rltr l l c r i r t q l t c g r l t t l c o l !ll{)rr\tll! lr) L:tl-l\ I

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e rt ls s folltl

AASH7'O--{; eontaIr i ( D e.s tr oJ H i g hv'av.ratrd SIr cets ig

Grade Separoti ons ond I nterc hange.s

W h e r e t o p o g r a p h y o n t r o l i s s e c o n d a r y t h e c o s t o f b r i d e e sa n c l c , a p p r o a c h e m a y d e t e r m i n e h e t h e rt h e m a j o r r o a d w a yu n r l es w r p a . s s e sr o v e r p a s s e h e m i n o r f a c i l i t y .A c o s ta n a l y s i sh a tt a k e s o ls t i n t o a c c o u n tt h e b r i d g et y p e . s p a nl e n g t h .r o a d w a ) 'c r o s ss e c t i o n . a n g l eo f s k e w .s o i l c o n d i t i o n sa n dc o s to f a p p r o a c h ew i l l d e t e r . s m i n e w h i c ho f t h e t w o i n t e r s e c t i nrg a d w a y s h o u l db e p l a c e d n o s o structure. s 9 . A n u n d e r p a sm a y b e m o r ea d v a n t a g e o u sh e r et h e m a j o rr o a dc a n w b e b u i l t c l o s e o t h ee x i s t i n g r o u n d w i t h c o n t i n u o u g r a d i e n ta n d t g , . s w i t h n o p r o n o u n c e d r a d ec h a n g e sW h e r et h e w i d t h so f t h e r o a d s g . a r eg r e a t l yd i f f e r e n t . h eq u a n t i t yo f e a r t h w o r km a k e st h i s a r r a n g e t . m e n t m o r e e c o n o m i c a lB e c a u s eh e m i n o r r o a d u s u a l l yi s b u i l t t o t 1ow915144d3$s th.r{llhe major road, graderonit may be stegperald , s i g h t d i s t a n c e s h o r t e r w i t h r e s u l t a ne c o n o m yi n g r a d i n gv o l u m e t t a n d p a v e m e na r e ao n t h e s h o r t e r e n g t ho f r o a dt o b e r e b u i l ta b o v e l t h e g e n e r a l e v e lo f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g o u n t r y . c 1 0 . F r e q u e n t l yt,h e c h o i c eo f a n u n d e r p a s a t a p a r t i c u l a rl o c a t i o ni s s c l e t e r m i n en o t b y c o n d i t i o n s t t h a t l o c a t i o n , u t b y t h e d e s i g no l ' d a b t h e h i g h l a y a s a w h o l e .G r a d es e p a r a t i o nn e a r u r b a na r e a s o n s c s t r u c t e d s p a r t so f a d e p r e s s ee x p r e s s w a y . r a s o n e r a i s e ca b o v e a d i o t h c g e n e r a l e v e l o f a d j o i n i n gs t r e e t sa r e g o o d e x a m p l e s f c a s e s , o l v h c r cd e c i s i o n se g a r d i n gn d i v i d u a g r a d e e p a r a t i o na r es u b o r t l i r i l s s l n a t e ( lt o t h e q e n e r a d e v e l c l p m e n t . I l . W h c r c a n c w h i g h r v a y r o s s c s n c x i s t i n gr o u t ec a r r v i r r g l a r g c c a a v o l r . r r no f ' t r a f f i c ,a n o v er c r o s s i n g y t h c n c w h i g h w l l c u r . r s c s s s e Ie b r l i s t u r b l t n co t h cc x i s t i n g o u l ca n ca d c t o u r s u s u a l l y o tr c q u i r c d . tc r n l i st e ll T l t co v c r c r o s s i n g r u c t u rh n sn o l i n t i t a t i o a st ( )v c r t i c i l l c l c l r a n c c . n r v h i c hc a n b e a s i g n i t ' i c u n td v a n t r s L ' i n h c c a s eo f - o r . c r s i z clto a t l s a l t ( s l r c q t r i r i n g p e c i i rp e r n r i t s l n a r n n . j oh i g h r v a v ) r r ( ) u t L ' . r r y l . r [ ) c s i r u b l v .t h c r o u c l l v ac n r r y i n gt h c h i g h e s tt r a t ' f i cv o l u r n cs h o u l r l n l r t v c ' t h c t ' c w c s t u n t b c ro f b r i d q e sf o r b e t t c rr i t l a b i l i t yr t n t it ' e w c r w c r l n t ' l i c t s h c n r c p a i ra n r lr c c r l r r s t r u c t i (olrtc n c c c s s l r r \ ' . ) r t ll I n s o r t r c n s t a n c cis r n a " b c n c c c s s l t rtv h a v c t h L ' h i g l t cv o l u n r c r o l nl r l u c i i i t y ' t l e p r c . s stc tdc r o s s i n g r r t l c irh c l r l w c rv o l u r t r r ' l ' u c i l rttrv u l c t l u c cr t o i s ci n r p a c t . v i t. l5 I l rs o n r c n s l u n c c sh c l o r v e r o l u n r c a c i l i t vs h o L r lblc c u r r i c ttll r c r t f d r l t l t c r c i s r t p r o n o t r r t c cc c o n o n r i c t d v l r r - t t l t g c . l

W Structure idths andgive are wide -qutters, flat slopes thesafest and Roadswith wide shoulders, walks.bridgecolumns, bridgerailing'and Poles. of a sense freedom. thedriver and obstructions cause wa.vare potential closeto the traveled parapets located should the from them.For thisreason clearwidthon bridges driversto shyaway roadwayin orderto give driversa sense wide as the approach be preferably as from the On of openness. bridgesthat are long and costly.somecompromise may be necessary. desirable wherecostper square on structures particularly long-span On long bridges, widthslessthanidealmay structures, thanthecoston short-span meteris greater economyaloneshouldnot be the govemingfactorin however. be acceptable: detel1qlqingsquetulg wiQ$s.Jhe aqafyslsoJ qrf[c thalaaelsttls, 1af9ty ratios should be fully and benefit/cost contingencies. emergency features. width is compromised. structure beforethe desirable considered overor undera grade as In aniving at a decision to the width of the roadway anddesignof thestructure location, the in separation, determining dimensions, aim should adjacent theroad,thedesigner to features asa whole.andin detailing will be ro providea facility on which driver reactionand vehicleplacement not The widthshould roads. on as the essentially same elsewhere theintersecting value withoutproportionate be so greatas to resultin the high costof structure and in usefulness sat'ety.

Underpass Roadwa.v" should bc dctemtinctl lilr thc dirncnsional. The typc of'strucruretitr an underpass t a n c lg e n e r a ls i t c r e q u i r e n t c n t s b r c a c h c l t s c .O n l l ' t h c t l i r r t c r t l o a d ,f o u n r i a t i o n . lrc revicwedhcrein. s i o n a ld e t r t i l s of Althrtug[ it is atr expensiveelentent,an untlerpassis ttnly onc ctttrtponent s i s d c s i r a b l et h r t t h e e n t i r e r o a t l r v i t v c c t i ( ) r l i.n c l u d i n g t h e the total tlcilitv. It rnctliln, tnr.elcd rvuv.shoultlcrs.and clear roudsidc lrclts. bc crtrrictlthrough thc cr. thcrc ilrc struclttral tlcsigtt liruitatrons. stlrcturc w ithrlut chlrnge. l-{orvcr d u lcrticll roltlrvl)'control linritations. nd lirnitatiorts uc t()skc*ctl crosslllgs' a n d c < l s tl a c l t l r s ,s t t c h l t s t h o s c l p p c a r i l n e c ,o r i l c s t h c t i cd i l t r c n s i o r lr e l a t i o n s , lh;ll mrlv rctluirc stltrterctluctiottin thc' cncogtltcrcdin lcngthy dcprcssedsccti()l).\ basic roadrvl). cross scction. On thc other hantl. where ctlntlitions pcntrtt lt s u b s t u n t i l ll e n s t ho t ' l ' r c c w a vt o b e d c v c l o p e dr v i t h d c s i r a b l el a t c r a lt l i r t l c n s i t r n s . a l n i s o l a t c do v c r p a s s l o n g t h e s e c t i o ns h o u l d n o t b e d c s i g n c dt o b c I r c s t r r c t l \ c
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I . a t e r a lC l e a r a n c e s l M i n i m u m l a t e r a c l e a r a n c e st u n d e r p a s s a r ei l l u s t r a t e id F i g u r eX - - 5 . o r a a es n F undercrossing roadwavor for an undividedmultilaneroadrvay. the lwo-lane cross section width will vary. dcpendingon the desi-en standards ibr the p a r t i c u l a f u n c t i o n ac l a s s i f i c a t i oa n d t r a f f i c v o l u m e .T h e m i n i m u m l a t e r a l r l n clearance from the edgeof the traveled wav to the taceoithe prorective banier s h o u l db e t h e n o n n a ls h o u l d ew i d t h . r On dividedhighrvay.s letj clearances usuallygoverned thernedian the are by w i d t h ;a m e d i a n f 3 . 0m r n i n i m u m ' i d t hr n a yb e u s e d n a i b u r - l a n e o a d w a y o u o r to provicle .2 m shoulders rigid median I and barrier. fbr six or morelanes but the w m i n i m u mm e d i a n i d t hs h o u l d e 6 . 6m t o p r o v i d e . 0m s h o u l d e ra n da r i s i d b s 3

METAL MEDIAN

FACE OF OR PIER

CCNCRT E MEDIAN E A R RE R I DGE OF THROUGH

bqryLe|. Egqrg X 5A showsthe minimurnlateralclsa-ranses a to

continuousmedian barrier,either concreteor metal, tbr the basic roadway wherethereis no centersupport.The same sectionand throughan underpass would be applicable a continuouswall on the lefi. dimensions clearance tbr Wherea concrete medianbarrieris used, baseshouldbe alinedwith respect its to the traffic lane.as shownin FigureX-5A. FigureX--5Bshowsthe rninimurn rightclearance applicable a continuas to ous wall section.FigureX-58 shorvs useof a concrctcbarrierconstructed thc i n t e g r a l l w i t h t h ew a l l .F o rt h i ss i t u a t i o t h er i g h tc l e a r a n cs h o u l d en r e a s u r e d y n e b t o t h c b a s co l ' t h eb a r r i e r F o r d c s i g n i t h a c o n t i n u o uc o n c i c t e a r r i c r n t h c . w s b o u n r r i g h t . s u l l l yu s c ' c t i os i r n i l ut o I r n c t l i a b a r r i c rI.r i g u r c - - 5 i sa p p l i c a h l c . - f h c n X B s l n l c t v t ) co f ' h a r r i ctrl r t y b c u s c ra sr . r n t n r d u c c l L ' l t u r c h c r ec o n t l i t i o nls a t l l u in rl c
t ( ) s t n r c t u r ct l c s i g n w i t h f i r l | - d c p t ha b u t n t c n l s . -;\s d i s c u s s c di n c a r l i c r c h u p t c r s .h i g h - s p c ' c rh i g h u u r s s h o t r l t lb c t l c s i { r r c t l l r i i t h s t r r t i t c e t ls h t l u l r l c r sl ' l u s h * i t h l h c s u r t i r c e ( ) f ' t h c t h r o u e h - t r ' : r l ' l i r a n e c . ( ' o r t t i t t u o u s t t r b ss h t l u l t lb c l i r n i t c dt o s p e c i u ld n r i n u g cs _ \ ' s t c n as r t ls l o p c r v a i l s c lr ( x r t h c ( ) u l . \ i ( l c f . s l t o u l t l c t ' sc i t h c r l c l t r l r r i g h t . S u c l r c u r b s s h o u l t l h c c n r r i e t l o . W u n t i c r p a s s . h e r e i t i s n c c c s s u r vt o p r o v i d c r v l l k r . v a v s .t h c t i r l l tlrroughtlro s l s h o u l r l c r s c c t i o n h o u l c b c r r t l i n t a i n c d n t i t h c s p a n i r r c r c u s c d v t h c r . v i d t lo f ' t h c b r a u : r l k . W h c r r l t i g h r v u r ,u g c n c i c s l r c l i c v c t h u l u c u r b i s r r c c c s s l r r v r l o n g s t l l i t l r b l r b u t t t t c r t to r r r l t l l s . i l c ( ) r t c r c t c l r r r r c rr r t l t vh c L r s c t lS c c ( ' h l P t c r [ ! t i r r o t l t c r s . !. s I t l l c s o l - l ' r l r r r i c r s v a r r i l n t s l, r r t r lp I l t c c r r t c n !o I s i l l n c . W h c r c c o t t t l t t i r l t t s ; r r c c l L t t h c c l c u r r o l r t l s i t l cl c s i g l te ( ) n e c [ ) lu l l u l r u t r n c r r l s . lc t . p i c r s . l t r t r lc o l u r t t t l ss l t o u l t l l r c s h i c l t l c d ' , ' " ' i l s u i t u t - . l c) r o t c c t i v ct l e v r c c su n l c s s h l l l l c \ u r c : o s i t t t t l c t l t h i t tt h c v c i t t l n ( ) t . c l r i t b i t r u t - t l l - c o n t r o v c h i el c s . [ ) r ( ) l c c t i v c l l t l c r i e c s l t r c t t s t l t l l v n ( ) t r c ( l t l i r c ( r t l t r n g 1 1 1 1 1 j 1 1 1 r ov u l l v t l s c c t i r l n s . i us c c ( i t l t r r l l l t i l i r t s t l t l l c d t l o t t gt l t c t l r c co l ' l r nc x p r l s c t lp i c r o r u b u t r r r n t s h o ul t l h u v c r e l l ) l ; r : . l ' l r e n r r l e l r l l r . r oe u s l r i o n l r r r t lt l c t ' l c c l l l n c r n r n t v c l t i t : l c u r r l c s st l t c r c i s \ : t r l l r et c t t l l i t l r r i r l\ l ) l r c cc l c r t rt r l ' l l t cb r i t l g c r r r P P o r l I j i r l r r r c - . i ( ' r h o r r r l l r c l i r r r i l r .

-A-

-B-

W CONTINUOUS ALL OR BARRIER

FACE OF WALL OR PIER DYNAMICLATERAL FLECTION OISTANCE
SHOULDER

THROUGH LANE

W I T H G U A R DR A I L R I G H TO R L E F T underpasses. for clearances majorroadway Figure X-5. Lateral

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AASHTO-4eometric Design of Highways and Streets

Grade Separationsand Interchanges

reducstructuraldesisn and cost features make horizontalclearance the tion through an underpassnecessary, changein lateral width should be in roadwayand effectedasgradualadjustments thecrosssection ofthe approach Suchtransitions width shouldhavea gradualrate in not abruptlyat the structure. of 50 or more longitudinal to I lateral.

and lateralclearances, the rail are features theparapet system, major dimensional are structures shown in where applicable.Typical overpass mediantreatment, under"Curbs," "Walksee Figure X-6. For further discussion also the sections in ChapterIV. ways," and "Traffic Barriers"
.a

Bridge Railings Vertical Clearance is for The clear height of an underpass a matterof determination the route as a of This height in turn may be govemed by the standards the system. whole. laws vary somewhat,most Statespermit the vehicle height, Although State The typical rail has some forrn of concretebaseor parapeton which metal or posts.The bridge concreterail or rails are mountedon structurally adequate raiting should be designed to accommodatethe design vehicle(s) on the structure under the design impact conditions. Under these conditions, the design vehicle should be safely redirected,without penetrationor vaulting

4-l heightof all structures ng load,to bebetween m and4.4m.The+lear thantheIegal traveled way andshoulders shouldbeat least0.3m greater above shouldbe madefor futureresurfacing. height,andallowance for resurfacings, is to clearance desirable compensate several for Additional load.The and snowor ice accumulation, for an occasional slightlyoverheight minimumis 4.4 m, andthedesirable 5.0m. is recommended vertical roadways parts systems routes whicha minimum of Some are or for has of for clearance 4,9 m, plusan allowance futureresurfacing, beenestabbut systems Freeway arterial and standards for suchclearance, for call lished. clearance acceptable a minimum. is a as otherroutes lowervertical
high loadsthroughan urban In orderto permit themovementof exceptionally so designed that the area,it is desirableto haveat leastone routewith structures This designcould entail the useof deck-type movementcan be readily handled. traffic signals,which Canbe swung to one side, bridges,masi-arm-supported utilities, etc. streetlights mountedhigher than normal, underground Where a depressed facility is a parkway with traffic restrictedto passenger vehicles, vertical clearance structures the at desirablyshouldbe 4.6 m and in no caseless than 3.8 m. The minimum clearanceshould be obtained within all portionsof the roadway.

'-

ovei iheEi l i ng" tike wise, the rail ih! should noipo-kef ot--n ag:the design the and it shouldnot cause or abruptdeceleration spinout, causing vehicle, vehicleto roll over. design type.Several ,Mostbridgerailingsin service of a rigid, non-yielding are vehicle to in features theirdesign reduce energy-absorbing incorporate railings for solidrailsmaybeconsidered their is noise a factor, Where severity. impact valuein noiseattenuation' added walkway theremaybe a needto providea pedestrian locations At certain a In bicyclepathon the freewayoverpass. thesesituations, barrier-type or the between pedestrian heightshouldbe installed bridgerail of adequate on wouldbenecessary rail A theroadway. pedestrian or screen walkwayand thewalkwaY' edge of theouter curvesmay re.strict on Bridgerailingslocated the insideof horizOnta! or alinement theoffset of Adjustment thehorizontal stopping sightdistance. sight stopping the to may be required provide needed to the bridgerailing distance.

Lateral Clearances to it structures is desirable carrythe full width of the approach On overpass is exception otherthanfreeways. For all roadway across structures. facilities the unitcost, selection because theirhigh of on structures which. made major on studies. economic to be should subject individual dimensions of cross section for roads streets and and collectors, local on chapters arterials, Refer previous to width across roadway from providingfutl approach permissible deviations

Overpass Roadway be design an overpass otherbridgeshould the of dimensional or Theroadway roadway. bridge a smallpartof thecontinuous The asthatof thebasic is same dimensions, withoutchange cross section and be in roadway should designed verycostlyconditions. for except crossing, or a shlcturesof the typeandsizeusedat a grade separation. stream Their interchange. Overpasses usuallyaredeckstructures. a single-structure

the curbedapproachroadwaY'

AASHTOI;eometric

of Desi,q,n Highwa-vsand Steets

Grade Separotionsond I nterchanges

831

the the roadwaywidth is continuedacross structure, When the full approach right, shouldaline with the guardrailon the approach parapetrail, both left and practiceof the highway agencyis to roadway.For example,wherethe smndard shoulder' from the outeredgeof the surfaced placethe longitudinalbarrier0.6 m the effectiveedgeofthe shoulder. the bridgerail usuallyis placed0.6 m outside for This width incrementprovidesadditional clearance high-speedoperationand Some on spacefor vehiclesstopped the shoulderof the structure. door-opening 0.6 m from the outer agenciesprefer to place the roadway longitudinal barrier edge of the shoulderand the bridge rail at the shoulderedge. In this case a to transitionrateof about 20: I is appropriate taperthe longitudinalbarrier into the bridge rail. At some interchangesextra space for speed-changelanes or weaving sectionsis required acrossoverpassstructures.Where the auxiliary lane is a continuation of a ramp, thEhotizontlcfea6nce to thebridge rail should be at least equal to the width of shoulder on th approach ramp. Where the auxiliary lane is a weaving lane connecting entranceand exit ramps or is a lane acrossthe entire structure,the clearanceto parallel-type speed-change the parapetshould be of uniform width, at least equal to the shoulder width on the ramP.

Medians in On a divided highway with a wide medianor one being developed stages, The approach will likely be built as two parallel structures. the overpass If width of eachroadwayshouldbe carriedaclosseachindividual structure. structures the are parallelstructures used, width ofopeningbetween separate is unimportant. Where the approachis a multilaneundividedroadwayor one with a flush on unnecessary median lessthan 1.2 m wide, a raisedmedianis considered length and desirableon bridgesof 120 m or short bridgesof about 30 m in more in length. On bridges between 30 m and 120 m in length, local need for roadway conditionssuch as traffic volume, speed,sight distance, crosssection,numberof approach future improvement. lighting standards, lanes,and whetherthe roadway is to be divided determinewhether or not mediansare warranted. to Where there are narrow or moderatewidths on approaches long singlc the the structures. structureshould be wide enough to accommodate same the approach type of median barrier as is used in the narrow median of

FigureX-6. Typicaloverpassstructures.

AASHTO--Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

Grade Separationsand Interchanges

833

HorizontalDistance Effect GradeSeparation to

irhe distance required for adequatedesign of a grade separationdependson the design speed,the roadway gradient, and the amount of rise or fall necessaryro effect the separation.Figure X-7 shows the horizontal distancesrequired in flat terrain.It may be usedas a guide for preliminarydesignto determinequickly whether or not a gradeseparation feasiblefor given conditions, what gradients is may be involved, and what profile adjustments, any, may be necessary the if on crossstreet.Thesedataalsomay seryeas a generalguide in other than flat terrain, andadjustments be madein thelengthof theterminalverticalcurves. can Thechart is useful wherethe profile is rolled to overpass somecrossstreets and to underpass others, and it is useful for design of an occasionalgrade separationon a faciliry

separation in is required a grade at A 6.0to 6.6m difference elevation usually verticalclearance structural thickness. The and of two highwaysfor essential generally a appliesto a highwayundercrossing railroad,but samedimension a about8.4 m is requiredfor a highway overcrossing main line railroad.In level to verticaldimensions to these correspond H, theriseor fall needed effect terrain, In practice,however,H may vary over a wide rangebecafse a gradeseparation. of topography.Where a relatively short distance is available for a grade fo it separation, may be necessary reduce H to keep D within the distance by available. This reductionis accomplished raisingor loweringthe intersecting streetor railroad.

loceled_AletSCldlgyql,lCShasa r!4jsr rqeqaran algnde exprcstway. The horizontaldistance requiredto effecta gradeseparation be detercan minedfrom FigureX-7 for gradients rangingfrom? to 7 percent for design and (\) rangingfrom 50 km/h to I t0 km/h. Designspeeds (\) of 1qe_eds 80 km& to I l0 km/hareapplicable urban ro freeways, 60 km/h (50kmh in and special cases) used majorarterials. curves derived is on The are with thesame gradient eachsideof the structure. approach on However, values D from of Figure alsoareapplicable combinations unequal X-7 to of gradients. Distance D isequal thelength to oftheinitialvertical plus curve, one-halfthe vertical central plusthelength curve, oftangent between curves. the Lengths ofvertical curves, both and sag crest, minimums are based theminimum on stopping distance. sight Longercurves desirable. are LengthD applies equallyto an overpass an and underpass despite factthatthecentral the crest vertical curve maybelonger than
thgcentral sag vertical curve for comparable valuesof H and G. Certain characteristics relationsin Figure X-7 areworthv of note: and l. For the usualprofile rise (or fall) requiredfor a gradeseparation of (H 7.5 m or less), gradients greater than3 percentfor a designspeed I I 0 of km/h,4 percentfor 100km/h,5 percentfor 80 km/h, and 6 percentfor 60km/h cannotbeused. Forvaluesof H lessthan7.5m, flattergradients than cited above generally must be used.The lower terminal of the gradientlineson thechart,markedby a small circle, indicates point the wherethetangentbetween curvesis 0 and below which a designfor the given gradeis not feasible; i.e.,a profile conditionwherethe minimum centraland end curvesfor the gradientwould overlap. For given H and designspeed, distanceD is shortened negligible a amount by increasingthe gradient above 4 percent for a design D vanes to a greaterextent, tbr given H and G. with changesin d e s i g ns p e e d .

GfqdeQgpqqliqqs lvilhqutRamps
are There are many situationswhere gradeseparations provided without ramps. forservice thatmustbekeptopen oftenintersectexistinghighways Majorarterials but on which traffic is minor. Lacking a suitablerelocationplan for the crossroad, without rampsmay be provided.All drivers desiring a highway gradeseparation to routes enterorleave and to turnto orfrom thatroadarerequired useotherexisting vehiclesmay haveto at In these the throughway otherlocations. someinstances particularlyin rural areas. extradistance, travela considerable numberof rampsmay be omitted,eventhougha considerable Sometimes would usethem if provided.Omitting rampsis doneto avoid having vehicles so interchanges close to each other that signing and operationwould be with large major road volumes, and to difficult, to eliminate interference increasesafety and mobility by concentratingturning traf{ic at a few points rampsystems. theotherhand,undue to On whereit is feasible provideadequate at of turningmovements one locationshouldbe avoidedwhere concentration it would be betterto have several interchanges. may be more the In ruggedtopography, site conditionsat an intersection provision of a gradeseparationthan an at-gradeintersection.If favorablefor are ramp connections difficult or costly, it may be practicalto omit them at the by turning movements elsewhere way of other structuresite andaccommodate roads. intersecting

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AASHTMeometric

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Grade Separationsand Interchanges

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AASHTMeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Grade Separationsand Interchanges

volumesof through legs,the expected rmined by the numberof intersection culture,design controls,proper signing, and tuming movements,topography, ' and the designer'sinitiative. out of necessity,are custom designedto fit specific While interchanges, that the pattem of exits along the freeway have some it is desirable conditions, it uniformity. From the standpointof driver exPectancy, is desirable degreeof haveone point ofexit locatedin advanceofthe crossroad that all interchanges whereverpractical. Signing and operations are major considerations in the design of the Each design must be testedto determine if it can be signed to interchanges. provide for the smooth safe flow of traffic. The need to simplify interchange can hardly be designfrom the standpointof signing and driver understanding From the standpoint of safety and, in particular, to prvnt wrong-way movements, it is recommendedthat all freeway interchangeswith nonhighwaysproviderampsto serveall basicdirections.Drivers access-controlled expect freeway-to-freeway interchangesto provide all directional movements. As a special casetreatment,a freeway-to-freeway movement may be omitted if and the turning traffic is minor and can be accommodated given the sameroute signing over other freewayfacilities. in and of The accommodation pedestrians bicyclistsshouldbe considered the configuration. selectionof an interchange are ofinterchanges shownin general andexamples the Forconvenience, types and specialdesignsrequiring two or terms of three- and four-leg intersections are The generaltypesof interchanges shown either schematimore structures. of -dlly or as examples existingfacilities.

Three-Leg Designs An interchangeat an intersectionwith three intersectinglegs consistsof one or more highway grade separationsand one-way roadways for all traffic movements.When two of the three intersectionlegs form a through road and When all applies. is the angleof intersection not acute,the term T interchange legs havea throughcharacteror the intersectionangle with threeintersection a may be considered Y type. leg thethird intersection is small,the interchange or the T and Y typesis not necessary important' A clear distinctionbetween ofsuch factorsas the intersectionangle and through-roadcharacRegardless patternmay apply for widely variant conditions. ter, any one basicinterchange unllKe rs not the unused are very difficult to expandor modify in the future.

with one grade Figure X-8 illustratespattems of three-leg interchanges separation.Figures X-8A and X-8B show the widely used trumpet pattern. Through-traffic movements,from points a to c, are on direct alinement.A criterion for selectionof eitherdesignis the relativevolumesof the left-tuming favoringtheheaviervolumeand the loop the movements, moredirect alinement are the lesservolume. Skewedcrossings more desirablethanright-anglecro3sthe ings because skewedcrossinghas a somewhatshortertravel distanceand flatter turning radiusfor the heavierleft-tuming volume,and thereis lessangle of tum for both left tums. In Figure X-8A, the curvatureof the loop b-a begins waming the driver to anticipate major breakin curvature. a beforethe structure, maneuver changeand steering The transitionspiralsprovidefor a smoothspeed facility. The oblongshape the loop of both into the loop andonto the high-speed allowing allows the curvatureof the high-volumeleft tum, c to b, to be flattened, hfthEi operating spe.ds obe attained. TheloopEit oTFigue X-8BG placrd well in advanceof the structure to provide sufficient decelerationlength in the approachto the break in curvature.Curves with spiral transitionsareeffective in developingthe desiredshapeof ramps.The curvatureof the left tum, b-a, is initiated in advanceof the structurefor driver anticipation. interchangeshown in Figure The other type of three-legsingle-structure X-8C is less common. Figure X-8C is a plan with loops for both left-turning movements.With respectto traffic, it is inferior to FiguresX-8A and X-8B both left tums useloopsandmust weaveacross eachother.Althoughthe because patternis adaptable interchanges to wheretheleft-turningvolumesarenot great, X-8A and X-88 are tbr if thereappears be little reason its selection Figures to to thesiteconditions, Forcomparable construction adaptable conditions, equally and X-8B shouldbe aboutthe same.FigureX-8C hasan co.sts FiguresX-8A for excellent field of usage as the initial stage of an ultimate cloverleaf.A road on to weaving the main road.In collector-distributor is provided eliminate the secondstagethe roadwaytbrming the fourth leg oppositethe stemof the T is developedand the remainingrampsare added. methodof to The small radii loop rampsare not considered be an adequate terminatinga freeway-typeroadway. high-type and Y interchanges. with morethan each T FigureX-9 illustrates one structure or with one three-levelstructure, that provide for all of the movementswithout loops. These types are more costly than single structure are typesand arejustitiedonly whereall movements large. are are In FigureX-9A. all movements directional.Threestructures required. of Weaving is avoided.This plan is suitablefor the intersection a through freeway with the terminal of another major freeway. Some or all of the s.Allentrances will ins movement.s reouireat lea.st two-lane in this chapter.The llinement of this schememay be adjustedto reducethe

AASHTO--I7eometic Desig,nof Highways and Streets

Grade Separationsand I nterchanges

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with singlestructures' interchanges FigureX-8. Three-leg

with only one thrce-level tbrrningan intcrchangc requiremenrs. right-ol'-way in as illustratcd FigureX-98. structurc. of to FigureX-9A rnightbe supcrior FigureX-98 because the rationally. In but analysis, thcrc usuallyis little difference. a requires special cgrnparison

some cases,the more complex three-levelstructurehas beenfound to be less costlY. with a double jug-handle Figure X-9C illustratesa three-leginterchange to pattern. This pattemapplieswhereit is necessary catry a freewaythroughwith a minimum of deviation but where the intersectingroad is of considerable importance also. Interchanging traffic leavesthe freeway on the right or enErs This pattemrequires roadways. on the right. Rampsareusuallyonly single-lane As at the useof threestructures, leasttwo of which mustspandoubleroadways. so shownin FigureX-9D, the basicpattemcanbe arranged thatthe two left-turn structure rampsandthethroughroadmeetat a commonpoint wherea three-level shown. the replaces threestructures Figure X-98 is another variation of the general plan of Figures X-9C and roadwaysareprovided foreach left-tuming movementwith trVo, X-9D. Separate two-tevet srEctures separating th-ramps fiom ihEihro@h m-vemena The grade separationstructures must be spacedsufficiently far apart to permit the placement of the separateramP, b-a, between them, thus avoiding the third as of structure FigureX-9C. This designmay be altered, shownin FigureX-9F' This anangementprovides smootheralinementon the ramps,but successful weaving sectionfor these on operationdepends provision of a suitable-length movements. two at Figure X- l0 showsa trumpetinterchange thejunction of a freewayand a in a rural area.A uniquefeatureis thatthe local roadoverpasses major local road ofthe steep the slope one roadwayof the freewayand underpasses otherbecause patternalsoexplainstherelativelysharpradiuson the loop.The on the left. This design favors the heavier traffic movement that is provided the semidirect and the loop handlesthe lighter volume. connection, in between two freeways a rural area.The FigureX- I I showsan interchange for operation all movedesignwith largeradii permit high-speed directional with connections ments.The frontageroadsare desirablyone-wayoperations from the interchangeroadways being as long as practical.Major forks and distanceto provide following ramp terminalsshouldhavesufficientseparation for smoothtraffic operations. are structures. Turning movements made from and There are threeseparate the despite highervolumein the roadway io the right sideof the bottom-to-top movements. left-to-top betweentwo three-leginterchange a Figure X-12 illustrates directional, freeways. This liberal design permits turns at tull freeway speed. A full The long to interchange a local streetis providedwithin the major interchange. good operation. ensures exits and entrances spacingbetweensuccessive weentwo operation.Note the major fork and branchconnectionon the river high-speed

AASHTO-Ceometric De.signof Highways and Streets

Grade Separations and I nt erchanges

crossings.A much more expansivegore areais provided on the divergencethan gore areaon the divergence providedfor on the convergence. The expansive is a recoveryareaand possibleinstallationofan attenuator. The two-lane exit and entranceat the bridge in the foregroundof Figure X- 14 serve both the local street system and the freeway-to-freeway movements.All interchangemovements are usually provided and the exits on the curves #e properly designedto discourageinadvertentexits. The exit in the bonom of the foregroundis placedso that it commencesin advanceof the main-line curve. The goresare liberally designedwith good delineation.

FigureX- l5 shows modifiedtrumpertype a interchange anurban for facility with intersecting a freeway. approach The curvature theurban of facility andthe lackof available right-of-way common are problems thistypeof interchange. at

rnSyglsg4g,rhrshr41htwa& urbq! facilly eqrgnlrg traffiS rhe IhE rna1n irLhe

freeway, usuallyreceives highest mostdirea priority. the and

Four-Leg Designs

-Dwith four intersectionlegs may be grouped under five general Interchanges types: (l) ramps in one quadrant (ramps in two or three quadrants are (3) partial discussedas partial cloverleafs), (2) diamond interchanges,

interchanges FlgureX-9. Three-leg with multlplestructures.

FlgureX-l0. Three-leg (T-typeor trumpet). Interchange

AASHTMeometric

Design of Highways and Steets

Grade Separationsand I nterc'hanges

with direct and semidirect and (5) interchanges rleafs,(4) full cloverleafs, of and adaptations each type are Operationalcharacteristics connections. Actual examplesof existing or plannedinterchanges separately. discussed are demonstratedunder each tYPe.

Ramps in One Quadrant with rampsin only onequadranthaveapplicationfor intersections Interchanges of roads with low volumes. Where a grade separation is provided at an intersectionbecauseof topography,even though volumes do not justify the

design' semidlrectional interchange FigureX-11. Three-leg

Figure X-13. Directional three-leg interchange a rivercrossing. of

AASHTO-Geometric Design of Highways qnd Streets

Grade Separationsand I nterchonges

interchange. freeway-to-freeway FigureX-14. Trumpet-type

structure. singletwo-way rampof near-minimum a designusuallywill suffice for all turningtraffic.The ramp terminals may be plainT intersections. Locationswheredesigns this type areapplicable very limited. A typical of are locationwould be at the intersection a scenicparkwayand a Stateor county of two-lane highway. Turning movemenrswould probably be light and witlout trucks.Tenain and the preservarion naturalenvironmentwould take preceof denceover providing additionalramps. At someinterchanges may be necessary limit ramp development one it to to quadrantbecause topography,culture, or other controls,even though the of traffic volume justifies more extensiveturning facilities. With ramps in one quadrant only, a high degreeof channelization the rerminals at and the median, togetherwith left-tum laneson the through facitities,normally is requiredto control tuming movementsproperly. In someinstances, one-quadrant a interchange may be constructed the first as step in a stageconstructionprogram.In this case,the initial ramps should be designed a part of the ultimate development. as Figure x-l6,{ illustratesa one-quadrant interchange the intersection a at of Statehighway and a scenicparkway locatedin a rural mountainous area.The elongatedshapeof the ramp was determinedlargely by topography.Traffic entering both through roadways is under stop sign control. Although traffic volumes are low, the turning traffic is a subsrantialproportion of the total volume. FigureX- l68 is a one-quadrant interchange designed f unctionasan early to phaseof stageconstruction. tuture construction is readilyadaptable On it to become partof a full or partialcloverleafinrerchange a withoutmajor renovation. The channelization, although elaborate, conducive safetyand attracis to tive landscaping.

'aa'.

Diamond Interchanges The simplestand perhapsmost common type of interchan-{e the diamond.A is full diamondinterchange formed when a one-wavdiagonal-rype is ramp is providedin eachquadrant. The rampsarealinedwith ttee-tlow terminalson the major highway, and the left turns at gradeare conflned to the crossroad. The diamond interchange severaladvantages has over a comparable partialcloverleaf: all traffic can enter and leave the major road at relatively high speeds. left-tuming maneuvers entail little extratravel.anda relatively nanow bandof right-ol'-wayis reguired,somerimes more rhanthat tbr the highwaysrhemno Diamondinterchanges haveapplication bothruralandurbanareas. in They areparticularly adaptable major-minorcrossings to whereleft turnsat gradeon

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antl AASHTO--Ceomctric Desigtr of Highvt'o-'-s Streets

Grade Separationsand I nterchanges

to minor road are fitting and can be handledwith minimal interference on The intersection from eitherdirection. the traffic approaching intersection at functionsas any otherT intersections formedby theterminals ihe crossroad However.because as gradeand should be designed outlined in ChapterIX. a have four legs,two of which are one-way.they present theseintersections For crossroad' problemin traffic controlto preventwrong-wayentry from the to a this reason medianshouldbe providedon the crossroad facilitateproper median but This medianshouldat leastbe painted, a depressed channelization. additional In curb is preferred. mostcases or a raisedmedianwith a mountable

signingto helppreventimproperuseof the rampswill haveto be incorporated in the designof the interchange. This problemis furrherdiscussed chapter in IX in the section "Design to Discouragewrong-way Entry." Diamond interchangesusually require signalization where cross streetsare carrying moderate-to-large traffic volumes.The capacity of the ramps and that of tbe cross streermay be determined the signal-controlled by ramp terminals.In such a caseroadwaywideningmay be requiredon the rampsor on the cross street throughthe interchange area, both.A single-lane or ramp usuallyserves traffic from the freeway, but it may have to be widened to two or three lanes or channelized storage the crossstreet, both, in order to developrhe for at or necessarycapacity for the at-gradecondition. This design would preclude stored vehicles from extending too far along the ramps or onto the freeway. Left+urning movements in the most eommon plans;Figure X-lJ; usually necessitate multiphase control. Diamond interchanges can assumea vanety of paftems as illustrated in FiguresX-17 and X-18. FigureX-17 showsthosemostcommonlyused. They may be designed with or without frontage roads.Designswith frontageroadsare likely in built-up areas,often as part of a seriesof such interchanges along a freeway.Rampsshouldconnectto the frontageroada minimum of 100m from thecrossroad. Greater lengths desirable provideadequate are to weaving length, space vehiclestorage, tum lanes the crossroad. for and at FigureX-l7c is a spread diamondrurar interchange with the potentialfor conversion a cloverleaf. to In a diamondinterchange -ereatest the impediment smoothoperations to is Iefi-turnin-s trafficat thecrossroad terminal. Arrangements may be suitable that to reducing traffic conflictsareshownin Figures X-18 and X-19. By usin-r split diamond(i.e..eachpair of rampsconnected a separare a to crossroad about a block apan), as shown in Figure x-lgA, conflicts are minimized by handling the same traffic at flour rather than two crossroad intersections. reducing left-turn the movements eachintersection at from rwo to one.An undesirable t'eature thattraffic leavingthe freewaycannotreturnat the is same interchange and continue in the samedirection. Frontageroads (shown dushed) optional. are Figurex- l8B showsa split diamondin conjunction with a pair of one-wav crossstreets one-wayfrontage and roads. Simplicityof layoutandoperation of the crossrold and the at-gradeterminalsresult.Traffic lea,i'ing freewayfor the servicesor other reasonsis afforded ready accessto return and continue the journey in thc samedirection. FigureX- l8C showsa diamondinrerchange with frontage roadsandseparare tratfic volumesand thereis considerable demandfor the U-turnins movemenr. The tumaroundroadwaysare adjacent the crossstreetwith additionalwidth to

rampsin one quadrant' FigureX-l6. Four'leginterchanges,

of AASHTO-Gebmetri(' Desig,n Highu'aysand Streets

Grade Separationsand Interchanges

providedbeneath structureor, if the crossstreetoverpasses freeway,on the the top. As an alternative,separatestructuresmay be provided for the U-turn movements. Figure X-19 shows diamond interchanges with more than one structure. The plan in Figure X- l94' and the "criss-cross"arrangement Figure X- tJB in are sometimesdictated by topographic conditions or right-of-way restric-

-carrangements' conventional Interchanges, FlgureX-l7. Dlamond FlgureX-18. DlamondInterchange arangementsto reducatrafflc confllcts.

t\

8s0

AASHTO--Geometric Desig,nof Highways and Streets

Grade Separatio ns and I nterc' hanRe s

-A-

t i o n s . h e r e s u l t s p e r a t i o n a l la r et h es a m e st h o s e h o w ni n F i g u r ex - I g A . T o y a s T h e l a y o u to f F i g u r ex - I 9 8 a l s om a y b e u s e dt o e l i m i n a t e . u u i n g b e t w e e n * two closely spacedinterchanges. Theselayoutsmay be further modified by the use of one-wayoperationon the crossstreets, this operationhaving the sameadvantages shown in the plan of Figure x-198. The deficiencyof as both layoutsis that traffic that has left the freewaycannorreturndirectly to it and continue in the same direction. The spacing of the crossroadsis determined primarily by graderequirements acceleration and and deceleration lengths. The doubleor three-leveldiamondin Figurex- I 9c, which hasa third-level structure and four pairsof ramps,providesfor the unintemrpted flow of through traffic on both of the intersecting highways.only the left-turningmovements qls$ 3!grade.fhls pfalis applicablerhere cross=street rraffic is of high volume and topography is favorable. Required right-of-way iS much lessthan that for other layouts having comparablecapacity. Although large through and tuming volumescan be handled,the plan hassomedrawbacksfor intersections two of .freeways in that someof the turning movements must eitherstopor slow down substantially. signals are usedin high-volumesituations, and their efficiency is dependenton the relative balance in left-turn volumes. They are normally synchronized providecontinuous to movement througha series left turnsonce of the areais entered. Figures X-20 andX-2 I present examples diamond of configurations are that somewhat differentfrom the conventional diamondapplication. FigureX-20 showsa freeway thatfeatures three-level a diamond interchange at the crossingof anothercontrolledaccess facility. In urbanareaswhere a crossing streetcarriesa high volume of traffic the three-level diamondinterchange may be appropriate. FigureX-2 I showsa spread diamondinterchange with provisionin all rbur quadrants futureloop ramps.when thereis sufficienttrafTic justif,vthe for to additional loop ramps. diamondrampswill alsobe modifiedro converrrhe the interchan-qe a full cloverleaf.The interchange cunently locatedin a rural to is area,but the areais rapidlydeveloping. The ramps all -1.2 widc u'ithgrades are m lessrhanI percent. minor road The is a fbur-lanedivided highway rvith leti-turninglanesrr the diamond ramp terminals. Trafflc conrrolconsisrs only of stopsignstbr tral'fic theotT-ramps on fiom the t'reewuy. It may be beneficial considerthe useol "X" patremrampsat diamond to interchan-eesurbanareas. in with thistypeof ramppattem, entrance the occurs prior to rhe intersection while the e.rit occurs after the cross srreet.This
It or aysaround dilmond interchanges. Driverexpectancv ma!, be altc'red l i g h t l y companson a conventional s ln to diamondconficuration.

structures. with additional interchanges FigureX-l9. Diamond

of Highways and Streets

Grade Separationsand Interchanges

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Figure X-20. Freewaywith a three-leveldiamond interchange'

PointDiamond Single in development interrecent (SPI) pointinterchange is a relatively Thesingle The in being constructedtheearly1970's. SPI withthefirstSPIs design change The interchange. point diamond or a interchange single as known anurban isalso by of an SPI is thatatl four turningmovesarecontrolled a primaryfeatures other. to lefr and iingle iraffic signal opposing turnsoperate theleti of each
by arc Singlepoint interchanges typically characterized narrow right-of-way. either with or without frontageroads.They SPIscan beconstructed inierchange. but whereright-of-way is restricted, may also areprimarily suitedtbr urbanareas

i/\,\

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854

AASHTMeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Grade Separations and I nterchanges

right-ofwhereit is undesirable utilize adjacent to to be applicable rural settings geographical, otherconstraints. way due to environmental, or The can There are severalbenefitsto singlepoint interchanges. interchange be constructedin a relatively narrow right-of-way resulting in potentially of significant cost reductions.The primary operationaladvantage this interchangetype is that vehiclesmaking opposingleft tums passto the left of edh A other ratherthan to the right, so their pathsdo not intersect. major sourceof efficiency and overall intersection conflict is thus eliminated,increasing traffic The to the neededtraffic signal from a four-phase a three-phase. SPI reducing with a singletraffic signalresultingin reduceddelaythroughthe ramp operates are Curve radii for left-tum movementsthrough the intersection intersection. the leftand therefore significantly flatter than at conventionalintersections, improvements The above-mentioned operational turns move at higher speeds. result in a higher capacity than a conventional tight diamond interchange. with The primary disadvantage SPIsis high constructioncostassociated of the bridge. OverpassSPIs require long bridges to span the large intersection beneath.In addition, a centercolumn would conflict with traffic movements, thereby, eliminating a two-span structure as a design option. Single-span bridgesoften overpassbridgesare typically 65 m in length, while three-span tendsto be wide exceed120 m. As shown in FigureX-23, the SPI underpass and often "butterfly" in shaperesultingin high costs.Whereright-of-wayis SPIs typically utilize extensiveretainingwalls further tightly constrained, costof SPIsis oftenoffset addingto thecost.However,thehigherconstruction SPI in by the reducedright-of-way cost. Figure X-24 shows an underpass with SPIsis potentialproblemencountered right-of-way.A second restricted This the length and geometryof the vehiele path through the intersection. vehicles fiom straying a to creates needtbr positiveguidance keepleft-turning have been utilized to reduce this off their proper path. Various I'eatures guidance to problem. a minimum,a painted At stripeshouldbe provided direct islandin themiddleof the In a driversthroughtheintersection. addition, raised providespositivereference On the and separation. overpasses, intersection raisedislandmay also protectthe traffic signalheadthat is typicallyattached to thc soffit of the bridge. A third solution is to install directionalairport in runway lights tlush with the pavementsurtace.These are sequenced SPIs.airport coordination with the intersection traffic signal.On underpass steeland runwaylightsplacedin thebridgedeckmay contlictwithreintorcing thcreforemay not be feasible. has on The skewanglebetween two roadwayalinements an ldverseet'fect the SPls because increases adverselyaffectssight disclearance distances and it

cxcrciscd planningSPIswhen the skew angleapproaches degrees. 30 in

AASHTO--4eometric Design of Highways and Streets

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Grade Separationsand I nterchanges

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AASHTA--Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

Grade Separationsand I nterchanges

Severalbasicdesignconsiderations optimize the geometricsand operacan tion of an SPI.It is desirable theleft-turncurvebe a sineleradius. that This will. however, typically result in additional right-of-way, and/or a larger bridge structure.Where it is not feasibleto provide a single radius, and curves are compoundedfrom a larger to a smaller radii, the secondcurve should have at least l12 the radius of the first. Another importantdesignfeatureis to provide stoppingsight distanceon the left-tum movesequal to or exceedingthe design speedfor the curve radius involved. A third design feature that can improve operationof the intersection to provide additionalmedianwidth on the cross is The stop bar locationon the crossstreetis dependent the wheel tracks street. on (SeeFigureX-23.) By wideningthe from theopposingrampleft-tummovement. median, it is possible to move the stop bar on the cross street forward thus the intersection. The results ar greater available green time and less potential driver confusiondue to an expansive intersection. Figure X-25 shows an SPI with frontage roads which introducessome additionalconsiderations into the design.The frontageroadsmust be one-way in the directionof the ramp traffic. A slip ramp from the mainlineto the frontage to road providesaccess and from the intersection. The ramp should connectto frontageroadat least200 m, andpreferablygreater the than300 m from thecross road.The traffic signalwill requirea fourth phaseto provide throughmoveson the frontageroads.A free "U" turn move may be desirableto expeditemovementsfrom one direction on the frontageroad to the other. shape, operational The size, and characteristics thatpedestrian ofSPIsrequire throughthe intersection given carefulconsideration. movement Pedestrian be -rossing of the local streetat ramp terminalstypically addsa signll phaseand significantgreentime resultingin reduced requires operating efficiency.The pedestrian overalldesignshouldprovideand encourage of crossings the local street at adjacent intersectionsand not at the ramp terminal intersection. movements parallel to the local street are more readily handled. Pedestrian at Crosswalks rampsshouldbe as close to normal (at a right angle) to the ramp directionof travel,and as nearto the local streetas practical.Normal crosswalks minimize the length of the crossing thus minimizing the contlictingmoves. locatednearthe localstreet Crosswalks meetsdriverexpectation and allow good to sightdistance the pedestrian crossing. Right turn lanes at SPIs are typically separated, often by significant from the left-turn lanes.The exit ramp right turn can be a free or distance, controlled movement. The design of free right turns should include an additionallane on the crossstreetbeginningat the free right-turnlane for at is intersection within 150m because weavedistance theremay be inadequate the between exit ramp and the adjacent Heavy pedestrian traffic intersection.

AASHTO--Ceometric

and Interc'hanges

Se' tiono howe' struct comp Ieast sropp spee( oper: stree from
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assming a^eonet.ha._- rengrh pro assumins adeq m u r-_^.L:uate erge is vide ;; ;;;; ###:i::"r"jil J in Figure x-23, right-turn the tun.^rtouiJ.ii.no reast m beyond ut 30 convergence the point before beginning the
Figure X-26piouresun una.rpuJ, un unO
merge.

canarso diminish desirabiriryfree the of right-turn ranes ad.ing potentiar by a conflictwith non-controred vehicurar ,ru'm..where theright_tirn moveis controiled stopsignor traffic by signar, uaequate right-turn storage rheexit on ramp shourdbe providedto pr.irnt utoclageof vehicres turning left or traveling straight. Freeright iu.n, on .nrrun? ramps ;e_ pose little problem

iu"qpass SpI.

Cloverleafs

interchanges that emproy rampsaccommodare roop to ;fl:'i:il il:i:H;l,T with loopsin uirquuO.uno toas..fultclnvcrrcaro,,":Il::ITlces* "p";i"r:i;;;:;;rii roas tl cr "fu overreafs ar otheis " and r "r..r.f"rr"a H,i:: fi :?["? may not be warranted major_minor.rorsing, at
disadvantases croverreifare ofthe iir..xtra traver distance required for left-turningtraflic, the weaving .un.uu., generated. very the short weaving length rypica'y avaitable, th.,.rutiujyiu.gJil;;r];; ona required it. whencotector-distriuutor.oJ, for "..., urenotused, furtherdisadvan-

SPl. SPI FigureX-26. Underpass and Overpass

rhe road be maintained n'n,ff":Tl':::"q:T.:i,Tl,:;;"j',,k" on major can byconfining direct the at-grade ,#ffi;:#ffiJ:::"::11: principar

where, with theprovision of

mo cro req ov( stn Pe, Cr dir mi Cr sil

di c(

inJrease in designspeed, extra travel dislan", in"r.ur", 50 percent;requiredareaof right-of-way increases aboutr30percent. iru".r time varies almost *,,1 d.riclrleed, in.r.ur.o'ip.ed on roops the being rhan l::::l? ll. more batanced by rncreased distance. an increase t0 km/h For of in I""i a.rig" ;ir#, ouu"r 20to 3o percent approximatery or 7 s. This rravertimc l'I:^i?"lt*ts inn.o-.^ deceteration accererarion and outside rimii, ortheroopproper. trr. (r" J;t"";t: thetraver timeviaa roop maybemuch ress thanit is when turning reftdirectry

adesign of40km/h mradius)aista-ril31Jffi:;:ff,ff?ff;:tl speed (50 "'l-irri aroundiii, "0"r,:b-o,lf of 50 km/h(80m radius) is ""irlr" i*" ro*o it 500;. Thus,fo. a l0 km/h
FlgureX-26. Continued.

considerably so than more diamond int.r.t unger, ii.r.u., ,"r, common urban in areas, theirbeing better adapted suburban ruralareas to or to"* is avairabre thereis a and needto'avoidrestrictive ar-grade reft ,l:;:: Thetraver distance a roop,ascompared on with thatof a directrefi rurn grade, at increases rapidly with an in"r.or" in a. .

exir and problems ,,11f;:":: ::::::,r^,": ,ll.signing the doubre on themain associared.*oin ror t".il;;.;.il:::l:ljffi1ll rine, with soexp.nsive,

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AASHTMeometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Grade Separationsand Interchanges

speed of The advantages increased at hereis a delay at the crossing grade.) time and distance of must be weighedagainstthe disadvantages extra travel and increasedright.of-way. It should also be noted that large trucks may not all efficientlyon smallerradii curves.Considering factors, Oeable to operate approximate experienceshows that the practical size of loops resolves into radii of 30 to 50 m for minor movementson highways with design speedsof 80 km/h or less and 50 to 75 m for more important movementson highways A with higher design speeds. continuousadditional lane is requiredto provide for deceleration, acceleration,and weaving between the on- and off-loop ramps. Additional structurewidth or length is usually required for this lane. The lateral placement of bridge abutmentsor columns, or main-line bridge widths may have to be revieweddue to the effectsof offtracking at the exit end

.J

..Wiaving Secrions."This is not objectionablewhen the left-turningmovements are relatively light, but when the sum of traffic on two adjoining loops approachesabout 1000 vph, interference mounts rapidly, which results in a reduction in speed of through traffic. Weaving lengths, as shown in Figure X-72, should be provided on low-volume cloverleaf interchanges.When weaving volume on a particular cloverleaf weave exceeds 1000 vph, the quality of service on the main facility deteriorates rapidly, thus generatinga need to transfer the weaving section from the through lanes to a collector-distributorroad. A loop rarely operateswith , s o t h e rt h a na s i n g l el i n e o f v e h i c l e s r e g a r d l e s o f t h e r o a d w a yw i d t h , a n d i t l r h u sh a sa d e s i g nc a p a c i t y i m i t o f 8 0 0 t o 1 2 0 0v p h , t h e h i g h e rf i g u r e b e i n g applicableonly where there are no trucks and where the design speedfor the ramp is 50 km/h or higher. Loop ramp capacity is, therefore,a major Loops may be made to operatewith two lanes control in cloverleaf designs. abreast,but only by careful attention to design of the terminals and to widening by at which would necessitate design for weaving requirements, To accomplish leasttwo additional lanesthrough the separationstructure. by this type of design the terminalsmust be separated such greatdistances and the loop radii must be made so large that cloverleafs with two-lane loops are not economical from the standpointof right-of-way. construction. cost, and indirection of travel. Loops to operate for two lanes, therefore,are consideredexceptionalcases' are Whereleft turnson boththemain facility and thecrossroad prohibitedand all turning movements must be accommodated.a tour-quadrantcloverleaf interchangeis the minimum type interchangethat will suffice. When a full approac trattrc on two adjotnlng clover roadsare Collector-distributor roadsshouldbe considered. cotlector-distributor

inuolu"t **ittg The cloverleuf

n.,*;;;t*t

Aii*tttO in theseaion

generallynot cost effective wherethe ramp volumesare low and not expected to increasesignificantly. The use of accelerationor decelerationlanes with roads. altemativeto collector-distributor is cloverleafinterchanges onepossible are and featuresof cloverleaf interchanges shapes, Various uurangements, by demonstrated actualexamplesthat follow. a between freewaydhd FigureX-27showsan existingcloverleafinterchange locatedon the edgeof a rapidly with partial control of access, expressway an roadshavebeenprovidedalong area.Collector-distributor expandingsuburban of of in expectation heavyweavingvolumes.Because the high unit the freeway roadsandloop ramps thisdesignwith thecollector-distributor right-of-waycost, thana designwith rampsof largerradii with smallerradii wasmore economical if the collector-distributor roads had not been that would have been used elyflat,3 percentU"lq rt".lximum. govided.The ggdes ffe rc Figure X-28 showsa eloverleaf inr-ichange betweena Few@ anda diviiled Collector-distributor roads serve all the ramp movementson the artefial Street. freeway.

Partial Cloverleaf Ramp Arrangements In the designof partial cloverleafs,the site conditions may offer a choice of in advantage certainarrangeoperational quadrants use.Thereis considerable to in and Thesearediscussed summarized the fOllowinganalysis; mentsof ramps. site,topographyand culture may be the factorsthat At a particularinterchange in determinethe quadrants which the rampsand loopscan be developed. and exit tums createthe least Rampsshouldbe anangedso that the entrance impedimentto rhetraffic flow on the major highway.The following guidelines of in should be considered the arrangement the rampsat partialcloverleafs: l. 2. to shouldenablemajor turning movements be The ramp atrangement madeby right-tum exits and entrances. Wherethrough+rafficvolume on major highwaysis decidedlygrater shouldbe given to ' minor road,preference thanthaton the intersecting on placing the right turns,either exit or entrance, the an arrangement major highway even though it results in a direct left turn off the crossroad. Thesecontrolsdo not always lead to the most direct turns.Instead,drivers frequentlyarerequiredto first turn away from or drive beyondthe roadof their

extentpossible.

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867

in the illustrates manner which 'h: ",t:"t-:ili FigureX-29 diagrammatically turningmovementsaremadeforvarioustu,o-andthree-quadrantcloverlea| arrangements whenrampsintwoquadrantsareadjacentandonthesamesideofthemtnor o t h e r 'a s s h o w ni n e o r o a d .a s s h o w ni n F i g u r e2 9 - A .o r d i a g o n a l l y p p o s i t e a c h

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IIAJORROADEXITSON NEAR SIOE

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ROAD EXITSON NEAR S I D E TWOMAJOR O N EO N F A R S I D E NONEON MAJORROAO L E F TT u R t ' l S , r w o M T N O RROAO ON THREE QUADRANTS

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R M A J O R O A DE X I T S O N N E A RS I O E

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F O U RO U A D R A N T S

O N S A M ES I O E O F |ltAJORROAO ROAO OF SIDES MAJOR ON BOTH F O U RO N MAJORROAD NONEON MAJORROAD T U R N S T N O N E M I N O RR O A D TURNS'FOUR MTNOR OAO LEFT ON LEFT R ON

Continued. FigureX-29.

ramparrangements' of FigureX-29. Schematic partialcloverleaf turns' exitandentrance

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FieuresX-]gEandX-]9F'alltrrrrringlllovenlentstoandfrolnthen-rajorroad choice t' n1' ishecl ari accompl bv'igl't ru"l A :tt]:::: i,|1'.',T'T,-iff [,,1 trvo in orher quadrants) (ramps the

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itsalternare o o r t h e 'a v a i l a b i l i t y f t the predominantu'n'ng movements w i l l d e p e n do n on the but are irri*.-,quadrants adjacent or right.o|.way,. both.When thc'rr'rrps samesideofthemajorroatltFigurls\-]9BalldX.]9D)'tburdirectleltturns f a l l o n t h e m a l o r r o a d . T h i s a r r l n g e n r e n t a n d i t s a l t e r n a t e a l e t ande a s t c l e s i r a b l e h developnrents' e l their oi rhe nuo-quaclrant oi the six porriti. "rrung.,.,.,.,.,,. u s es h o u l db e a v o i d e d ' hls an o i n c l i a g o n i r l l y p p o s i t ec l u a d r a n t s r T h e a r r a n g e m e nw i t h r a n r p s i d i r e c t i o n sn t h e q u a d r a n t s both *ot i a d v a n t a g en t h a t , n t ' u t n i n = "nltn'i.in ' a n d e n t r a n c e sA t r . . by ] O . . i r " b l e rrsrrt-t u r n e x i t s r , r d1't19ot1 r i g h t - t ot the ramps are rll4de qua-clan::::::Tj:"::' mo\ e.mentsrn one w interchanges r r s r sl u r r n r : l n t e r c n a n g ewhere turning; : ; ' s th i n :He i " * . " . o , i n i h a t q u a d r a n ta n d has. ramps best two-quadrant arrangement t i n t w o a d j a c e nq u a d turningmovements o o cliagonally pposite n"'-Wht" Figuras-X-29A' importance' arrangements.'of rants are of nearly the same from the major road in thatall turnl to and X-29E, and X-29F are applicable because in Figure X-2()Eis preferable irreon the right, but tn"l"'ungttlent
therampsareonthenearsideoithestructureasciriversapproachonthe n r l r j o r r o a d . w i t h t h i S p l a n i t i s i e e s i b l e t o p r t urr,n ca r e o r h ic o r . su s eeb y x i t t u r t t s i l i l e f n o t g h r f p e cd e l desiringto i'rotutlte major road, ""ti A'iters n o r b ' vh i d d e s h o w ni n F i g u r cX - 2 9 F ' ' the lclt' as i n t p r o p e n L ' a r - s i d e ' u n t fn n r of the structttre' r r . i g i t t - i u r na m p so u t h e f a r s i d " Tlrc'rearctburpossrbiliticsin:i.rangclrlctrttllrltttrpsitttltrt:ccluatlratlts.thc
0 l r i l r l g c l n c l l t i n F i g u r c X . 2 g G l i : : . j t h c i t l t e r l r a r c i l r f a l l g e l l llrrrlttti n r l h i c l\\'ith t l l l s c l l t s getllcllt t r l t t l.tllttl'I tt ittr ntll'i.or are ()tl t ttt:' ppt t -: Jc tl f,thc o in t'nl tlttacirants c a t l b c t t t a d cb V l \ i \ o : : : e ei g h t t t t t ' t t i n gl 1 ( ) v c l t l c l l t s t f t r n t 1 ' ri sr t h r c c q u a d r a r l t s ' l r Yr i g l t t t u r n so r t t h c : : " j r h c o t l r c r t u r l l r r c t t l a t l c -l'hc r i g h t - t t t r ne x i t s a n c lc l l t r a l l c e \ ' clctertttittatttltt ,.,, tufn\ ()n thc nrinor [oatl. anrr"rp,r,-lJl,-l3 ru]lrjorroad "n.t o f r v h i c h q u a t l r a n t i s t o l ' ' e . ' ' ' i t h o u t r a t l p s i s u s t r i r l l - v d tct i r c n cl lrc t r t so l blc c t rovct ctl t o l t l : h e p r c t k r r l t i r r a t tttu r t l i t r g ilvlrilability nt ,,gl.tt-t't-'i"" "' lrrrndlc'tl. itt rrll lilurtlu:'ttlrltltts' ', :rovidc tlilgonlrl rettrp: I t t s o t n cc a s c s .i t i s d e s i r a h i - : '.::"" oi tltc tltrltlrltttts' I;isurc X-l()l { slttlrrs lt ';i but with looPs irr ()llc'Iw()' 1 ' h i s t l c s i g r lh l r st l t e a ( l v i t l l tliagtlnai'- -:ptlsitc tlttlttlrltttrs' d c s i g r lw i t h l o t l l l s i t l rvlriting ttl tnltkc'thc leti tut'tl c r l i ' .>r,lrlgc ollvclticlcs l t r t { c t r t 'l r r t t v i t l i r r gl l r i g h t rttttlttot otr cithcr of thc tlrlough -,.. r',,ithc rlttttl.r llt thc at-grlldc itltcrscclttltl' "u : : c q u i r c t l t l t t t l t c r t l a j o rh i g l t w r t r highrvaYs.l'hcre is tlo wc:1"::i l - ' , r . , , r a t t r P st t t .,trti,tl cltllcrlcll' dcsigtt uitlt
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p i l c c t i o n u l i s l a n d sa n c ln t c r g el a n e sa t t h e r a m p t e r n t i n a l s c r r n i t f ' r e e c y r r l o v i n sr i g h t t u r t t st o l n d f r o n t t h e s e c o n d a r r o a d .T h e o n l y t r a l ' f i c o n t r o l a o id r : c - q u i r cs : t o p s i g n s t t h es e c o n d a rry a df b r t h eI e f ll u r n sf r o t nt h eo f f - r a n r p s . y P r o t c c t c rl lc l t - t u r nb l 1 ' so n t h e s e c o n d a rr o a da r e d e s i r a b l e . l p l F i c u r eX - J l s h o r v sn c x i s t i n g a r t i a c l o v e r l e aw i t h r a m p si n d i a g o n a l l l ' f t I. t o p p r r s i tq u a t l n r n t s n r e l a t i o no t h em a j o r h i g h l v a yh e r a m p sa r e i n o p p t l s i t e c A quudnrnts tl.tose the two previous of examples. major highwavcrosses f'nrrtt with are ovcr rr tirur-lunct'reeivlv.Rarnps locatedto avoid the two quadrants Directleft turnsareconfinedto lrcrrvv and development. ct:rrr.rrr.rclcialrcsidential t a d t h c r n i n o rr o u c w h e r et h e t e n n i n a l s r ec h a n n e l i z eb y d i v i s i o n a il s l a n d s h a t l w p ! ' n l r i t o n t r o lo f t u r n i n gt r a f f i c . h e i n t e r s e c t i oo f t h e r a r n p s i t h t h e m i n o r n T c are The outer connections is hishrvayin the Iower right quadrant signalized. with the tieewaytraffic.The Ioops high-speed mer-ring designedto cncoura-ge tbr andarede.signed a spEEdexample haveslightlvlargerradiithantheprevious of -50km/h. in interchange a rural area FigureX-32 showsan existingpartialcloverleaf Loop rampsare provided in two with cliagonal ramps in all four quadrants. that leti has This arrangement the advantage diagonallyoppositequadrants. to turnsare not requirediiom thecrossroad the ramps. of ;\ny othcr arrangement two loop rarnpsand fbur diagonalranrpscloes Notethetriangular frontthentinorroadotttoa rarnp. rcclLrirc turnsto be ntacle lcl't tiorl rvhichlcl'ttttrnstnustbe at theendsof thetwo ranrps islurrrl chrrrrnclization nratlc in ortler lo tntvel l'ront the freervayonto the trvo-latrchigh-volunlc design providesatlequatclcf't-turnstoragcitrld a fl'ce-floiv crossrorrtl.'l-hc of The rvav fiorn ths'frce to {hccr()ssroacl. clesigrt flcc-f-lorv, nlovcnlcrlt right-lLrrrr
r.iglrttrrlus slrould iriclutlc an udditionul lanc trcing litrnrccltttt thc cross strcet bv tlrc llcc-l'lori right-turn lunc tirr ot lc'ilst(r0 nr bctirlc treittg tttcrgctl. Irlcc right t i n l l n s l r r c r r o tt l c s i l a b l cs h c n t l t c n c \ t i n t c r s c c t i o n s r v i t h i n 1 5 0 n r b c c i r t r s ci l e r c r.chichs lL'ltvingtlrc ll'ce right lrrd turrrins let.tar rru.n lrc inlrlcquatc \\'eilvc ti)r tl t l t ti t t t c t ' s c c t t n . t 'l'lrc structtlrc spalls.s()thc lottp rillnl)s llrc cilrricd on separatcroatlrvltvsLlll(lcr ()utcrconncclion tral't'ic bcfillc cntcrittg lhc ll'ccu'ltr'. Ioop trul'lic llicrgcs ilirh the 'l'hrs t l c s i g nc n t l i l s l c o n s i t l c r a h l c \ t r l c ( ) s tb u t r c t l u c c st l t c p t l i t t l st l t c t t r t f l i c tt l t l l l t t 'I t e r . ' r r l t r .

F.G
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(two-quadrant cloverleaf). FigureX-31. Four-leginterchange

t h l n e n l o o p s b c c a u s eo f ' r e l u t i v c l v h i g h s p c c t l u n r l t h c l i k c l i l r t l r l d o f ' l l t t l r c i t r. a ( l e q u u t c c r r r i r n i l l r l c s i g rO l ' t c ni l d i r t r c tc o n n c c t i ( ) n s d c s i g n c dw ' i t hl w o I a n c s . t i I p s u c S c a s c s t l r c r l n r p c l r p a c i t \ n r i . r vl p p r o i r c l r h c c r t p i t c i l vo l ' t t n c t l u i v a l c n t ' n u r t t b c ro l ' l l t t t c st l r t t h c t l i t ' o u g hh i g l t t ' " l t r it u I n r u r 1 r l r c l r st h c f c l l l c l f i s u r r r l u r n c. l u s t i t ' i c r r t i ol r r r p t o v i s i t l t l t l l ' t l i r c c t l r c o n n c c t i o n s i t t t t t r l r c t h l t n o t t c ( ) r l \ \ ( ) q t l i l ( l r i t l l t s . - l ' h c c r t t l t i r t i r t gc t ' t - t u r n i r t g l u r . p ( ) v c n l c l ' l t s u a l l va r c l r a n d l c rs l t i s t . r c t o r i l l ' h vl o o p so r : l t - g f a d ci l t t c r s c c t i o r l s . ,,\t loast t\\() \trllcturcs itrc rctluircti tilr strch lttt intcrcltangc.Thcrc ltrc ltlilnv 1s t s p o s s i h l ci l r r i l l l g c l l l c l l t r i i t h d i r c c t l t t t ds c t t t i t i i r c cc ( ) l l l l c c t i ( ) 1 b t t'to t t l t ' t l t ct t t o r c l b r r s i cl i r r t t t sr t r ct l i s c t t s s c th c r c i n . ll . . \ t l r | c c t c ( ) n n c c t i ( ) lits t l c l i n c r l l l 5 r ( ) r ' l c - \ \ r r t l l t t l ul t r t l t l t tt l t l c s t t o t t l c r i l t t c t s r c u t l v t l ' 0 r t r r l r c i r r r e r r r l c t(ll i r c c t i r r l o t t f t t V c l . l t l t c r c h l r l l S c s l t l t t t s c t l i r c c l c ( ) l . 1 1 c c t i ( ) l il r r r I c r l l r i o r l c l ' t - t u n t t l l ( ) \c n r c l l t s l t r c t c r t t t c t ld i r c c l i t l n l t l i r t t c r \ l c l r ; r n g c s). i r c c fc o n n e c t i o n s l i l r o n c ( ) r i r l l l c l ' t - t u r l l t l l ( ) \ c l t l c l l t s * t l t t l d t l t t l t l i l ' r ' l t t t l l l i l l c r c h l l l l g c t ( ) [ u t c 1 1 c ( l t l i r c c t i g r r l lc r c n i i t l t c r n i r t r r r c l ' t - t t l r n l l ( ) \ c l t l u - t l ti \ r c
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c o n n e c t i o n s o n l y t h o s e h a ta c c o m m o d a ne a j o r e f t - t u r n o v e m e n tm a 1 ' b e t tr or l m s s e m i d i r e ci t a l i n e m e n t . n n O n d i r e c to r s e m i d i r e cit t e r c h a n g e s u a l l y o r et h a no n eh i q h w . a q r a d e us m v s e p a r a t i oin i n v o l v e d . s c S e m i d i r e c tr d i r e c t o n n e c t i o n s r o n eo r m o r el e f t - t u r n i nm o v e m e n ta r e o fb g s o f i e nr e q u i r e d t m a J o i n t e r c h a n g en u r b a n r e a s .I n t e r c h a n g e sr , o l v i n g\ \ ' o a r is l in t f i e e w a y sn e a r l ya l w a y sc a l l f b r d i r e c t i o n al a v o u t s . n s u c h c a s e sr u r n i n g I s m o v e m e n tis o n eo r t w o q u a d r a n to f t e na r ec o m p a r a b lie r o l u r n e o t h r o u g h n n t m o v e m e n t s . i r e c to r s e r n i d i r e c to n n e c t i o n s ,s c o r n p a r e r r i t h l o o p s .h a v e D c a d s h o r t etrr a v e d i s t a n c e .i g h e r p e e do f o p e r a t i o n .n da h i q h e r c v c lo f s e r v i c e . h l s s a l and they' otien avoid the necessity weaving. fbr Therearemanvschemes directional fbr interchanges usevarious that combirlations of directional,semjd!1qqlional. loap ramptlql,ans oI!he!tm4y be and appropriate a certain of condirions. only a limitednumber parrerns tbr set but of Theselayoutstlll the leastspace. are used_uenerally. havethe t'e*estor leasr minimizeintemalweaving, complexstructures. and flt thecommonterrainand trafficconditions. Basicpattems selected of semidirectional all directional and interchanges illustrated FigureX-33 and X-3-1, in are rvithdistinctions madeas t t o t y p e sr v i t ha n dr v i t h o u w c a v i n g .

;
f

lVith l-oopsand Weaving C o n t t n o nt r n l n g c n t c l tws c r ct u r n i n g r o v e m c n t is o n cr l u l t l r a np r c t l o r r r i n u t c i th r n t X - - l - 3 ;a n c X - - i - l B . ' l ' h c r c d o n r i n u nu r r r i r rr n ( ) \ c n r r - . n t \ a r c s h o r i t ti n I : i g u r c s l p tl g bypasscs thc ccrttrll portion of the intcrchangc. tncl iftr.'sso vil t* o-lltrrr' 'l'ltc ] t e r n t i n l t l s . r t t i n o rt t t r n i t t ln t ( ) \ e n r e l r ps s sl h r o u u hr i c u i i n S s c c l i ( ) n h c ta s n v c c t tl r r o p sr nc r t c l t t i g h r r l t r 'I.n l r o t hl ' i g u r c st s c n r i t l i r c c tr ) n l l c r t i ( )i n u s r t i l t l c s r v i t h o u t t t ' t t c t i n gl t c r t l i n c r r t c n tl ' t h c i n t c r s e c t i nh i g l i s r r r : .B o r l rs c l r c n r r ' r r t o g s an i n v o l v e h r c c t r u c t u r c s . dt h ea r c o ) c c u p i ui-s a b o u t h cs l t r r r t ' los s o r r r c h l l t r tl tr $ nroretllanl lirll clovcrlcal'. l ' h c c l ' l i c i c n c lrt n t lc a p a c i t v l ' l l l r h c ' s c h c r r rs h o r n i r rl j i - t u r c - . 1 . 1 r l r l l . c o cs r \ r i r n p r o v c tl lr - r. ' l i r n i r r a t i r r gc l t v i n t( ) n t h c l t . l l l i lrl o l t l r r l t r st l t r r r r r gtiir cu s co l . r tr r r c o l l c c t o r - t l i s t r i l r urtto a t l . ss h o w r t i u s h c trln [ j i s u r c\ - . 1 . ] . lr u

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o $ c V c f . l ( ) u r ( ) r r l l ( ) rs t r u c t u f c s t r cr c r l u r r c t l . . S r n qc r r t r r r r r l r . ' r r ! l t il r l o r t !r r i t l r c r lc t l r i g h t - l t l t n tc n t r i n t c c s t t h l t n c ct h c o p c n t l i t r n u c h u n r e c r i s l i c so l ' l h c : t t l e : r r r r : l c t

utrtl AAS|\TO_CertnretritDesign of'Lli,qhwul's

G ru tl c Sepu ru I i ott.\ u ttd I tt I er( ha tt q('.\

Fully Directional T h e s e i n t e r c h a n g e s a r e g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e d a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n s oandg h . v o | u n l e fhi little area They arecostiy in ton't'uttion but fill comparatively freeways. traffic' They requiredetailed' trau. tigt .apa.ity fbr both throughand tuming l c g e n e r a l l y o s t ss e v e r a m i l l i o n t i m e - c o n s u m i ns r u d y .a n d e a c hi n t e r c h a n g e g ot'ten tninoratljustments even justifying studyof all likely alternatives: dollars.

s t r . d A r p r o v e o b c i m p o r t a n t . d c t a i l c d i s c u s s i oj n .t h e e f b r cn o tu ' i t h i n h cp u r v t e u tl i n c l u d e co s h o $ ' d i a - s r a n l x x o f r h i sp o l i c l. b u rF i g u r e s - 3 - 5 Ar h r o u g h - l 5 c a r e rnaticla-i-outs. * a e W c a v i n g .l e l ' t - s i c le x i t s . a n d l e f t - s i d e n t r a n c e s r e u n d e s i r a b l e' i t h i n e b w ' h e r t h e y ' c i i n n o te e n il 's d i r e c t i o n an t e r c h a n g t h t;l u e v c rt.h e r e l a r b e i n s t a n c e s

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LANES IQ T A NOTE: WEAV|NG DJACENT o THE THROUGH C B ELIMINATEOY PROVIDINGOLLECTORwith no weaving' FigureX-34. Semidirectinterchanges

with weaving' FigureX'33. Semidirectinterchanges

AASHTO-GeometriL'Desigtr of Highwavsantl SIreet's

G rade Sepa ra t i o n s a nd I n t erc ho n,qe.t

877

S E MID IR E C T ION AL

With of reasonably avoidedbecause site restrictions other considerations. or shouldbe designed majorforksand as movements tenninals the heavyIeft-turn as branch connections. coveredlaterin this chapter. interchange thefour-levellayout is The mostwidely usedtypeof directional systemshown in Figure X-358. A variationof this type is the four-level with two exits from both major roadways. shown in Figure as interchange

x-35C.
in areaat thecrossing FigureX-36 showsan existinginterchange a suburban freeways. high-volume of two are ol or interchanges shownin Otherexamples semidirectional directional X-41. Figures X-37 through

4-LEVEL 6 -D. STRUCTURE

-c-

and directiona X-35. Semidirectional Figure multilevel structures.

anges-

connections. X-36. Directional interchange, semidirect two Figure

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O t'Lt a .S p u r u I i rtn.r u t ul I t tI t,n. h u r.1q d e t a.s

interchange. FigureX-37. Four-level directional

,1,\.5 t't( )-( ; ( ()nt c I ri ( D t,si,q rtl l I i g hwut..rtt ntl .\ t t.a I tr at.r

Gt'utle .Sa rd I it ttt.rd n(l I n I L't'( ltd n :1c.\

'f.r Other Interchanges pes Offset Interchanges bcni'ee tl'eetr thal n avr s intcrchcngc arranqcmL'nt Fi-gur.X--+lillustratean ofJsct * o m a y h a r e a p p l i c a t i o nh e r e t h e r ea r em a t o rb u i l d i n - g : r o t h c rt l e v c k t p m e n t ' n e a rt h cc r o s s i n g f t h e f r e e w a y sI.t c o n s i \ t s f a p a i ro l ' t r u n t p citn t e r c h a n g e . . o o h o o o n eo n e a c hh i g h r v a yw h i c ha r ec o n n e c t etd e a c h t h c rw i t h l l r a n r p i g h u ' a r . , r s T h e l e n g t ho f t h e c o n n e c t i n go a d r v a y e p e n d o n l h e d i s t x n c e b e t * e e t it h e d s in an A t r u m p e t n t e r c h a n g e s dt h ec r o s s i n g f t h ef i e e r v a v s . s i l l u s t r u t c d F i g u r c i o scrvicc' to includelclcal in X-42. theramphighwnymay be developed a manner i. a i c o n n e c t i o n sn t h i sc a s e d i a m o n d n t e r c h a n s e . n n of o ie A d i s a d v a n t a g et h i st v D e f i n t e r c h a n c s t h es u b s t a n t i ia l d i r e c t i o f o r s r x rvhen onepair between freeways. the However, of theeightturningmovements locationof the ramp hiuhrvay in the of thesemovementsis predominant, fiom a citl quadrant favorthemmakestheplanwell tltted.Whenconsidered to to drivers. the may be confusing non-repeat street system, overallconfiguration with adequate signing. roadways As a part of the continuingflow on one-\r'av patterl. would be unau'are the unusual of however. mostmotorists

FigureX-40. Semidirectional interchange with a single loop.

FigureX-41 Four-level ' semidirectional interchange twoexits with and two entrances eachleg. on

via FigureX-42.Offset interchange ramp highway.

/\ A.S l'f O-G ( ()n t c I r i c D esi,q, rtI' H i,qhvtu t's uttd St r c c t.s I tt

G rctde Separa t irtn.r u nd I ttt c rc hu tr,?.e.s

,98l

b i n a t i o nI n t e r c h a n g e s Whenonc or two turningmovcrltr-nts u,ithrespect the haveverv higli volurrrcs to s. o t h e rt u r n i n gn t o v e n r e n ta n a l l ' s i s a v i n c l i c i r tte c n e e dt i r r a c o n r b i n u t i oo f ' m h n v t l v o o r m o r eo f t h ep r e v i o u s l d i s c u s s eid t e r c h a n g e s . n s F i g u r e - - 1 3 h o w s ne x i s t i n g i a m o n dn r e r c h a n gn r v h i c h s e m i d i r e c t i o n a l X a d ie i a ramphasbeenaddedto accomntodate high-volunte thc leti-turning traffic.The hi c c o m p l e m e n t a r y g h - v o l u m r i , s h t - t u r n i n go v e n t c n s p r o v i d c d i t h a l i b e r a l w it nt radiusto tacilitate hirihspeeds also.Bccause crossstrcet the connects city on a t h el e f tw i t h a f b u r - l a n er e e a v .r e l a t i v e l h i g hv o l u m e se s u l t n t h a td i r e c r i o n . f w y r i requires This desi-sn tlvo more structures interchlnge. thana diarnond

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r i a (l T h r e eo f t h e c r o s s r o a t e r r l i n a l s r e c h a n n e l i z erd i t h s c D a r a tre s h t - a n d roadways. left-turning ar cloverleaf betu interchanse eentrvofrc-eri ' FigureX-4-l showsan existing b c n i n w h i c ha s e m i d i r e c to n n e c t i oh a sb e e ns u b s t i t u t etd r t h e I o o pr a m pi n t h e ie n t Th a o u p p e r l e f t q u a d r a n t . e i n t e r c h a n g s l o c a t e d t t h ec d g e f a s u b u r b aa r e d h t t nd bo re i s r a p i d l l ' d e v e l o p i n g t hi n d u s t r i a l l l ' a n d s i d e n t i a l lry ' . c o n s i c j e r a b l y ' h i g h e r i . a v o l u m e s r ee x p e c t e dn t h e f u t u r e T h e r a m p s k l n gt h e l e t i - t o - r i g hrto a d w a r a at rviththef'reewav traf'fic a single so havebeencombined thatthetrafficmerses pcrmitstraffic to point at the upperleti. The semidirectional turningroadrvav The approaching on themainroadway-s. complethat speeds travelat operating ment of this movementis providedwith a high-typetwo-lanerarnpalso *'ith The movements. designu'as more liberalradii thanprovidedtbr the remaining local roads.one of whiqh by railroadand-ttroimportant complicated anadjacent and structure wasrelocated area. additional An from thecenter theinterchange of wererequired the localroadcrossings providethe two high-speed fbr to spans directional ramps. one-halfdiamondand interchange. FigureX-.15showsan existingfour-le-u of The interchange located neartheboundary an urban cloverleaf. one-quadrant tbr designed 70 a treeway designed I l0 km/h anda highrvay for areais benveen of rvhichaccess not controlled. speed the loop rarlp is -10 is The design km/h on countr\ rvhichincludea railroad. streant. km/h. The landuseand topography', is clesi-sn. inl'luenceci the Opc'rutiort development, road.andexisting commercial rviththeexception theaccident tirrthr' ratc that as satislirctory. reported generally t on ic i n t e r s e c t i o n s t h e l o c a lr o a di s g r e a t etrh a na n t i c i p a t c d . ' f h os c u r r e n crc l i l \ thc to rnakeit necessary nrovidetraffic signalcontrolt>rr crossrolttl.

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ur-leg interchange, connection.

a semlorrec

FigureX-44. connection.

rcnange,

a semtolr

AAS HTO-<] eon eIri c D esi,q n

Hi,qhu'av.s .Stre und et.r

Grade Separalions antl I nlerchctnqes

U n u s u ar a m pc o n f i g u r a t i o n s es h o r v nn F i _ e u r e- 4 6 r h r o u - eX _ 4 9 . l ar i X h FigureX-46 shori's complexinterchange a ilrrangement a crossing at of'nvo major routesin a downtowndistrict. braided A tvpedesignis usedin thecenrer h. o f t h e p h o t o - e r a pT h e u p p e rp a r ri s a - q o o d x a m p l e f a m o d i f i e dt h r e e - l e e . e o all-directional interchanse. Localconnections alsoprovided. are Therehasbeen a m i n i m u mo f d i s r u p t i o no t h ec i r y s t r e e s v s r e m . t r F i s u r eX - 4 7 s h o w s n e l e v a t e di e e w a v e c t i o n i t h c o n n e c t i o t o a d o w n a t w s n town area. The .spurs thecenrer rhephorohelpdisperse rrallic desrined in of the for the downtownarea. FigureX-48 shorvs fieewayinterchange a with variedramp arrangements. The upperquadrants elongated are partialcloverleafi. The elongated arransementsmay be usedto savecertainbuildingsand to providea liberalweavlng distanee berweenlheentrance and-exironthe loops.The lowerguadrantshave lateral-typeramps that connecrto an arteriarrunning parallel to the f'reeway. FigureX-49 showsthe unusual arran_qementa three_level of cloverleaf. In this case, environmental constraints othersiterestrictions ancl necessitated the use of this configuration.Advance traffic studieswere carefully preparedto ensurethat the loop rampswould continueto functionproperlyas the traffic

o S v o l u m e si n c r e a s e d . i g n i n gw a s a l s o c r i t i c a lt o t h e p r o p e ro p e r a t i o n f t h e pu ie t i g f a c i l i r yA n o t h e rn t e r e s t i na s p e co f t h i si n t e r c h a n gst h ep a r k - a n d - r i d e b l i c . on the facility providedunderneath structures the lowestlevel. transportation the it applicability. exemplifies doesnothavewidespread interchange While this to needed providea functional designwhich is sometimes type of innovative conditions' facility underrestrictive

arrangement' interchange X-45. Complex Figure

Figure X-45. Four-leg interchange, one-haff diamond and one_ quadrantcloverleaf.

AASHTO--IJeometric Design of Highv'ays ancl Streets

Grade Separations uttd Itttcrcltottqe.s

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FigureX-48. Variedramparrangements.

AASHTO--CeometricDesig,n Highways ancl Streets of

and I nterchang,es Grade Separations

889

General DesignConsiderations Interchange-TypeDetermination The need to use interchanges may occur in the design of all functionally classified roadways, discussed as previously under"warrantsfor Interchanges" in this chapter. Interchange typesarecoveredin two categories, "systemsinterchanges" and "service interchanges." The term systemsinterchanges used to identify is interchanges that connect freeway to freeway. The term service interchange appliesto interchanges that connectthe freeway to lesserfacilities. In rural areas, problemofinterchange-type the selection solvedon thebasis is tersec ng roadways are freeways, all.direc t ionaI ti interchanges may be in order for high-turningvolumes. A combination of directional, semidirectional,and loop ramps may be appropriatewhere turning volumes are high for some movementsand low for others.when loop ramps are used in combination with direct and semidirect ramp designs,it is desirable that the loops be arranged that weaving secrions so will not be created. A cloverleafinterchange the minimum design that can be used at the is intersection two fully controlledaccess of facilities or where left turns at grade are prohibited.A cloverleafinterchange adaptable a rural environment is in rvhere right-of-wayis not prohibitiveand weavingis minimal. In thedecision process usecloverleafinterchanges. to careful attention shoulcl be given to the potentialimprovement operational in quality that would be realizecl thedesignincluded if collector-distributor roads themajorroadway. on Simplediamondinterchanges the most commontypeof interchange are for the intersection a major roadwaywith a minor facility. The capacityof a of diamondinterchange Iimitedby the capacity the at-grade is of terminats the of ramps thecrossroad. at High through andtumingvolumes couldpreclude use the of a simplediamondunless signalization used. is Partialcloverleafdesigns with loops in opposite quadrants very desirare rble clue eliminatingtheweavingproblemassociated to with the f ull cloverleaf designs rnd may alsoprovidesuperior capacityto othertypesof inrerchanges. Partialcloverleafdesignsare also appropriate where rights-of-wayare nor available(or expensive) one or more quadrants someof the movements in or are disproportionate the others.This is especiallytrue for heavy leti-turn to volumcs where loop ramps may be utilized to accommodate the leti-turn m()vcrnents. desiqncdon an individual basis without any appreciable effect from other w i n t c r c h a n q e si t h i n r h es y s r e mT h e f i n a l c o n f i g u r a t i o o f a n i n t e r c h a n gm a y . n e

patterns, by be determined the needfor route continuity,uniformity of exit o o elimination f weaving n n o s i n g l ee x i t si n a d v a n c e f t h e s e p a r a t i os t r u c t u r e , right-of-way.Sight the main facility, signing potential,and availabilityof shouldbe at leastas long separation on distance the highwaysthrougha grade longer.Whereexitsareinvolved. for as rharrequired stoiping and preferably is decisionsightdistance prefened'althoughnot alwayspracticai' considerrequires in determination an urbanenvironment Interchange-type interchange so conditions that the mostpracticable ableanalysisofprevailing can configurations be develoPed. Atanewlocation'itisdesirablethatinterchangesbeplannedintothe and bothhorizontally is so locationsrudies tharthefinal alinement compatible, are interchanges in sites.Generally, urbanareas, vertically,with interchange directly by the so elos-elyspqcldllet each interchangeT9y be influenced to the extent that additionaltaffirc lanes pr"""ain!-i fotto*ing-nterctrange weaving,and lanebalance' may be requiredto satisfycapacity, into a shouldbe integrated all the interchanges on a continuousurbanroute for Line sketches the an individualbasis. on designratherthanconsidered system combiinterchange alfernate and several entireurbancorridorcan be developed for nationsdeveloped analysisand comparisons' shouldbe a During the analysisprocedure, thoroughstudy of the crossroad heaviervolumeof traffic thatan its madeto determine potentialfor handlingthe to The ability of the crossroad receive and would dlscharge. interchange bearing on the discharge traffic tiom the main roadrvay has considerable to loop rampsmay be needed eliminate For example, geometry. interchange diamondinterchange' heavyleii turnson a conventional lnter.studies, systenls preliminaryIine-sketch of In the process developing varyingcombinaand crossings at may be insened freeway'-to-tieewav changes cloverGenerally' crossroads. tbr developed lesser rnterchanges tionsof service not practicable are roads with leaf inrerchanges or withoutcollector-distributor requtrements' right-of-way of because the excessive urbanconstruction for theycanbe design' ibr havebeenprepared thesystem altemates several once comparedorrrhetbIlowingprinciples:11)capacity.(2)routecontinuitv.(.] structurr" of (-l) unitbrmityof cxit patterns, silgle exitsin advance theseparation l . tl w i r h o u w e a v i n g(,6 ) p o r e n t i a b r s i g n i n g(,7 )c o s t 1 8 )a v a i l a b i l i to i r i 5 ) r v i t ho r with the and construction, ( l0) compatibility for potential stage right-of-rvry. 19) -l-he lbr can bc retrtined plandevelopllternatives environment. mostdesirable ment. of frorntheintluence t-rther well interchange removed clianisolated In thecase appl1. determination set forth tbr rural interchangc the interchanges. criteria
E:.-..-.,w (r\,1^ni^r"inrarnhrncpcrhlf .rprd;rnl;thleonfregwavsasrglated

ro alaiaiTi.^ui,or'.s
cnvironmcnts.

AASHTHeometic

Design of Highways and Street.s

QndI nterchanges Grade Separations

pproachesto the Structure -Alinement, profile, and cross section. Traffic passing throughan interchange should be afforded rhe samedegreeof utirity and safety as that given on the approaching highways. The standards designspeed, for alinement. profile,and cross sectionin theintersection area. therefbre. shouldbe ashigh asthose the on approaching highways, eventhough theymay bedifficult to attain. The presence of the structureitself is somewhar an obstruction, of which should not be augntented low geometric by standards that tend to encourage unsafedriver behavior.Preferably,the geometricstandards the highway gradeseparation at shouldbe higherthanthose thehighway counterbalance possible for to any sense of restrictioncausedby abutments, piers, curbs, and rails. Desirablv.the nemenr and profire of rhe-through highways at an interchange shourd be relativelyflat with high visibility.Sometimes will be possible designonly it to one of the intersecting preferably,the major roadson a tangentwith flat grades. highwayshouldbe so rreared. The general controls for horizontal and vertical alinement and their c o m b i n a t i o n ,a s s t a t e di n c h a p t e r I I I , s h o u l d b e a d h e r e dt o c l o s e l y . I n p a r t i c u l a r .a n y r e l a t i v e l y s h a r p h o r i z o n t a lo r v e r t i c a l c u r v e s s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d H o r i z o n t a c u r v a t u r eh a tb e g i n s t o r n e a ra p r o n o u n c e c r e s to r s a g . l t a d s h o u l db e k e p t t o a m i n i m u m a n d i n n o c a s es h o u l dt h ec u r v a t u r e x c e e d h e t m a x i m u m se s t a b l i s h e do r o p e n - h i g h w a y o n d i r i o n s . r a d i e n r s h a r m a y f c G t s l o wd o w n c o m m e r c i av e h i c l e s r l h a tm a y b e d i f f i c u l tt o n e g o t i a t e h e ni c y l o w s h o u l db e a v o i d e d . e d u c t i o n f v e h i c l es p e e c rb y r o n gu p g r a d e s n c o u r a g e R o s e p a s s i n g . h i c hi s u n d e s i r a b il n t h ev i c i n i t y f r a m pt e r m i n a l s .l o w - m o v i n g w e o s T h r o u g h v e h i c l e sa l s o e n c o u r a g e b r u p tc u t t i n g i n b y v e h i c l e sl e a v i n ga n d a cntcringhchighwuvs. t -lhe alinementilnd crosssectionof the approaches a gracleseparation to w i t h o u tr a m p si n v o l v en o s p e c i ap r o b l e r ne x c e p tw h e r ea c h a n g e n w i c - t tih l s i s madeto includea rniddlepier or wherethe medianis narrowe<J strucrure tbr e c o n o m yw i t h r a m p sc h a n g e is a l i n e m e na n dc r o s s e c t i o n a y b er e q u i r e d . . n t s m to ensurepropcroperatlon antl to developthe necessarv caplcitv at the ramp y t c r m i n a l sp a r t i c u l a r l w h e r e h e r e s n o ta f u l l c o r n p l c r n L 'o ftr i l r n p s n dw h e r e . t i n a s o m el e f i t u r n sa t g r a d e r en e c e s s a r y .n a d i v i d e dh i g h r v a vd i r e c tl e l t t u r n s a o . m a v c l l l t b r a w i d e n i n go f ' t h ec r o s s e c t i o n o e n s u r e s u i t i r b l -w i c l cm e d i a n s t v r t i r r a c o r r r b i n e d p e c d - c h a n g e d s r o r a s e a n e .o n l n u n d i v i c l e d u l t i l a n e s an I m h i g h , ' v a t h c i n t r o d u c t i o n f u n r c d i a n s u a l l yi s n c c e s s a rtv e n s u r e h a t r h e y o u o t directlcft turn i.s mader()theproperramp.where rrtrvo-lane highwayis carried t h r o u - qa n i n t e r c h a n g e .r o n g - w a ve f tt u r n sa r c l i k c l v t o o c c u r . v e nw r t ht h e h w l c c o n d i t i o n sh i s f a c t o rm a y w a r r r n ta d i v i t t e d e c t i o n h r o u q ht h c i n t e r c h a n g e t s t u r e at 0 p r e v e n t u c ht u r n s . s
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AASHTO--Geometric Desi,gnof Hi,ghv'aysand Street.E

Grade Separations ancl IttIert han.qes

893

At an interchange four-lanehighwayshouldbe divided.Four-lane a roads may cany enoughtraffic to justify the eliminationof at-gradeleft rurns.To ensure drivers that desiring tum leftwill usetheproper to ramps. nontraversable a medianshouldbe provided. At-grade turnspreferably left shouldbe accommodatedwithin a suitablywide median. widening or narro,'ving gain rhedesiredwidth fbr a divisionalislandin ro an interchangearea is done in the same manneras that done at any other i n t e r s e c t i o n . a n y a l i n e m e np o s s i b i l i t i eo c c u r , n ds o m eo f t h em o r et y p i c a l M t s a s i t u a t i o n s r e i l l u s t r a t e dn F i g u r eX - 5 l . F i g u r ex - 5 l A s h o w st h e c u s t o m a r y a i symmetricaldevelopmenr a divisional island on a four-lane undivided of highway.Traffic in eachdirectionis requiredto traverse two reverse curves. Figure x-5 lB showsa divisionalislanddeveloped a four-laneundivided on highway in whieh theeenrerljne is offserrhrough-the interehangearea;jFraffie in eachdirectionis enabled enrerwithout curvature to and to effect the offset with but one reversecurve,which desirably occursafter drivershave passed beyondthe structure and ramp terminals. is not usable existingfour-lane It on highways unlessthe approaches reconstructed obtain the centerline are to offset. sight distance.Sight distance the highwaysthrougha gradesepararion on shouldbe at leastas long as that required stoppingand preferably for longer. where exits are involved.decisionsight distance pref'ene<j, is althoughnot alwayspractical. Designof thevertical alinement thesame thatat anyother is as point on the highway. T h e h o r i z o n t as i g h td i s t a n c ei m i t a t i o n s f p i e r sa n d a b u t m e n t a t c u r v e s l l o s u s u a l l y r e s e na m o r ed i f f i c u l tp r o b l e ntrh a nt h a to f v e r t i c a l i r n r t a t i o n s . i t h p t W l h e m i n i m u m r a d i u sf o r a g i v e nd e s i g n p e e d C h a p t e I I I ) . t h e n o r m a ll a t e r a l ( r s c l e a r a n ca t p i e r sa n da b u t m e n to f u n d e r p a s s d o e sn o tp r o v i d e h em i n i m u m e s es r s t o p p i n g i g h td i s t a n c eS i r n i l a r l yo n o v e r p a s s e s i t ht h e s h a r p e sc u r v a t u r e s . , rv t tbr the designspeed, sightdeficiencies resultfrom the usualpracticaloft.set to bridee rails. This factor emphasizes need fbr use of below-maximum the curvatureon highwavs through interchanges. sutficiently tlat curvature If cannotbe used,theclearances abutments. to piers.or railsshoulcl increased be as ncce ssar,y obtainrhc proper.si-sht to d j.stance evL'n thoughit i.snecessary ro incrcasepans r widths. s o Rarrrp terminals crossroads at shouldbe treated at-grade as intersections and shouldbe desi-uned accordance in wirh chapterIX. The sighttlisrance required to permitvariou.s de.sign vehicles turn leti tiom a rampto crossroad shown to is i n T a b l eI X - 1 0 .

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AASHTO-4jeonetric Design of Hi.qhu'avs ond Street.r

and I ntcrchun.qes CiradeSeparations

895

n g eS p a c i n g - Spacingof interchanges a pronounced has eff'ect the operation freeways. on of of urbandevelopment, properspacing usuallyis difficult [n areas concentrated to attainbecause traffic demandtbr frequent of access. Minimum spacingof (d.istance arterial interchanges betweenintersecting streetswith ramps) is determined weaving bv volumes. abilityrosign.signal progression. required and lengthsof speed-change lanes.A generalized rule of thumb fbr minimum i n t e r c h a n g e s p a c iin g . 5k m i n u r b a n a r e a s a n d 3 . 0 k i n r u r a la r e a sI.n u r b a n s1 m areas. spacing lessthan 1.5km may be developed grade-separated of by ramps or by addingcollector-distributor roads.

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Uniformity of Interchange Patterns ul If a seriesof interchanges being designed, is attentionmust be given to the group, as well as to each individually. Interchange uniformity and route continuity are interrelated concepts, and both can be obtained under ideal conditions.Consideringrhe need for high capacity, appropriatelevel of s e r v i c e a n d m a x i m u m s a f e t yi n c o n j u n c t i o n i t h f i e e w a y o p e r a t i o n si , i s , w t to desirable provide uniformity in exit and entrance patterns. Because interc h a n g e s r ec l o s e l ys p a c e dn u r b a na r e a s s h o r t e r i s t a n c e a r e a v a i l a b l en a i , d s i w h i c h t o i n f b r m d r i v e r so i t h e c o u r s e o b e t b l l o r v e d n l e a v i n ga f r e e w a y A t i . d i s s i r n i l aa r r a n g e r n e n t e x i t sb e t r v e e s u c c e s s i vie t e r c h a n g e s u c ha s a n r of n n , i r r e g u l a s e q u e n c o f t h e n e a ra n c t a r s i d co f s t r u c t u r e x i t r a n t pl o c a t i o n s r r c' l c o some lefi-otf movements. illustratedin Figure X-52A. causes as confusion r e s u l t i n g n s l o r v i n gd o r v no n h i u h - s p e e da n e sa n c lu n e x p c c t e d a n e u v e r s . i l m T h ed i f i i c u l t yo f I e f t - e n t r a n c ee r g i n g . v i t h i g h - s p c er h r o u g h r a f f i ca n ctl h e m r d t r e q u i s i t e a n ec h a n g i n gf b r l e f t - e x i Ir a m p sm a k e t h e s el a y o u t su n d e s i r a b l e . l E x c e p ti n h i g h l y s p e c i a c a s e s l l e n t r u l n ca n d c x i t r a m p ss h o u l db e o n t h e l a e r i g h t .T o t h e e N , t e n t r a c t i c a b l e l l i n t e r c h a n g ea l o n g a f r e e w a vs h o u l db c p a s reasonably unitbrrnin geornetric layoutand gcncralappcarancL'. shown in us F i g u r cX - . 5 1 8 .
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Overlapping Routes In srlrttc situations it is nccesslrv thut t'"vtl or ln()rc routcs occupv a single a l i r r e r n c nr v i t h i n a c o r r i c l o r . e n e r l l l y . i n r u r u l i l r c r s t h c p r o b l c n r o i h a n d l i n g t c ( u r n l t n a r c irl s .t n c c o lmp llc xxti yv )tt t n c p r o)b llc r1i]n c r c lus cc wti lth t ll rc h e o n p e l t o h e D r ( b c l n c r c l s ss t w c r v i n g l n d t h e n c e d f i r r a d d i t i o n a lc l p u c i t v a n t l l u n c b t l a n c c

AAStITO--ljeometric Design of Highu,avsand Streets

s ions and I nterchang,e Grade Separat

In urLran areas, is preferable to haveoverlapping it not routes, especially the short-distance type.When routes overlap, signingis morecomplicated, the and decisionprocess the driver is more demanding. for The provisiontbr routecontinuitythroughoverlapping sections essential. is However. in some instances. this provisionposesa problem in determining which route shouldhaveprecedence. the problemis especially and true when bothroutes havethesame classification. Througha process subclassification, of i . e . ,U . S . ,S t a t ec i t y .o r c o u n t v o u t ea p r i o r i t y a y b ee s t a b l i s h e d r o n eo f t h e . r , m fo overlappingroadways. otherfactorsbeing equal,priority shouldbe assigned All to the routethat handles highest the volumeof throughtraffic. Oncepriorityfbr oneof theoverlapping roadways beenestablished, has basic lanes, lanebalance, otherprinciples interchange and of designcanbe applied to ign ofithe overlapping seetisnJhe lower elassifie4faeility should enter and exit on the right,thusconformingto the conceptof routecontinuity. On overlapping roadways, weavingis usuallyinvolved.However,on long overlaps, longerarea the available minimizes problemof weaving. the where the overlapis short,asthatbetween successive interchanges, carefulattention must be given to the designof weavingsections, lanebalance, and optionallanes. In a situation wherea majoranerialwouldbe overlapped a lesser roadway, by the minor facility may be designed a collector-distributor as roadwith transfer roads connectingthe two facilities,as shown in Figure X-53. This design removes weavingfrornthe majorroadway and transfers to the minor facility. it Seethe discussion collector-distributor of roadsin this chaoter.

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and directconnections auxiliary on can be designed flat curyeswith reasonably to operationally throughmovements. lanes, equivalent the principleof route continuity as applied to a Figure X-54 illusrrates routes othermajorhigh-volume 15, route,Interstate asit intersects hypotherical not shown). (.service intcrchanges by In Figurc X-548 route continuityis disrupted other routesexiting or of direction the lastinterchange. for thenorthbound on entering the left.except route by on is maintained the designated In Figure X-54A route continuity or exitingroutes. keepingit on the lett of all otherentering

R o u t eC o n t i n u i t y Routecontinuityrefersto theprovision a directional of pathalongandthroughout the lengthof a designated route. The designation pertains a routenumber to or a nameof a major highway. Routecontinuityis an extension the principleof operational of uniformity coupled with the applicarionof proper lane balanceand the principle of m a i n t a i n i n g a s i cn u r n b eo f l a n e s . b r The principleof roureconrinuiry simplifiesthe driving raskin that it reduces lanechanges. simplifiessigning,delineares throughroure.and reduces the the drive'r's search direcrional tbr signing. Desirably,the throughdriver. especially the unfamiliardriver. should be provided continuous a through routeon which it is not necessary change to lanes and vehicular operarion occurson the leti of all othertraffic. bypasses. interchange confisurations neednot always tavor the heavvmovement but ratherthe rhroughroute.In this connection, heavy movements the

Signingand ilIarking to that at of Ease operation interchanges. is,clarityof paths be followed.safety. layout. the spacing, geometric clepends largelyon theirrelative andefficicncy, ramp between and effectivesigning.The locationof and minimum distances signingcan be on juncrionsdepend a largedecree whetheror not effective to provided to infbrm. wam, and control drivers. Location and design of intershouldcontormt0 the M (2).

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Grade Separalions and I rlterchonges

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B a s i c\ u m b e r o f L a n e s on of the to Fundamental establishing numberandarrangement lanes a freewav character Any routeof arterial the basicnumberof lanes. of is the designarion a s o n c o n s i s t e n ci y t h en u m b e r f l a n e 'p r o v i d e d l o n gi t ' a m should aintain certain of lanesis deiined as a minimum numberof lanes Thus. rhe basic number of lengthof a route,inespective over a significant and desi_snated maintained Statingit another tbr lanebalance. in charryes traffic volumeand requirements wa,v. basicnumberof lanesis a consmn numter of lanesassignedlo?rutt t|1e l o e x c l u s i v e f a u x i l i a r Ya n e s . in As illustrated Figure X-55, the basic numberof laneson freewaysis as of lengths theroutes, A to B orC to D. The number oversignificant mainrained volume levelof traffic over a substantial on of lanesis predicated the general here is the DHV (normally' length of the facility. The volume considered peak)' of representative the moming or eveningweekday below the on short sections are ignored,so volumes Localizedvariations on and volumes short capacity. havereserve generll l$cl rvouldtheoretically tbr conlpensated by the abovethe generallevel would be sontcwhat sections s T l s i d ly ot a c j c i i t i g n' r r u x i l i a ra n e sn t r o d u c e* i t h i nt h e s e e c t i o n s .y p i c a e x a m p l eo f r s l a n eb a l u n c et r e h o w ni n F i g u r eX - 5 6 . wheretraffic buildsup in An incrcasc thc basicnumberof lanesis required t r s a y s u f f i c i e n t l t o . i u s t i l ' a l l e x t r al a r r e n d r v h e r e u c hb u i l d u p a i s e s h e l ' o l u m e r f e o l e v c lo v c - lr s u b s t a r t t i la l n g t h f t h ef o l l o r v i n ga c i l i t l ' . 'l'hr' wht-retratfic is reduced of hlsrc t.tuntber lanes nlav be decreased clf to sut'ficicntly clropl basic lane.providedthereis a generallorvering the later are Lanerc'ductitlns di'\cus'sed Iouteilsa rvhole. volurrtc cl otrtheticervav lcr i r rt h i sc h u p t c r .

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AASHTO-Ceometric Design oJ' Highu,aysand Streets

g G,trde Senarationsa nd I nterc'han es

b e c a u s eh e r ea r e s u b s t a n t i a lo l u m e s f t r a f f i c e n t e r i n g n d l e a v i n g T h e r e t v o a . l d b e c o n t i n u i t yi n t h e b a s i cl a n e s .A s d e s c r i b e da t e r i n t h i s s e c t i o n l v a r i a t t o n sn t r a f f i cd e m a n d h o u l db e a c c o m n r o d a t e d m e a n s f a u x i l i a r v l s o by laneswhereneeded.

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FigureX-55. Schematicof basic number of lanes.

FigureX-56. Typicalexamplesof lane balance'

AA.\ll'fo--Ceometri( Design of Highv,al,sund Streets

and I nterchanBes Grade Separations

After the basicnunrber lanes determinecl eachroadway. balance of is for the i n t h en u r n b e r o l l a n e s o u l d cc h e c k e o n r h eb a s i s f r h et b l l o w i n g r i n c i p l e s : sh b d o p A t e n t r a n c e sh e n u m b e r f l a n e s e y o n d h e m e r g i n go f t w o t r a f f i c t. o b t s t r e a m s h o u l dn o t b e l e s st h a n t h e s u m o f a l l t r a f f i c l a n e so n t h c s m b r g i n gr o a d w a v s i n u so n e . m 2 . A t e x i t s .t h e n u m b e r o fa p p r o a c l a n e s n t h e h i g h r v a y u s tb e e q u a l h o m t o t h en u m b e r l l a n e s n t h eh i q h r v a y e y o n d h ee . r i tp l u st h en u m b e r o o b t o f l a n e s n t h ee x i t . l e s s n e .A n e . r c e p t i otn t h i sp r i n c i p l e o u l c l e o o o w b at cloverleaf loop rampexitswhich fbllow a loop ranrpentrance at or exitsbetween closelyspaced interchan_qes; interchanges i.e'.. wherethe distance between end of the taperof the entrance the terminaland the beginningof the taperof the exit terminalis lessthan .150m and a c o n r i n u o ua u x i l i a r y a n e e t w e e nh et e r m i n a l i s b e i n gu s e d I n t h e s e s I b t s . cases, auxiliarylanemay be dropped a single-lane the in exit with the numberof lanes rheapproach on roadway beingequalto thenumberof throughlanesbeyondthe exit plus rhe laneon the exit. 3. The traveled way of the highwayshouldbe reduced not more than by one traflic laneat a tinte. The application theprinciples lanebalance illustrated FigureX--56: of of is in h o w e v e rt,h e s e r i n c i p l e s e e r no c o n f l i c t v i t ht h ec o r l c e po f c o n t i n u i t yn t h e p t r t i n b a s i c u m b e r o fl a n e sa si l l u s t r a t eid F i g u r e - - 5 7 . h e l a t t e r i g u r es h o r v sh r e e . n X T f t tlilfi'rcnt arrangements,uvhere a fbur-lanc lrcewayin onc clirection travelhas of a t w ' ( ) - l a ne x i t f b l l o w e cb v a t w o - l a n e n t r i l n c c . e l c I n F i g u r e - 5 7 A . l a n eb a l a n c cs n r l i n t a i n c d . u tt h c r e ' i s o c o n r p l i a n cw i t h x i b n c t h e b a s i c n u m b e ro f l a n e ' sT h i s p a t t e r nn l l v c a u s ec o n t u s i o na n d e r r a t i c . opcrations thrttughtraffic on the frec'rvuv. firr Evcn thoughtnrl'ficvolunres are recluccd throush the interchangc. thcre is r1oassurar:cL. this pattcrn rvill that prevailundcrthe circumstanccs. Undul,v lurgcconcentrations ot'through traffic nravhc caused spccial by events by closurcs rcrluction capacity or or in ofother plrallcl tacilitiesbecause ltccidcnts nraintL'nilnce of or opcrations. Undc'rsuch circutltstanccs larrcs anv that hlvc bccrrdroppcdon l fl'ccwllybct!vL'cn s()lltc i n t c r c l t a r t g( b a s c d n c a p a c i t l " a n a n c - b a l a r rrc c l u i r c r n c r rss l i c t a t cblv t h c cs o ld ct lt c t n o n t t a lD H V ) p r o d u c c c f i n i r c o r t l c n c c k s . d b -fhc u r r a n s c ' r n esn to w ' n n F i q u r cx - - s 7 Bp r o v i d c s o n t i l l r . l i tiv r h c h a s i c 'h i c n
nultlhcr of lancs but tlocs not conti)n'n r',ith lhc principles of'lunc lralancc.!Vith t l r i sl t r r a t l g c n t c nt h c l a r g ce r i t i n l ( ) r c n t c r i r l g n r l ' f i cv o l u r n c r c t l u i r i r r t t r v o l a n c s t v u o u k ll r a v c t l i t ' f i c u l r vi n d i v c r q i n s f r o r n o r r n e r s i n g r . r ' i r hh c r n u i n l i n c l b w . t

l.

may be way.Auxiliary lanes themfrom thebasicwidthof thetraveled removing to interchanges, between weavingrequirements and addedto satisfycapacity of and at interchanges, for simplification variations trafficpattern accommodate must (as The principlesof lane balance operations reducinglane changing). the this manner, necessary alwaysbe appliedin the useof auxiliarylanes.In balancebetweentraffic load and capacity is provided, and lane balanceand flexibility arerealized. operational needed

45-3-4a\ /,4

WITH EASIC NUMBER OF LANE EALANCE BUT NO COMPLIANCE LA'!ES

-A-

WITH BASIC NUMBEROF NO LANE BALANCE BUT COMPLTANCE LANES

-B-

OF WTTHBOTH LANE BALANCE AND BASIC NUMBER COMPLIANCE LANES

F -v-

F i g u r c X - , 5 7 Ci l l u s t r a t c s n A r r a n g c r n c nn * h i c h t h c c o n c c n t s t ' l a n e a it o ( b u i l d i r r g ) n t h e b l s i c n u r n b e r f l l n c s . t h l t i s . b r r r l t l i n r r u x i l i a r vl a n c so r o a

lanes.

AASHTO--lieometric Design of Highwaysand Streets

and I nterchctnges Grade Separations

Designdetailsof multilaneramp terminals with auxiliarylanes covered are l a t e ri n t h i sc h a o t e r .

Auxiliary Lanes An auxiliarylaneis definedastheportionof theroadwayadjoiningthetraveled way for parking,speedchange,turning,storagefor turning,weaving,truck climbing,andotherpurposes supplementary through-traffic to movement. The w i d t h o f a n a u x i l i a r yl a n es h o u l d q u a lt h a to f t h et h r o u g h a n e sA n a u x i l i a r y e l . lanemay be providedto comply with theconceptof lanebalance to comply or with capacityrequirements the caseof adverse in gradesor to accommodate speedchanges,weaving,and maneuvering enteringand leaving traffic. of

xiliary lan@way

mainInne--he-{acent

would desirably shoulder be2.4 to 3.6 m in width, with a minimum L8 m wide shoulderconsidered. Operational efficiencymay be improvedby using a conrinuous auxiliary lanebetween entrance exit terminals the and where( I ) interchanges closely are (2) spaced. the distance between end of the taperon rheentrance the terminal and the beginningof the taperon the exit terminal is short, and/or(3) local frontageroadsdo not exist. An auxiliary lane may be introduced a single as e x c l u s i v ea n eo r i n c o n j u n c t i o n i t h a t w o - l a n e n t r a n c e . h e t e r m i n a t i o n f l w e T o t h ea u x i l i a r y a n em a yb e a c c o m p l i s h eb y s e v e r am e t h o d sT h ea u x i l i a r y a n e l d l . l m a y b e d r o p p e di n a t w o - l a n ee x i r a s i l l u s t r a t e d n F i g u r e X - - 5 8 A .T h i s i t r e a t m e nc o m p l i e s i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s f l a n eb a l a n c eS o m ea g e n c i e p r e f e r t w s o . t o d r o p t h e a u x i l i a r yl a n ei n a . s i n g l ea n ee x i t a s i l l u s t r a t e dn F i g u r eX - 5 8 B . l i T h i s t r e a t m e nits i n a c c o r d a n cw i t h t h ee x c e p r i o nls s t e du n d e r p r i n c i p l e2 ) e ( i o f l a n eb a l a n c eA n o t h e rm e t h o d s t o c a r r yt h ef u l l - w i d t ha u x i l i a r y a n er o t h e . i l phvsical nose before it is taperedinro the through roadway.This design providesa recoverylane tbr driverswho inadvertently remainin the drscont i n u e d l a n e . ( S e e F i g u r e X - 5 8 C . ) W h e n t h e s em e r h o d s f t e r m i n a t i n g h e o t a u x i l i a r yl a n e( F i g u r e s - 5 8 B a n d X - 5 8 C ) a r e u s e d ,t h e e x i r s o r e s h o u l db e X v i s i b l et h r o u g h o utth e l e n g t ho f t h e a u x i l i a r yl a n e . I t ' l o c a e x p e r i e n cw i t h s i n c l e - e x i t e s i g n n d i c a t ep r o b l e m w i t h t u r b u l e s d i s l c n c ei n t h et r a f f i cf l o w c a u s e d y v e h i c l e s t t e m p t i n go r e c o v e a n dp r o c e e d b a t r o n t h e t h r o u g hl a n e s ,t h e r e c o v e r yl a n e s h o u l db e e x r c n d e d1 5 0 t o 1 0 0 m b e t b r eb e i n r t a p e r e di n t o t h e t h r o u g h l a n e s .( S e e F i g u r e X - - 5 i l D . ) i t h i n W l a r g e i n t e r c h a n g e s h i s d i s t a n c e h o u l d b e i n c r e l s e dt o - t - 5 0 n . W h e n a n t. s r

or it are when interchanges widely spaced, might not be feasible necessary the thenext.In suchcases, to to extendtheauxiliarylanefrom one interchange be carriedalong the should auxiliary laneoriginatingat a two-laneentrance beyondthemergingpoint.asshownin Figure distance freewayforan effective for x-59A2, or an auxiliarylaneintroduced a two-laneexit shouldbe canied ofthe exit andextended in alongrhefreewayfor an effectivedistance advance onto rheramp,as shownin Figurex-5982. Auxiliary lanesthatdo not extend in as or may be terminated introduced indicated Figures to thenextinterchange X x - 5 9 A I . X - 5 9 A 2 ,X - 5 9 8 I , a n dX - 5 9 B 2 .F i g u r e s - 5 9 A I a n dX - 5 9 8 I u t i l i z e Figuresx-59A2 and X-59B2 are paralleldesigns' whereas taperdesigns. are designs while the tapered are the Generally, paralleldesigns preferred. the concerning insidemergeon are someagencies apprehensive acceptable, shown ramps.Laneshouldnot be lessin lengththanthose enrrance tapered the forgrades ar ramps in Tables X-4 andl(d-wirh ad1-ustments forsi=ngl.lane auxiliary in suggested Table X-5. What the effectivelengthof the introduced Experience is circumstances not known precisely. underthese laneshouldbe the to of that minimum distances about750 m are required produce indicates effect and to develop the full capacity of two-lane operational necessary and entrances exits. tiom for wherean auxiliarylaneextends a longdistance instances For those unfamiliar to an eXit at the next interchange, at an entrance one interchange may perceivethe auxiliary laneas an additionalthroughlane.For mororists i a , t h e s es i t u a r i o n sa n a u x i l i a r yl a n e m a y b e t e r m i n a t e d s d i s c u s s e dn t h e e a " L a n eR e d u c t i o n s "r b y p r o v i d i n g t w o - l a n e x i t ' o e s u b s e q u es e c t i o n n t i t l e d nt the traffic loacland maintaina tnore Auxiliarl, lanesare used to balance t u n i f o r m l e v e l o f s e r v i c eo n t h e h i g h w a y .S u c h a d d c d l a n e sf a c i l i t a t e h e a t h e n r n t ot h ch i g h w a y t e n t r a n c e s . o a p o s i t i o n i n o f d r i v e r s t e x i t sa n db r i n g i n g g c ' a t T h u s .t h ec o n c e pits v e r y m u c hr e l a t e do s i g n i n g n dr o u t e o n t i n u i t yC a r e f u l t r e a t m e no f a n a u x i l i a r yl'a n e t c o n s i d e r a t i os h o u l db e g i v e n t o t h e d e s i g n n point a t b e c a u s ie m a y h a v et h ep o t e n t i aflb r t r a p p i n g d r i v c ri l t i t s t e r m i n a t i o n turning roatlway, onto a ramp or or the point rvhereit is continueci of the FigureX-60 demonstrates application an auxililry lanc that is temrib . e a t n a r e d h r o u g h m u l t i l a n e x i t t e r m i n a lT h e o u t s i d c l s i c l a n ca u t o m i l t i c l l l ) ' F l o w r b e c o m ea ni n t e r i o I a n e i t h t h ea d d i t i o n f t h ea u x i l i a r ya n c . r o mt h i si n t c r i o r s thcdrivcrhast * o ahcld..\lthough straight lane drivermayexit rightor proceeti a be i e o . o o c h o i c e s f d i r c c t i o n f t r a v e l t h ed e s i g n f m u l t i l a n c x i t t c r m i n a l ss n o t t t l "lvlajorForks scction in as concept. tliscusscd thc rviththeoptionallane confused e W un C a n dB r a n c h o n n e c t i o n s " d e r " T r a v e l e d a yW i d t h s . " T h c x a r n p lc o m p l i e s

,rui(ilirryl.lneiscarridthroughoneormoreinterchmges.irmaybedropped 0s indicrted above or il mav be mersedinlo the rhrou 'ondw'rv ltorDt i' sh

lcnds The and b oflane llnce bNicnumberofhnes. desi-ln withrh. princaples lo to drivers mlle theirdecision mvel emntrrsis rhethroush ro roule ind allow$
r r c s u l t f t h el d d i t i o n a lm a n e u v ea r e a . o

x-.isE. )

906

AASHTO-Ceometric Design of Highways ctntlStreets

anclI nlerchan,qes Gratle Separalions

\\\ :\\ AUXILIARY LANE DROPPEDON EXIT RAMP

. A I - T A P E R ED E S I G N D
AUXILIARY LANE BETWEEN CLOVERLEAF LOOPS OR CLOSELY INIERCHANGESDROPPEDON SINGTE EXIT tANE-

- A 2 - P A R A L L E D E SG N ( P R E F E R R E D ) L I
AUXILIARY LAIJE DROPPEDAT PHYSICALNOSE ALTERNATIVES DROPPING IN AUXILIARYLANES
E B V D LA A U X I L I A R Y N E E X T E N D E F O R E F F E C IT E OI S T A N C E E Y O N O N T R A N C E

x Refer to F l g u r e X - 8 o f o r m l n l m u nl e n g t h c r l t e r l o .

-DAUXILIARYLANE DROPPEDWITHIN AN INTERCHANGE

-8 I TAPEREO

-E-

l-. t.oo' j.

AUX!-LARY LANE

(A) PARALLEL DESIGN PREFERRED EXTT INTROUJCED FOR EFFECIIVE OISTANCE IN AD/AI'ICE OF -%-

,^

I( VARIES WITH ANGLE OF OIVERGENCE

AUXILIARY LANE DROPPED E Y O N D A N INTERCHANGE B

o s A F ES P E E D N R A M P @ e o r r u rc o N T R o L L t N G

FigureX-58. Alternatives droppingauxiliarylanes. in

lanes. ol application auxiliary tanes through

AASHTO--ljeometric Design of Highways and Streets

ns Grade Separatio and I nterc'hang es

Lane Reduction As discussed the section in "BasicNumberof Lanes"andthe section "Coordinationof Lane Balance and BasicNumberof Lanes"earlierin thischapter, the basic number lanes of shouldbemaintained overa significant lengthof freeway. Lanereductions shouldnot be madebetween andwithin interchanges simplyto accommodate variations trafficvolumes. in Instead, auxiliarylanes, needed, as areadded removed or from thebasic number lanes. described thesection of as in "Auxiliary Lanes" in this chaprer. A reduction thebasicnumberof lanes in may be effected beyonda principal interchange involving a major fork or at a point downstream from the interchangewith anotherfreeway.This reductionmay be madeprovidedthe exit

volume sufficiently is la.g. to.h11ggIltglquc nUnL@

on the treeway route as a whole. Another casewherethe basicnumberof lanes may be reducedis wherea series exits, as in outlying areas the city, causes of of the traffic load on the freeway to drop sufficiently to justify the lesserbasic numberof lanes. The lanereduction a basiclaneor an auxiliarylanemay be of effectedat a two-lane exit ramp or betweeninterchanses. If a basiclaneoran auxiliarylaneis to be dropped between interchanges, it should be accomplished a distanceof 600 to 900 m from the previous at interchange allow for adequate to signing. The reduction shouldnot be madeso f'ardownstream motorists that become accustomed a numberof lanes to (SeeFigure andaresurprised thereduction. bv X-58C.) Desirably,the lane-droprransitionshould be eft'ected rangenr on horizontal alinement andon theapproach sideofany crestvenicalcurve.A sag verticalcurve is also a good locationfor a lanedrop because providesgood it

visibility.Preferably, lanereduction the shouldbe madeon theright following lane A thereis likely to be less trafficin thatlane. right-side anexit rampbecause lower and the merging in are reductionhas advantages that speeds generally it from the right is morefamiliarto mostmotorists. beingsimilarto a maneuver may not functionas well ramp.Lefi-sidelanereductions mergeat an entrance merge. higherspeeds the lessfamiliarleft-side and of because generally into the highwayin a manner The end of the lane drop shouldbe tapered Preferably, rateof tapershouldbe longer the similarto thatat a ramp entrance. The minimumtaper a rampto providean additional factorofsafety. rhanthatfor 70:I is desirable. rateshouldbe 50:l. and If thereis a lane reductionof a basic laneor an auxiliarylane within an with a two-lane exit, as shown it in interchange, shouldbe effected conjunction reeoverylane, as in Figure X-58A, or in a single-laneexit with an adequate "Auxiliarv Lanes." in discussed

Weaving Sections and of where pattem trafficentering the are Weaving sections highwaysegments each pointsof access resultsin vehiclepathscrossing leavingat contiguous other. entrance ramps. between may occurrvithinan interchange, Weavingsections of and interchanges, on segments overlapof tbllowedby exit rarnps successive ping roadways. rvcaving sectiotls, interthroughotrt considerable turbulence occurs Because weavingor rentovcit lrom the nraintacility are that elirninate designs chan-re tiorn thr' main tircility by the Weavingsections ma\ be elirninatccl desirable. or tbrmsthatdo not havewcavin,tl by the incorporatlon of selection interchange butor roads. of collector-distri thanthose ope that Althoughinterchanges do not involveweaving rlte better generally lesscostly than those are with weavinsareas that do. interchanges il.greillcr numberof may requirc to movements without.Designs avoidweaving rvith ilircctconncctions. or andmorecomplexstructures. sotttc structurcs targer volunlcsto be of cost and the specit'ic Joint evaluation the total interchange The designaltcrnates. between is requiredto reacha sounddecision handled thc elintinatcs weaving quadrants with loopsin opposite partial design cloverleaf and or doesnot requiredirectconncctions extrastructures. has been scctions. rvith otherintcrchanges a single to superior all to tbundby someStates operate slructure. seDaration roadson the main tacility.or possiblyboth inclusionof collector-distributor w f a c i l i t i e s h e r cw a n a n t e d .

SHOULDER EOGE W OFFSETAND TAPERED

------..-*--=]:\\ __.1___i _l

FigureX-60. Auxiliarylanedroppedat two-lane exit.

910

uttd ets AASHTO-Ceome tric Dcsigtt of H i,qhu'at'.s Stre

and I nterc'han.ges Grade Separations

unless adequatc re.stricted sections may be seriously of The capacity weaving a w e a v i n gs e c t i o n l o n s w i t h l a n e t l e n g t ha n c iw i d t h a r e p r o v i d e d h r o u g ht h e weavinglengthsand for See ChapterII for proceciures determining balance. (HCM) (3) for capacity analysis CapacittManual widths.Referto theHighv'u;s of weaving ections.

The purposes developing for singleexits,whereapplicable. as follows: are To removeweavingfrom the main facility and transfer to a slower it s p e e da c i l i t y . f 2. To providea high-speed exit from the main roadwayfor all exiting traffic. p 3 . T o s i m p l i i ys i g n i n e n dt h ed e c i s i o n r o c e s s . a -1. To satisfydriver expectancy placing the exit in advance the by of separation structure. 5. To provideuniformityof exit patterns. 6. To providedecision sightdistance all trafficexitingfrom themain fbr roadway. l. The full cloverleaf interchange. wherea weavingsection 1000vph. exceeds where is anexample operational efficiency maybe improved thedevelopment by of singleexitsand entrances. The loop rampsof a full cloverleafinterchange createa weavingsection to through adjacent theoutside lane, andconsiderable deceleration-acceleration mustoccurin the throughlane.By usingcollector-distributor as roads, shown i n F i g u r eX - 6 l , a s i n g l ee x i t i s p r o v i d e da n d w e a v i n gi s t r a n s f e r r e t o t h e d c o l l e c t o r - d i s t r i b u tro ra d .T h e s e c o n d x i t o f a c l o v e r l e a ifn t e r c h a n go c c u r s o e e beyondthe.se'paration structure. and,in manycase it is hiddenbehinda crest s, v e r t i c a lc u r v c .T h e s i n g l e - e x id e s i g np l a c e st h e e x i t f r o m t h e m a i n l i n e i n t W a d v a n c c f t h es t r u c t u r a n di s c o n d u c i v eo a u n i f b r mp a t t e r n f e x i t s . h e r e o e t o o t h c t h r o u g hr o a d r v a y v e r p a s s e s e c r o s s r o a dn a v e r t i c a lc u r v e .i t n r a vb L th i m o r ec l i f f i c u l t o d c ' v e l t i f u l l d e c i s i o n i g h td i s t a n c C r t h c l o o p r a m pe x i t o f p s io T a c o n v e n t i o n a ll o v e r l e aifn t e r c h a n g e .h e u s eo l t h e s i n g l e - e x ic l e s i g n a 1 c t m r n a k ei t e a s i e r o o b t a i nt h e d e s i r e d e c i s i o n i g h t d i s t l n c ed u e t o t h e e x i t t d s occurringon the upgrade. Sornc arrangements partialclor erleaflooprampsmay t'eature of singleexits. shownin FigureX-29F.andstill be int'erior rus theydo not providean! because purposes previously of the desirable discussed. O n l t i r l l c l o v c r l e a f n t e r c h a n g eh e s i n g l ce x i t i s d e v c ' l o p eb y u s i n gu i t, d partill collcctur-distributor for thefull length theinterchange. certain road of On the by thc' clovcrlcaf lrrrngernents. single exit canbedevelopcd elongating ltrop rarnpin thc upstreurn direction thepointwhereit diverges to tiom theright-tunr rvellin rtlvlnce of theseparation rnovenlent of structurc. elongttitln theloop The rxrnpnllv be donc with a spiral.simplecurve,tangent. a combination. or Full dilrnondintcrchanges singleexitsandentrances accomplish lcature and wherca singlcexit doesnot work ls wr'll ls two exits. ltrcs()rnc cascs T h i ss i t u l t i o n o u l t l p p l v t o h i g h - v t l l u m e .i u h - s p e ed i r e c t i o n a n t e r c h a n g e s . c il h d 'fhcrc
sl

Collector-DistributorRoads a C o l l e c t o r - d i s t r i b u t o rr o a d s b e t w e e n t w o i n t e r c h a n g e s n d c o n t i n u o u s in roadsarediscussed ChapterVlll. Collector-distributor collector-distributor in are roadswithin an interchange discussed the following. areais a typicalexample in A full cloverleafinterchange an urbanor suburban for that singleinterchange shouldbeanalyzed theneedfor collector-distributor ofa roadswithin the interchange. in may be oneor two la.nes width,thedetermining roads Collector-distributor Lane balanceshould be maintainedat capacity requirements. factor being is and exits to and from the main line, but strict adherence not entrances weavingis handled roadproperbecause on mandatory the collector-distributor from 60 to 80 km/h,butshould ranges speed usually The speed. design atreduced the design speed of the rnain roadway. not be less than l0 km/h below roadsare not properly problemswill occur if collector-distributor Operational thanone intcrchltnqe' more thoseservicing especially signed, roads the between main line and the collector-distributor Outer separations Thc lviclths tolerable' are practicable; minimurl however, shouldbe as wide as f o r s h o u l d o r t ' v i d t h sr l n t h e m i n i m u n r w i c l t h s h o u l c lb e g r e a t e n o u g h barrier tirr line ancl a suitable equalto thaton therrrain roads collecror-distributor crossovers. to preventindiscriminate are rvithinln interchange roads of The advantages usingcollector-distributor andexitsare singleentrances liom thatweavingis transt'erred themainroadway, and a unitbrm all developed. main-lineexitsoccurin advlnceof the structure' "Trvo-Exit Versus Single-Exit See prrttem exitsc:tnbemaintained. thefbllowing of D d Intcrchlnge esign" iscussion.

Two-Exit VersusSingle'Exit InterchangeDesign to with singleerits lre supcrior those that interchanges aredesigned ln general, exit iS if wirh two cxits.especiall."-one of theexits is a loop rampor thescctlnd b-valoopentancelamp. loop{+fi}pprceded t c' l f a f u l l c l o v e r l e ao r w i t h a p a r t i a c l o v e r l e aifn t e r c h a n g t h.es i n g l c - e x id e s i g n o e o p e r a t i o n a lf f i c i e n c v f t h ee n t i r cf ; t c i l i t y ' r n a vi m p r o v e

AASHTO--GeometricDesign of Highways and Streets

Grade Separations and I nterc' g es han

T AND Y INTERCHANGES

CLOVERLEAFS

IVITHOUT C - D R OAD S

mEgTtoNALS
DIAMOND INTERCHANGES
f'll

-*[f HUZ
Trl
@|WENTIONAL

A
V
5PLIT

PARTIAL

CLOVERLEAFS

TWO ALL DIRECTIONAL ENTRAI{CESAND EXITS

FigureX-61. Interchange forms with one and two exits.

Figure X-61. Continued.

9t4

AASHTO--4]eometric of Desig,n Highu'avsand Streer.s

G rad e Sepa ra t i o n.E nd I n t erc ha n,4 a e.s

915

The problem usually occursat the fork following the single exit from the freeway, particularlywhen the traffic volume is great enough to warranta exit andthedistance two-lane for from theexit tenninalto thefork is insulficient weaving and proper signing.There is often some confusionat this second point,resulting pooroperarion a highaccident potential. decision Because in and of this,it may be advantageous somedirectional to interchanges providetwo on exits on eachfreewayleg. Generally, provisionfor singleexitsis morecostlybecause the added the of roadway. longerbridges, in some structures. The and separation cases, additional overall efficiencyof a cloverleafinterchange with collector-distributor roads should be taken into consideration. Where ramp volumes are low and not to expected increase significantly, wherea particular cloverleafweavedoes or

gbtlul l_000 vph, it willoltctloot nol ex,cged

be praelcal ro use qoliecler

distributorroads.Theseconditions or in can be exoected rural areas evenon low volume freeways. Collector-distributor futureturning roads may still be an optionif significant volumesare expected site investigations or reveala definitiveneedfor sucha configuration. FigureX-61 showsvariousinterchange with the forms that are compatible concepts uniformexitpatterns exitsin advance of structure. and ofthe separation

Wrong-Way Entrances Wron-e-way entrance is occuronto tieeways and arterialstrcets nclta frequent rence.but it shouldbe regarded a seriousproblemwhereverthe likelihood as e x i s t s b e c a u s e a c ho c c u r r e n ch a ss u c ha h i g h p o t e n t i aflb r c u l m i n a t i n gn a , i e serious accident. This problern at shouldbegivenspecial consideration all stages Most wrong-way of design. at entrances offrantps. intersections occurat frc'eway at grade along divided arterialstreets, lrom undividedto and at transitions divided highways.Several factorsthat contribute wrong-wayentrances to are to related interchange design. and Thesetactors concemthetypeof interchange nroreptnicularlv the localroadtemrinalof thc'cxit ranrps. Tltcv arediscusscd below. Partialinterchanges panicularlytroublcsornc. Whcre provisionis not are wrong-wav madelbr any oneor moreof themovemcnts :rninterchange. entry at may occur.Exit rampsthatconnect two-wavtiontagcroarls conducive are to to wrong-waventrv.Withoutchanneliz-ation the frontage roatl,thev appear as on openentries. Someof the"scis.sors" has channelization provedto be contusing. r E x i t r a m p sw i t h a s w e e p i n c o n n e c t i o t o t h cs t r e c ( r ) u t cc o n n c c t i o n o o p , g t l. r andsomediamondramps) cn(ry.Onc-wlv rarnps havea low rateof wronq-wirv

'

"T t h a t c o n n e c t s a n u n c h a n n e l i z e d " i n t e r s e c t i oa r e n r o s tI i k e l y t o l e a dt o a n wrong-way ntry. e Unusual odd arrangements exit rampsareconfusing or of andconducive to wrong-way entry.An example thebutton-hook is rampthatconnecrs orJ-shaped to a parallel ordiagonal street frontase or road.whichis oftenrvellremoved from the interchange structure and otherramps.Anothercaseis a pair of righr-rurn conneclionsto a lateral or parallel street (fiontage road) offset liom the separation structure. On undivided crossroads. non-traversable a median(except turn poinrs; at introduced within the interchange limits helps preventwron_q-way entrv on diamond,partialcloverleaf, and full cloverleafinrerchanges. Where adjacent join a minor road.theramp roadways off-and-onramps shouldbe separated. The I4IrlP elaSsrcadi(grseetian ata diamoldirrLerchangeshould be wellremoled from anyothernearbyintersection. suchasfrontage road-crossroad intersection. Local roadconnections within the lengthof any exit ramp shouldbe avoided. Temporary ramp terminals warrantspecialattention layoutdetailsto avoid in easydirectwrong-wayentry paths. Left-sidemain roadwayexit rampsshould be avoidedbecause they may appear bea right-side to entrance rampto a confused motorist. Many wrong-way entriesoccur at night when volumes are low and control devicesare less ef'fective. This occurrence suggesrs consideration lightingfor difficulrcondiof nons. O p e ns i g h td i s t a n c ets r o u g h o utth ee n t i r el c n g r h f r h er a r n p e l pp r e v e n t h o h \ \ ' r o n g - w au s c .E s p e c i a l l ivm p o r t a nits t h ed r i v e r ' s i c r vo f ' t h cr a m pt e r m i n a l v v w'hen approaching from the crossstreet. In thc design of any interchange. consideration ,shorikl given to the be likelihooct rvrong-wav of travelandto the possible ntcitsures nravbe takr'n thut i n t h c d c s i e na n d t r a f f i c c o n t r o lt o r p r c ' v e n t i nu r d i s c o u r a g i ns u c hu s r r u c . g { Signingto prevent wrons-waventrvshcluld in accorcluncc thc IVIUTCD be rvith
r)\

Ramps 'l'."., pesand Firamples -l-hc tcrnt"ramp" includcs types. all arrrngcments. sizcs turningrrxrtlrvrn.s ;lnd oi thatconnect t\!o or nlorc legs at iln intcrclrangc. contponents a nllnp itrc Thc of a tcrnrinul euclrlcg and a connccting at rrtad, usuall.r- sonrc with curtuturc,antl
h c l r l w t h r r to l - t h c i n t c r s c c t i n g i g h r v i r y .h u t i n s ( ) n t cc l s c s i t n r l v h c c q u r r l . h

9t6

ts AASHTO-Ceontetric Design of Highu'aysand Stree

ions and I nterchanges Grade Separat

917

shapes. FigureX-62 illustrates several typesof rampsandtheircharacteristic broadlyasoneof variations in usebut eachcan be classed are Numerous shape is the typesshown.Each ramp generally a one-wayroadway.Diagonalramps (FigureX-62A) almostalwaysare one-waybut usuallyhave both a left- and road. right-tuming movement theterminal theminor intersectin-g Although as on ramp mav be lar-eely curye in FigureX-62A. a dia-eonal shownas a continuous interchanges with a reverse or in curve.Diamond-type tangent wishbone shape havetbur diagonalramps. _eenerally ( I'he loopmay havesingletumingmovementsleti or right)or doubleturning (left and right) at eitheror bothends.FigureX-62D showsthecase movements wherethereareonly singleturnsmadeat both endsof the ramp.With this loop pattern.a left-turning movement is made without an at-gradecrossingof the

drive$ $akitg a Le! llrq trqvqlbqyqn{the rngthrsughtral{Lc,Instcad,

to 270 degrees highway separation, swing right, and turn throughapproximately theotherhighway.The loop usuallyinvolvesmoreindirecttraveldistance enter than fbr any other type ramps. With a semidirectconnection(Figure X-62C), the driver makesa right tum graduallyreversing, then and direction, first, swingingaway from the intended and enteringthe other completing movementby following directly around the connection may also be usedfor right turns,but thereis road.This semidirect A can littlereason its useif theconventional fbr diagonal be provided. descriptive h a d t e r mf r e q u e n t l y s s o c i a t ew i t h t h i st y p eo f r a m p i s ' J u e - h a n d l e ,t" eo b v i o u s loop plan shape. on Travel distance this ramp is lessthanthat tbr a comparable or and ntore than that tbr a direct connection.At least tl)ree structures a att connection, is structure neecled. Figure X-62D is tenuecl oLrter three-level while FigureX-62E is ret'errecl as a directconnection. to types of i.e.. the clifterent The dift'erent ramp patterns an inte|section. of typesof rarnps. For of are conrbinations these interchanges. madeup of various larnp. and two right exanrple. trumpethas one loop. one senridirectional the directional diasonalramps. or

LOOPA SEMIDIRECT
l\

tl ll II l'

t, t\
't

rl:

\ \-

--\

(ieneral Ramp DesignConsiderations the rrpproximate litrv-volume shoultl Desirablv. rampdesign speecls Design speed. is runningspeedon the intersc'cting highways.This designspec'd n()talways but not practicable lowerdesign speeds may benecessarv. thcyshould be less and s t y v i t h l n t h e l o w r a n g e n T a b l eX - 1 . O n l y t h o s e a l u e s b r l r i g h r v a d e s i g n p e c d s cxits. of rt leastltOkm/h apply to tieervay and expressrvly

-EDIRECTIONAL

tl

f.-

I - ---

typesof ramps. X-62. General Figure

AASHTO-Ceometric Desig,n Highu'a r-s of and Street.s

Grade Separation.t dnd I trlerc han.qes

T h e a p p l i c a t i o n f v a l u e sn T a b l eX - l t o v a r i o u s o n d i t i o n s n dr a m pt . v - p e s a o i c is discusseas follows. d

H i g h w a yd e s i g ns p e e d1 k m / h 1 R a m pd e s i g ns p e e d( k m / h )
I Innar nnop /ll(c/^t

r00
.r0 30 20 50 ,r0 30 60 50 .10 70 60 {0 80 60 50 90 't0 50

ll0

t:0 | t0 90 70

lvtiddlerange (707o) Lower range (507o) Conesponding inimum m r a d i u s( m )

100 rJO 60

S e eT a b l e l l l - | 6

Table X-1.

Guide values for ramp design speed as relatedto ltighwaTdesiEn speed.

Portion of ramp to which designspeedis applicable.Valuesin TableX- I applyto the sharpest thecontrolling or rampcurve,usuallyon therampproper. which shouldbe properly Thesespeeds not pertainto the ramp terminals, do for and providedwith speed-change transitioned facilitiesadequate the highway speedinvolved. Ramps for right turns. Upper-range often is attainable a and designspeed valuebetween The upperrange andlowerrangeusuallyis practicable. diagonal rarnpof, a diamond interchange may also be used for right turns. For thesc p a d i a g o n arl a m p s , v a l u ei n t h em i d d l er a n g e s u s u a l l y r a c t i c a l . i valuesof designspeedgenerallyare not attainable. I.oops. Upper-range rarelyavitilablc speeds Rarnp design above km/htbr loopsrequiieIargc'areas. -50 lcft-turning cirivcrs in urbnnareas, and long loops.which arecostlyandrecluirc to travelconsiderable extradistance. lvlinimumvalucsusuallycontrol.but tirr pret'erably highwaydesignspeeds morethantlOkm/h, the loopdesignspeed of exist, conditions shouldbe not lessthan40 km/h (-15 radius). lessrestrictive m If loop designspeed the and the radiusmay be increused. t S e m i d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n sD e s i g ns p e e d s e t w e e n h e m i d d l c a n d u p p c r . b s r a n g e s h o w ni n T a b l eX - l s h o u l d e u s e d . \ d c s i g ns p e c t l e s st h a n5 ( )k n t / h b . s h o u l dn o t b c u s e d .G e n e r a l l vt.b r s h o r t .s i n g i el u n c r a n r p s a d e s i g ns p c c d g r e a t etrh a n8 0 k m / h i s n o tp r a c t i c a lF o r n v o - l a n c a l n p sv l l u e s i n t h c n r i d d l e . r , and upperrangesare appropriate. Direct connections. Designspeeds bctweenthc rniddlcand upper rtn[cs shouldbe60 knt/h. shownin TableX- I should used. tre The minimumpret'erably Different designspeeds intersectinghighways.The highwavwith the on wholeof a ramp. However, rampdesignspeecl the mry vary, the portion

The for highwaybeingdesignecl thelowerspeed. rampcloser thelowerspeed to f p y e t l a t t e r o i n ti s p a r t i c u l a r la p p l i c a b l w h e r e h er a m pi s o n a n u p g r a d er o m t h e h h h i g h e rs p e e d i g h w a yt o t h e l o $ ' e rs p e e d i r h r v i r v . forming or At-gradeterminals.Wherea rampjoins a majorcrossroad street, TableX-l is not applicable thatportionof the ramp to at an intersection grade. because stopsignor signal a controlis normallyemployed. neartheintersection c d s b m T h i st e r m i n ad e s i g n h o u l d ep r e d i c a t eo n n e a r - m i n i m u t u r n i n g o n d i t i o n s . l r a s g i v e ni n C h a p t e I X . of Curvature. The factorsand assumptions minimum-turningroadway variousspceds discussed ChapterIII. They apply directlyto are in curvestbr to are Compound curvesandspiraltransitions desirable designof rampcurves. and controls, to and the shape ramps. meetsiteconditions other of et'fect desired in Cautionshouldbe cxercised the useof to fit the naturalpathsof vehicles. compoundc[rvaiure to pievent unexpecGd.nd abiupt-pe-d adinJtments. and regarding useof spiraltransitions comthe Additionaldesignintbrmation poundcurvesis contained ChapterIII. in as The generalshapeof a ramp evolvestiom the type of ramp selected, of previously described shownin FigureX-62. The specificshape a ramp ancl pattern, as traffic volume,design by may be influenced suchfactors the traff'ic culture.intersection angle,and type of rampterminal. speeds. topography, o S e v e r a lf o r n r s m a y b e u s e d f b r t h c l o o p a n d o u t e r c o r t n e c t i o n f r r il a y s e r n i d i r e c t i o n an t e r c h a n g e ,s s h o w nd i a g r a r n n r a t i c a liln F i g u r eX - 6 3 A . , T h e l o o p , c \ c e p t f o r i t s t e r r n i n a l sn t a l b c a c i r c u l a r a r c o r s o n l e o t h e r . l s y l n n r e t r i c ao r i l s y n r n c l r i c a lc u r v c . t i r r r r t c t w i t h s p i r a l t r a n s i t i o n sT h e l s n r g a s y r n r r r c t r i ca rlr a n q c r n c n tr a yf i t r v h e e t h c i n t c r s e c t i nr o u c l a r cn o t o f t h e a lirr and thc ranrptenninal.s dc.sigrtetl dil'lcrentspecds. are salneinrportancc r s sr . u t h e r a r n p n p a r tl u n c t i o n i n g s : rs p e e d - c h a n a ce a S i r n i l a s h a p e n r a yb e i a u co . d i c t a t c tb v r i g h t - o t - r v a y n t r o l sp r o l ' i l c n ds i g h td i s t a n c c o n d i t i t l n s .n d l 'fhc I ' r e c r v a v e r n t i n r t ls h o u l d t t o r n r a l l vb e p l a c e d i n t t e r r n i n a ll o c a t i o n . a ft . a d v a n c c f t h c s t r u c t u r eT h e n r o s td c s i f t t b l c l i n c ' r n c n o r a n o u t c rc o n n c c o r t. s t i o n i s o n c o n a c o n t i n u t ) uc u r v c l l i n e A ) . ' l - h i sa r r a r t g c t n c nh o w e v e r , n a v , n. e i n v o l v c q u c s t i o n a [ ) l v x t c n s i v er i g l r t - o t ' - r . r , u\1 ' o t h e rd e s i r a b l ca r r a n g e c a r n c n th a sr c c n t m l t a n g e n t n t lt c ' r n t i r t a lu r l c s ( l i r r c sL | - Ba n d C - C ) . W h c r c t t h c l o o p i s r n o r ci r n p o r t a ntth a nt h c ( ) u t c rc o n n c c t i t l nr.c v c r s cl t l i n c r n c no n . n u r v b c u s c d t o r t t l u c c l h c l t r c r tt t l ' r i g h t - o f - r v a r 'a s thc outcr c()nncction b o t ' l i r t c sB . C . l r r t dD t ' t t l t v c L r s c tflt l r s h t l w nl r r l i n c D - D . A r t y c o r t t h i t t a t i o n a t'casiblshlpc. c r. rt l n F i g u r cX - 6 . 1 ' \ .t h c l t l o p u n t l t h c o u t c r c ( ) n n c c t i r lu r c s c p l t r a t e d t s i s q c n c n r l l t l c s i r l b l c f l o w ev c r .u l r c r ct l r cn l ( ) \ ' c n r c l lltts cr t t i t t oirt n dc c o t t o t t tirs v r . 'l'his ' t l c s i g n s g c n c r u l l ld i s c o u r l S c t l . i

and AASHTO--4eometric Design of Hig,hw,ays Streets

Grade Separationsand I nterchanges

on rampsmay assume varietyof shapes, depending thepattern of Diagonal a andright-of-way in FigureX-63B, theramp limitations. shown As tumingtraffic curves (solid line). To favor a 4ay be a diagonaltangentwith connecting curveto therightwith movement rampmay be on a continuous the right-turning right-of-wayalong the major a spur to the left for left turns.On restricted with a portionof theramp to alinement highway.it may be necessary usereverse beingparallelto the throughroadway. with a parallel ramps, a typeusually of connect called"slip ramps." Diagonal it is roadasshownin FigureX-63C.Wherethisdesign used, is desirable frontage to haveone-wayfiontageroads.Rampsto two-way frontageroadsintroducethe special attention If possibility wrong-way of entryontothethroughlanes. used, to andsigningof rampsto two-waytiontageroads shouldbe givenin thedesign jiscoqrage the possibility wrong-wayentry. of (FigureX-63D) is influenced the by connection The shapeof a semidirect with respect the structures, extentto which the the locationof the terminals to a turning is andthecurveradii necessary maintain desired to structure widened, speed for an important left-turning movement. The angular position or the curvaturemay be dictatedsomewhatby the relative design speedsof the legsand by the proximityof otherroadways. intersection Sightdistance alonga rampshouldbe at leastas greatasthe Sight distance. There is Sight distance passing not required. for stoppingsight distance. saf'e t a c l e a rv i e w o f t h ee n t i r e x i t t e r m i n a li,n c l u d i n g h ee x i t n o s ea n da e b should e section the ramp roadwaybeyondthe gore. of preceding approach noseof an exit ramp on the The sightdistance a freeway through trafficdesign tbr the sightdistance the should exceed minimumstopping in as by sightdistance. discusscd tlesirably 25 percent more.Decision or .-peed. v i e w o f t h e e n t i r ee x i t e C h a p t e I I I , i s a d e s i r a b l g o a l .T h e r es h o u l db e a c l e a r r t n t e r n r i n a li . c l u d i n g h ee x i t n o s e . on distance in See ChapterIII for ranges designvaluestbr stoppinr .sight and and verticalcurvesfbr turningroadrvays openroadcclnclitions. horizontal (]rade and profile design.Ramp gradesshould be as tlat as t-easible to lrom one road to another. in the rninirrrize driving eftort required maneuvering 'fhc of grades themharnper flor.v traffic. the are on illostrarnps curvedandsteep as on rlrnrpis not nsscri()us on a througlt slowirrg down of vehicles an ascending sufficicntlvto rcsult in a peak-hour roud.providedthe speedis not decreased rn are ontothe throughroad.Vlostdiamondrarnps onll' I10 to .16() long. backup operationlll portionwith steepest gradient onlv rnoderate has irndrheshortcentral than those ()n thc on cf'ti.ct.Accordingly,gradients ramps may' be stL'cper c r i n t e r s c c t i nh i g h w a y sb u t a p r e c i s e e l a t i o n r n n o tb e s c r .G e n c n t lv u l u c so l ' g . rC () t t t t l l r t t c r h eg r a c l i c n t nu r a m p .t h el o n g e ri t w i l l b c . b u t t h ec t ' t e co l ' g r a d i c n< t t t

and thought. The conditions designs thelengthof therampis lessthangenerally when For frequently havean effectequallyasgreat. example' at rampterminals in to the rampproflleis opposite direction thatof thethroughhighway,a fairly in difference because the large algebraic of long verticalcurve is necessary to grade, conditionthat addsconsiderably the lengthof ramp. As another a to example,additionallengthmay be necessary warp the ramp profile to effect or superelevation to providedrainage. of The profile of a typical ramp usuallyconsists a centralportion on an to with terminalverticalcurvesandconnections the grade, coupled appreciable

( O N L YO N TWO-WAY ROAD) FRONTAGE

FRONTAGE ROAO

Figure X-63. Rampshapes.

AASLITO--4eometric' Design of Highv'ays and Streets

Gratle Separations and I nterchan.qc.s

iles of the intersection legs.The following references ramp gradient to pertain largelyto thecentral portionof therampprofile.Profiles theterminals at largely are determined the through-road by profiles and seldom are tangent grades. I n g e n e r a l ,a d e q u a t e i g h t d i s t a n c ei s m o r e i m p o r t a n tt h a n a s p e c i f i c s g r a d i e nc o n t r o la n ds h o u l db e f a v o r e d n d e s i g n U s u a l l y . h e s e w o c o n t r o l s t t t i . a r e c o m p a t i b l e O n o n e - r v a y a m p sa d i s t i n c t i o n a n a n d s h o u l d b e m a d e . r c b e t w e e n s c e n d i na n dd e s c e n d i ng r a d i e n t s . o rh i g h - s p e erd m pd e s i g n sh e a g g a F r v a l u e sc i t e d a p p l y . H o w e v e r .w i t h p r o p e r r a m p t e r m i n a l f a c i l i t i e s ,s h o r t permitsai'e upgrades 7 to 8 percent of without undulyslowingdown operation passenger cars.Shortupgrades asmuch as5 percent not unduly interfere of do with truck and bus operation. one-waydown ramps,gradients up to 8 On of

o r t V e r t i c a l c u r l ' e s .U s u a l l y , a m pp r o f i l e sa s s u r n eh e s h a p e f t h e l e t t e rS l v l w i t h a s a gv e r t i c ac u r v ea t t h el o w e re n da n da c r e s t e r t i c ac u r v ea t t h eu p p e r l o m p e n d .A d d i t i o n a lv e r t i c a c u r v e s a y b e n e c e s s a r y .a r t i c u l a r l y n r a m p st h a t Where a crest or sag vertical curve other roadways. or overpass underpass b e . r t e n d o n t o t h e r a m pt e r m i n a lt.h e l e n g t ho f c u r v es h o u l db e d e t e r m i n e d y s b t . s o u s i n ga d e s i g n p e e d e t w e e nh o s e n t h er a m pa n dt h eh i g h w a y S e eC h a p t e r valuestbr openroadwavand turning roadwayconditions. III tbr desi-en and crossslope.The fbllowing valuesshouldbe usedfor Superelevation crossslopedesignon ramps: rates,as relatedto curvatureand design speedon Superelevation given in Table IX- l2 for rampswith designspeeds 60 of ramps.are uteel,ptqfera!,ly km& sr !ess.Tire higheg rqlsp:actie4ble slrolld be in the upper half or third of the indicatedrange particularly on rates ramps. descending SeeTablesIII-7 to III- I I for superelevation greaterthan60 km/h. for rampswith designspeeds normallyare sloped 2. The crossslopeon portions rampson tangent of one way at a practicalratethat may rangefrom 1.5percentto 2 percent pavements. for high-type rate runoff. or the changein superelevation per unit 3. Superelevation r l e n g t ho f r a m p ,s h o u l dn o t b e g r e a t e t h a nt h a t i n T a b l eI X - 1 3 . T h e is alongtheauxiliaryIane superelevation development started orencJcd or the ramp terminal. Altemateprofile lincstbr bothedgesshouldbe siudiedto cleterrnine all prolilesmiltchthc controlpointsand that that Spline cleveloped. no unsightll' bumps and dips are inaclvcrtcrrtll' edges. and profiles very usefulin devclopine are smoothlrrne shoulder -1. A n o t h e irr n p o r t a n to n t r oiln d e v e l o p i ns u p c r c l c v a t i o no n g h er a m p al t c g t e r r n i n a li s t h a t o f t h e c r o s s o v e r r o w n l i n c a t t h e e d g e o f t h e c in dift'erence crossslope through-tral'fic The maximumalgebraic lane. throughIaneis shown in betrveen auxiliarylaneand the adjacent the T a b l eI X - l - 1 . b 5 T h r c e s e g m c n t so f J r o n l p . s h o r r l d c u n r t l v z e dt o d e t e r m i n e s s u p e r e l e v u t i tr)a t c s h l t r v o u l db c c o r n p a t i b [\' \ ' i t ht h ed e s i g n p e e d n t of a n dt h ec o n t ' i g u r a t i o n t h er a m p . h c e x i t t c r n t i n a lt.h er l m p p r o p e r . T i o a n dt h c e n t r l r ' l c t e r m i n l ls h o u l db e s t u d i c d n c o n r b i n a t i otn a s c e r e Threerampconfiguraandsupcrelevation ratc'. tain thetlesignspeed t i o n su r c c o n s i d c r e t b r t h i s d i s c u s . s i o n . d L t c s ' T h e d i a n r o n du m pu s u a l l y o n s i s t o f a h i g h - s p c cctrli t . t a n g e no r c u n e d r
tcrm I nill. l)ece lenttron to controlI I n g cur\'c

dq qo! eluse undqsirable operalisniw to exses$ivscce]eratien of

passenger vehicles.However,thereis a grearer potentialfor heavy trucks to increase their speeds down grades. on Therefore, down gradesshoulddesirably be limited to 3 percentor 4 percenton ramps with sharp horizontal curvature andsignificant heavytruckor bustraffic.In manyareas, limit for the sno.w and ice conditionsmay governregardless the directionof the grade. of From thefbregoing discussion, canbe seen are it thatrampgradients clirectly relatedto designspeed; however, designspeedis a generalindicationof the standards beingused, andgradients a ramp with a high designspeed should tbr be tlatterthanfor onewith a low designspeed. general it criteria, is desirable As gradients ramps thatascending on with a design speed 70 to 80 kmlr be limited of to 3 to -5percent: thosefbr a 60 km/h spced. 4 to 6 percent: thosefbr a 40 to to 50 krn/h speed. -5to 7 percent: to to and thosetitr a 30 to 40 krr/h speed. 6 to tl percent. Where topographic conditit'lns steeper than dcsirable dictate.grade..s rnaybe uscd. Orte-way scendinlgradients ranlps de shouldbeheldto thesanre olt qencralnraxinrurns, in special Whcre but cases they rnaybc 2 perccntqreater. ranrpterminals properlvlocated fit otherdesignrecluirenrents where are and and thecurvature contbrmsto a reasclnable is designspced. rarnpgenerally long the enoushto eff'ect ditterence levelswith tlat or. at thc worst.not cxcessive the in gntdients. cascs whichgradient a dctcnrrining The in in l'actur thelcngthof the is r : l t r l p r c a s t i r l k r r v s(:l ) t b r i n t c r s e c t i oa n s l c s l t ' 7 0d e g r e c o r l c s si t r n a yb e a n r s nccessarv locate the rarnp thrther iiom thc structurcthln required firr to t n i n i n r u ma l i n e n r e ntto p r o v i d ea m l n p o f s u t l ' i c i c n ltc n g t h t i r r r c a s o n a b l c g . { r l d i u ' n t ( l ) w h e r ct h ei n t c r s e c t i o c s st r e o n l p p r c c i a b l c r a d c w i t h t h cu p p e r : ln rrud asccnding thc lorvcrrold descentling and thc structure, rarnpwill thc t'rorn huvcto eftbcta largediftcrence elcvation rvithlhc di.stlnce tionr in tharincrcuses (3) thestructure: whcrea rampleaves lorvcrroadon a dorvngnrdc ntects und thc
@n]pncccssllrvt()n1cctgrlltlic.rtt|irrritlrtitllls.Itis

o a p p i t i e ntth a tt h c a l i n c m e nltn d c r a d eo f a r n m pr n u s tb c t l c t c r n r i r t cjr l i n t l y

occuron tne auxltlary s o r r i c l d c o n d i t i t t nr v o u l d to l a n co f t h c r ' r i t , r r n dc o n t i n u c d l - c c l e r a t i o n s t o p

AASHTO--<]eometric Design of Highways and Streets

s and I nterchang,e Grade Separations

925

ur on the ramp proper. Superelevation comparable openroadconditions to would not be appropriate the ramp properor the forwardterminal. on . The loop ramp,as at a cloverleaf interchange, consists a moderate-speed of exit connectingto a slow-speed ramp proper, which in turn connectsto a moderate-speed acceleration lane.The curyatureof the ramp propercould be a simplecurye or combination curvesand transitions. of The designspeedand superelevation rate would be determined the curvatureof the ramp proper. by would haveto be gradually Superelevation into andout of the curve developed fbr the ramp proper,as derailed laterin this discussion. Direct and semidirect rampsgenerally designed with high-speed are exits, moderate high-speed or ramppropers, high-speed and entrances. Superelevation ratescomparableto open-road conditionsare appropriate high-speed for direct

andselni{qec!rqqps qf rqf4ivqly lolger&qgtlts.

On rampsdesigned speeds 60 km/h or less,superelevation for given of ranges in Table IX- l2 are appropriate designof the ramp proper. for The method of developingsuperelevation free-flow ramp terminals is at demonstrated diagrammatically Figure X-64. in Figure X-64A showsa tapered exit from a tangentsectionwittr the first ramp curvefalling beyondtherequired deceleration length. The normalcrossslopeis projected ontotheauxiliarylane, andno superelevation required is until thefirst ramp proper curve is reached. FigureX-648 showsa parallel-type fiom a tangent exit section thatleads into a flat exitingcurve.At point b thenormalcrossslopeof thethroughroadwayis projected onto the auxiliarylane.At point c the crossslopecan be gradually changed start development superelevation theexitingcurve.At point to the of for in d two breaks thecrossover crownlinewouldbeconducive developing full to a superelevation the vicinity of the physicalnose. in Figures X-64C andX-6.1D showrampterminals whichthesuperelevation on of the throughroadwaywould be projected onro the auxiliarylane. FigureX-64E showsa parallel entrance the high sideof a curve.At point on d the ramp would possibly flat,and full superelevation would be attained be at p o l n tc . F i g u r e X - 6 4 F s h o r v sa p a r a l l e le x i t f r o m a t a n g e n ts e c t i o nw i t h s h a r p c u r v a t u r e e v e l o p i n gn a d v a n c e f t h e p h y s i c a ln o s e . h i s d e s i g ni s t y p i c a l d i T o f o r c l o v e r l e a f o o p s . a r to f t h ec r o s s l o p ec h a n g e a nb e a c c o m p l i s h eo v e r I P s c d t h eI e n g t h f t h ep a r a l l e l a n ew i t h a b o u th a l f o f t h et o t a ls u p e r e l e v a t i o n i n g o be d c v c l o p e da t p o i n t b . F u l l s u p e r e l e v a r i oo f t h e r a m p p r o p e r i s r e a c h e d n b e y o n dt h e p h y s i c a ln o s e . Careshouldbe exercised seethat the rateofcross slopechange.does to not

o -acd EXIT JANGENT SECTION TAPERED

\\

TAPEREO SECTTON ENTRANCE

XEY AEOVE LEVEL LINE SIJRFACE I+- u r PAVEMENT '! vel -1=i- pqvEvEr.lT suRFAcE8EL0w LEvEL LINE

lt*e

..

at of FigureX-64. Development superelevation free-flowramp terminals.

AASHTO-1| eomet r i c D esi g tt oJ'H i ghu,av.ra nd SIreet.s

s rel G rutle Sa1tu i o tts u ttd I nt crc lru tt.qc

SECTION PARALLEL EXIT

-F-

O D

"gorc" inclicates arca clo"r'nstreanl from the shoulder an Gores. The tcrr.n l . n po i n r e r s e c r i o n i n t sa s i l l u s r r a r eic l F i g u r eX - 6 - 5T h e p h y s i c an o s ei s a p o i n t . frorn the upstream wiclthseparating roatlrval's. thc having sorneclimensional a a h c n g c . r eT h e p a i n t e c lo s ei s a p o i n t . a v i n , n o c i i m e n s i o nw li d t h .o c c u r r i n g t t h e . between to ref'ers thetriangulararea area The of separation theroaiiu'ays. neutral t r l t h eg o r ef l o \ c ' t i n ttih ep h y s i c an o s ca n da l s ot o r h et r i a n g u l aa r c ab c t w e e nh e is layoutof these an important nose. The geometric andthepainred nose physical t p n l r p a r to t ' c x i t l m p t e r m i n ad e s i - t l l t .i s t h ed e c i s i o n o i n ta r c a h i l tm u s lb ec l e a r l y ramp drivers. Further.the separatlng by approaching seen and understood to shape mustbe clearlyevidentbut alsomustbeof geometric not roadway only alonga freewal"the of thatpoint.In a series interchanges at fit the likely speeds to goresshouldbe unifbrmand havethe sameappearance drivers' 6.0 width ar rhegorenoseis typicallybetween to 9.0 m rule.the As a general betweenihe tiavtl-d wryof rh=main line includingpavedihoulders"measuied if may be increased the ramp roadway and rhat of the ramp.This climension in thegorcnoseor if speeds beyond awayfrom the freewayinrmediately curyes to of excess 100km/h areexpected be common. the areashouldbe stripedto delineate properpathson The entiretriangular goreareil.The MUTCD (2) the eachsideand to assist driver in identifyingthe or Stanclard snow plowable in fbr may be referenced -Cuidance channelization. delineiltion. fbr can be employed additiorrill markers raisedretlective too Rumblcstripsntay be placedin the goreareabut shouldnot bc located tbr inet'tcctual thu'nr rctrders such placerncnt ciose to thc gorc tlosebecause tlf this trpc' s l h d r v a r r r i n g i g h - s p e c v e h i c l e sI.n a l l c a s c s u p p l c n l c n t icli c v i c c s ,.r'ith the tintc tt'lcorrect pathof the itrnple clriver bc shrtuld pllccclto providctht-' w d r i v c r ' sv c h i c l e i t h s a i ' c t Y . -l'hc r is idcntsin goreureas typicallygrciltc thitnthlrttilr run-off-thc rlte rlt'acc thc thc For at rt'rad accitlcnts otltcrlocations. thisreason, gorcltrcrt.;ltrti unpaver'i a to as shoultlbc kcpt as frceof obstructions possible provitle clear bcyontl, arca as areabeyondthc noscshouldbe graded nearlv Thg unpaved trL-x. recovcrv entcring so as lcvcl * itlr thc road.,vays is practicablc thatvehiclcsinudvc'rtentlv slreet [{elvy signsupports. slopcs. by or upsct llbruptlvsttlppcd steep w ill not bc bc shtltrltl kcpt r|cll out of thc supp()rts antl roar[vuvstructurc light srrrnrlurLls. tilr shoultlbc c'rrlpltl)'ed supporls Yicldingor breakarvxv-type itrcrl. grutlctl s()rc rvhcrcusctl'shoultllt kcpt tlush til<ltinss. sign.ltndctlncrctc ihc stlntllrtl crit l r v i t ha t l . l o i n i ng r o u n d c v c l . g s L ! n t i r r l u n a r c ltrh,c r cr v i l lb c s i t u a t i o nw h c r cp l a c c m c n(t) fl l t n l t j o r t l b s t r u c ' s g o r c i s u r t t r v t l i t l a h lG.o r c s t h l t ( ) c c u ri l I e r i t r l t r t t pt c r t t t i l t l t l 0 n c t i r l r ri n t r p r i l l l c c x a m p l e 'A l s o ' t h e r cl l r c t r c c l t s i t l t t s ' h c n : t s c l c v a t c ( s t r u r : t t l r ca r c x l "r
: cann()t bc aloitlctl. Gulrdrails and bridgc rl.tils ltrc

TANGENTSECTION CLOVER. LEAF ENTRANCEAND EXIT

KEY PAVEMENT AEOVELEVEL L|NE STJRFACE ltrue ,,)t-gvel -TtpavEvENTsuRFAcEBELovi LEVEL LtNE -{\

Figure X-64. Continued.

tlrat tlccur ltt tllcsc gorcs ot' rrcur ltcad-olt itttl-rltcts

AASHTO--CeometricDesign of Highways and Streets

e Gracle Separat i ons and I n!erc'han,q s

tI A
E
I

,l
u
a
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o
J

tt',

UJ E. o (9

e o I n r e c o g n i r i o n f t h i s p r o b l e m ,a c o n s i d e r a b le f f o r t h a s b e e n d i r e c t e d f ng g of t o w a r dt h ed e v e l o p n . r e n tc u s h i o n i n o r e n e r g y - d i s s i p a t id e v i c e so r u s ei n o . . f r o n t o f f i x e d o b j e c t s A t p r e s e n ts e v e r atly p e sa n dm o d e l s f c r a s hc u s h i o n s o t le d . a r eb e i n gu s e d T h e s e e v i c e s u b s t a n t i a l ry d u c eh es e v e r i t y f f i x e d - o b j e c t shouldbe providedfor the adequate space In accidenrs. view ofthis reduction, y o n i n s t a l l a t i o n f a c r a s h - c u s h i od e v i c e w h e n e v e ri t i s l b u n d n e c e s s a r t o d o i a m a j o ro b s t r u c t i o nn a - g o r e n a h i g h - s p e eh i g h w a y ' construct Guide(l) tle IV may Ret'erence be madeto Chapter andto theRoadsi Desig.n o tbrdetails f installation. Although the term "gore" generallyrefersto the areabetweena through to is roadwayandanexit ramp,thetennsometimes alsousedto ret'er thesimilar and a convergingentranceramp. At an area betweena through roadway (beginningof all pavedarea)is terminal the point of convergence entrance Ih shape,layout, and extent, the riangular definad a- ihE..merging endl' terminalis much like that at an exit. However, areaat an entrance maneuver alreadyin lanes,thereby traffic streams and separates it pointsdownstream area The width at thebaseof thepavedtriangular area. beinglessof a decision widthson theramp usuallybeinglimitedto thesumof theshoulder is narrower. and freewayplus a narrow physicalnose 1.2to 2.4 m wide. detailstypical gore designsfor free-flow Figure X-66 diagrammarically e x r tr a m p s . to FiguresX-66A anclX-668 depicta recoveryareaadjacent the outsidc way' left throughlaneand mocler'ate offsetof the ramp travcled h r d F i g u r eX - 6 6 C s h o w sa m a j o rt o r k , w i t h n e i t h e r i v c r g i n g o a t l w a y a v i n g u strips re o . p r i o r i t l , T h eo f f s e ti s e q u a lt b r e a c hr o a d w a ya n ds t r i p i n g r r u r n b l c . p o l c s .a n d . curbs,.'tilit.v l f f l a c e c lu p . \ r r e a 6 r o m t h e p h y s i c a n o s e .D e s i r a b l y , e l f l s i g n s u p p o r t s h o u l cb e o m i t t e C r o r nt h eg o r ca r c a . s p c c i l r l lo n h i g h - s p c c - t l t f a c i l i t i e sW h c n c u r b sa r e u s e d . h e y s h o u l db c l o w - p r o l ' i l cr.l r o u t l t a b l c - t t p c . c i i n o c l e s i g na n dt h eq e o m c t r y f t h eg o r ea r e a n t e r s e c t i op o i n t s s u s u a l l y u r v c d . s c t y , u W l r c nc r r r h s r cp o t u s e d r h cg e o l n e t r o f t h eg o r ea r c ai n t c r s e c t i opt l i n t s l t n ()r bc srluarcd truncatcd. Tlble X-l qives nrinimum lengths for tapcrs bcyclnilthc oftiet ntlse. i f I I 6 w c y c r .t p o t h c r a l t e r n a t i v eo r a l l o r v i n g l r c c o v c r vl t r c l ri s t l t c u s c t l f t h e lra l p r v L . (\lh ( ) u l ( l cr t l t h e t h r o u g h a n et b r a n y n c c c s s a r ) ' r c c ( ) \ ' cnv n c u v c r s ' r r \ - 6 7 s h o r v sl n c n t r a n c e a m p . a s a t a c l o v e r l c a tl 't l o p . w h e r ea l.-igurc i r c t i L t c t i o ttr t t l t c r l t t t t p l l r n e r v i t l t h i s a p p r o p r i l t t cn t l r d e r t t l r n a i n t a i t l ; r i A n c n t r t n c c . n t t t h e r o p t i o i s t o b e g i nt h c r c d u c t i o nn t h er a l n pI u n e single-lanc
rvidth rrt thc cntl ol' the rarnp cur! ature. c F i s u r c X - 6 S i s I n i g h t P h o t o g r a P ho f l s i n g l c - l a ne x i t . T h e s t r t p i n g '

o z.
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J E F f LLJ

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IJ

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O.

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l , r u c n tr c t l c c t o r s d c l i n e a t o r sl 'n d f i x c d - s o u r c ci g h t i n g h c l p g u i t l c t h c

['lgswavs r'"ith tltrcc [--igurc\-69 shorvs I gore at a mljor tork betwccn 11v11

AASHTO--IJeometic Design of Highu,a;,s and Streets

ha Grade Separ(iti ons a nd I nl erc' nges

r T l a n e so n e a c hr o a d w a y . h e s m a l l a n g l eo f d i v e r g e n c ee s u l t si n t h e l o n g , signsare provided. with a clear recoveryarea.Overhead gradualsplit freewayon a FigureX-70 showsa goreat a two-laneexit from an elevated device. in the gorefor an impactattenuator viaduct.Thereis sufficientspace to goreand ramp terminalas it appears traffic FigureX-7 I showsa typical enteringa freewaY.

-ATAPERTYPE EXIT GORE

DesignSpeedof Approach Highway (km/h)

Z-Lengthin Meter of NoseTaPer per meterof NoseOffset; in Shown FigureX-66 for Conditions 15.0 20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 35.0 40.0

50 60 70 80 90 100 ll0 t20

an tength taperbeyond offsetnose. of X-2. Minimum Table

Ramp Traveled-WaYWidths b a y w i d t h a n d c r o s ss e c t i o n .R a m p t r a v e l e d - w a r v i d t h s r e g o v e r n e d y t h e t r a f f i c . I t s h o u t db e . , t y p e o f o p c r a t i o n c u r v a t u r e a n d v o l u m ea n d t y p e o f f w r , t n o t e d h a tr h er o a d w a y i d t h f o r a t u r n i n g o a d w a ya sd i s t i n c t r o m t r a v e l e d t e o t t r v a vw i t l t h .i n c l u d e s h e s h o u l d e r s r e q u i v a l e nc l e a r a n c o u t s i d e h ee d g e s I " W i d t h sf o r T u r n i n gR o a d w a y s ,i"n C h a p t e r I I w o f t r a v e l e d a y .T h e s e c t i o n , e d g eo f s n f l m a y b e r e l e r e n c e db r a d d i t i o n ad i s c u s s i o o n t h e t r e a t m e n ta t t h e a c w r o r D t r a v e l e d v u y . e s i g n v i d t h s f r a m pt r a v e l e d a y sf o r v a r i o u s o n d i t i o n s r e g i v c n i n T e b l e X - 3 . V a l u e s a r e s h o w n t o r t h r e e g e n e r a ld e s i g n t r a f f i c

-cIIA'OR Fffit( @RE

MITE' FoR'z'LEtGTrfssE TA8LEx-2

c o n d i t i o n sr.t st b l l o w s : tbr but Treific ConditionA-predominantly P vehiclcs. someconsideration SU trucks. Traific CttnditionB-sufficient SU vehiclcsto govcm design,but some vehicles. tbr considerltittn scmitrailer vehicles sovern to C-sufficient busandcombination-tvpe TrefficConclition

FigureX-66. Typicalgoredetails.

AASHTO--Ceometric Design of Highways and Streers

and Grade SeDarations I nterchanges

(a CL

E, UJ
{g F trt F F4 O_1

r! o o c (!

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o-

Itrp

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exit. single'lane X-68. Gorearea, Figure

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FigureX-69. Gorearea,maiorfork.

=):tr

9_t1

A,\.5H'l' OJ. ; c ()n teI r i ( D c si g tt rs H i g ltwa t.s a ntl St r ec, f !s

s Grade Separotions and I nterc hange

93s

Width(m)
Case I O n e - L a n e ,O n e Way OperationWith Provision for Passinga Stalled Vehicle C a s eI I One-Lane,OneWav ODerationlVith Piovision for Passinga Stalled Vehicle C a s eI I I Two-Lane OPerationEither One-WaY or Two'WaY

R a d i u so n Inner Edge of Pavement R (m)

Design Tralfic Condilions-

CABCABC 5.4 4.8 4.5 4.2 3.9 3.9 3-9 3.6 3.6 5.4 5 .r 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.5 45 4.5 4.5 6.9 5.1 5.1 5.1 4.8 4.8 4-8 4.5 .1.5 6.9 6.3 6.0 5.7 5:7 5..1 5..1 5.4 5.I 7.5 8.7 8.1 6 . 9 '1.5 6.6 6.3 7.2 6.3 6.9 6.0 6.6 6.0 -66 6.0 6.6 5.7 6.3 9.3 10.5 t2.6 8.7 9.9 Il.l 8.4 9.3 I0.5 9.9 8.1 9.0 8.7 9.3 8.I 9.0 7.8 8.4 8.7 8.4 1.8 8.7 7.8 8.4 7.5 8.1 8.1

l5 25 30 50 75 100 r25

r50
Tangent

Width Modification Regarding Edge Treatment None

Figure X-70. Gorearea, two-lane on viaduct. exit

No stabilized shoulder Mountablecurb Barricr curb: oneside lwo sides Stabilized s h o u l d c ro n c o r , b o t hs i d c s

None

None

None Add0.3m Add0.6nr

Lane width for c t t n d i t i o nB & C s on tangenrma,vbc reducedto J.6 rn i w h e r es h o u l d c r s 1.2moruider

None None Add 0.3 m Deductshouldcr u i d t h :t n i n i r n u n l witlth as untler Casc I

None Add 0.3 m Add 0.6 m D e d u c t0 . 6 wherc shoulder is I.2 nr or wider

Notc:

{ = B = C =

tirr P prcdonrinantly vchiclcs.but sonl!'consid!'ration Stl trucks' but sufficicnt SU vchiclcs ro rovcrn dcsigln, somc considerttionfor scmitrrilcr vchiclcs of bus and cornbination-tyrEs vchiclcs lo Eovcm dcsrgn' sulTicient

Rcfer to Chaptcr Ill lbr additionrl intbmation.

widthslor turningroadways' TableX'3. Design

destgn in A. Traftrcconditions B, and C aredescribed broadtermsbccausc total.tbr eachtypeof vehicleare of dataon traffic in volume,or percentage the nor availableto clefinethesetraffic conditionswith precisionin relationto as traffic condititlnA can be assumed havinge way width. In general. traveled

FigureX-71. Entranceterminal.

t o l percent sa!'intherangc volumeof trucks, havingr moderate traffic:and traftlc conditionC ls havingmorecnd largertrucks'

tot

AASHTO--4eometic Design of Highu,aysand Steets

and I nterchanges Grade Separations

937

shoulders and lateral clearances. Designvaluesfor shoulders and Iateral rances the rampsareas follows: on l. When paved shoulders are providedon ramps,they shoutdhave a uniform width lor the full lengthof ramp.For one-wayoperation, rhe sum of rheright and left shoulder widthsshouldnot exceed to 3.6 3.0 m. A pavedshoulder width of 0.6 to 1.2m is desirable rheleft with on the remainder 2.4 to 3.0 m as the pavedright shoulder. of The ramp traveled-way widths from Table X-3 for CaseII and case ill shouldbe modifiedwhen pavedshoulders providedon the ramp, are The ramptraveled-way width for caseII shourd reduced thetotal be by width of both right and reft shoulder.However,in no case,should the ramp traveled-way width be lessthanrequiredfor case I. For example, with condition c and a I25 m radius, thc case IT ramp iiaveie?-way width withourshoulders 6.6 m. If a 0.6 m left should and, 2.4 m is er a right shoulderare provided,the minimum ramp traveled-way width would be 4.8 m. Directionalrampswith a designspeedover 60 km/h shouldhave a paved right shoulderof 2.4 to 3.0 m and a 0.3 to l.g m paved leli shoulder. For freewayrampterminals wherethe rampshoulder narrower is than thaton thefreeway, paved the shoulder wi<lth olthe through laneshould be carriedinto theexit terminal,andshouldbeginwithin rheentrancc terminal,with the transition the narrowerranrpshoulcler to effectecl gracefullyon the rampend of the terminal. Abrupt change shouldbc avoided. Rampsshoulcl havea larerar crearance the right outside theedge on of of the traveledway of at least1.8m. and pret'erably to 3.0 m, arrcl 2.4 on the left a lateral clearance at leastI .2 m beyondtheedgeof ramp of traveledway. Whererampspassundersrructures, totalroadway the width shouldbe carriedthroughwithoutchange. Desirably. srructural supports should be located beyond clearzone. a rninimum. structural the As thc suppons s h o u l d e a m i n i m u mo f 1 . 2m b e y o n d h ee d g e f p a v e d h o u l d e r . h c b t o s T AASHTo R, adsideDesign Guide ll) givesguitiance clearz.ne ancl on the useof roadside baniers. Rampson overpasses shouldhave rhe full approach roadwaywidth carriedover the structure. Edgelinesand/orsometypeof coloror rexrure dift'crentiation berween t h e t r a v c l e d a y a n ds h o u l d eirs d e s i r a b l c w

2'

3.

Shoulders and curbs. shouldersare neededon ramps and terminalsin to space clearof thetrafficlanes. minimize to areas providestopping interchange who may be confused. and the effectof breakdowns, to aid drivers withoutcurbs. andrampsat interchanges are Highwayspreferably designed particularly only to facilitate Curbsshouldbe considered aresimilarlytreated. where encloseddrainageis difficult drainagesituationsas in urban areas curbsareusedat the In right-of-way. somecases. ofrestricted because required portions.The use of ramp terminalsbut are omitted along the centralramp is or curbs on facititiesdesignedfor intermediate higher speeds not recomWherecurbsare not used,full-depthpaving mendedexceptin specialcases. for of because the frequentuseof shoulders shouldbe providedon shoulders edge be placed at the lu1nrlg 4ovgqe111 On loltryq.q fu.Llttt.t curbs may u-edl- ionjunitkin with shoulders' of roua*-y. Ba;ier curbs are sel<l'om except where pedestrianprotection is required.On high-speedfacilities' be curbsshoulddesirably placedat the outeredgeof the shoulder. mountable the and more liberaldesigns, needfor curbsin of Because fewer restrictions of rural areasseldom arises.See ChapterIV for a full discussion shoulder el c r o s s - s e c t i o ne m e n t s .

4.

RampTerminals to The rerminalof a ramp is that portion adjacent the throughtraveledway. may be the Rampterminals and islands. tapers, lanes, includingspeed-change terminalof diamondor partial cloverleaf at the crossroad typ, as at-grade with or diverges or interchanges, the fiee-tlowtypewhereramptraffic merges for Desigpelements the tbrmer traffic at flat angles. through tiorn high-speed in tbr andrhose thelattertypearediscussed the in typearediscussed chapterIX. fbllorvingsections. s of to according thenumber lane on theramp are Terminals furtherclassified of to and according thc configuration eithersingleor multilane. at the terminal. paralleltype. lane. the speed-chirngc eithertaperor ltntl entrirnccs cxits ilrc contrary Left-hand entrancesand exits.Left-hand cntrances rvithright-hand whenintermi.red rtf to thc concept driver expectancy a n de x i t s . and cntranccs cxitsin the to careshouldbeexercised avoidleft-hand Extreme connections. antlbrunch of Evenin thecase mirjortbrks of desiCn interchanges. ( S e e h ed i s c u s s i o n t t e ro s s t h el e s s i g n i f i c a n t a d w a y h o u l d x i ta n de n t e r l nt h cr i g h t .
'--"t--_------

5.

6.

l. U.

on operation thc throughroaclwlvs. hesitant creatc' in general

AASHTO--GeometricDesign of Highu,aysand Steet.r

and I nlerchanges Grade Separations

939

Left-hand entrances and exits are consideredsatisfactory for collectordistributor roads; however, theiruseon high-speed, free-flowrampterminals is not recommended. Because left-hand entrances exitsarecontraryto driver and expectancy, special attention shouldbe given to signingand the provisionfor decision sightdistance orderto alertthedriverthatan unusual in situation exrsts. Terminal location and sight distance.where diamondrampsand panial cloverleafarrangements intersect crossroad grade,an at-grade the at intersecrion is formed.Desirably, this intersection shouldbe locatedan adequate distance from the separation structure provide sight distancethat permirssafeentry or to exit on thecrossroad. criteriafor entering The sightdistance alongwith stopping sight distanceare detailedin ChaoterIII. Drivers prefer and expectto exit in advanceof the separation strucrure. The ectOr:disJributoiioads singl- eiiti on parti-l cloverleafs and anct othF typesof interchanges automaticallylocatesthe main line exit in advance the of separation structures. Designsthat employexitsconcealed behindcrestverticalcuryesshouldbe avoided, especially high-speed on facilities. Desirably,high-speed entrance ramp terminalsshouldbe located descendon ing grades aid truck acceleration. to Adequate sightdistance entrance at terrninalsshouldbe available thatmergingtraffic on the rampcan adjustspeed so to mergeinto gapson the main facility. Loop rampsthat are locatedbeyondthe structure, in the conventional as cloverleafor in certainarangements partialcloverleafs, of usuallyrequlrea parallel deceleration lane.The acrual exit fiom theauxiliarylaneis difficult for driversto locateevenwhen sightdistance not re.stricted a verticalcurve. is by L o c a t i n g h e e x i t i n a d v a n c e f t h e s t r u c t u r e i a a s i n g l ee x i t a l l e v i a t e t h i s t o v s problern. Seethe two-exitversus single-exit the discussion this chapter. in Ramp terminal design.Profilesof ramp terminals shouldbe designed in association with horizontal curvesto avoidsightrestrictions will adversely rhat atfectoperations. anexit intoa rampon a descending At grade. horizontal a curvc ahead shouldnot appear suddenly a driver usingthe ramp.Instead inirial to the crestvcrticalcurveshouldbe madelongerand sightdistance over it increaseti so thatthebeginning andthedirection the horizontal of curvelre obviousto the driverin sufficient time tbr safeoperation. an entrance At temrinalfrom a ramp on an ascending grade.the portion of the ramp and its tcrminalintendedtbr acccleration shouldcloselyparallelthe through-lane profilero pennirentering drivers havea clearview ahead. theside.andto therearon thethrouuh to to road. It is desirable that profilesof highwav ramp terminars designcdwirh a be latfbrmon the sideol the diftcr from tharof the adjacent through-traffic lane.

terminalof a ramp at A plarformareashouldalsobe provided the at-grade from thetypeof trafficcontrol thisplatlormshouldbe determined The lengthof For requirements. furtherdiscussion. involvedat the terminaland the capacity iX. seeChapter to Traffic control. on major highways,rampsare arranged facilitate'all On or divergingmaneuvers' minor highways' oy turnlngmovements merging directly at grade.The oiten are macJe some of the left-tumingmovements shouldhave highwaypreferably crossing leavingthe lefi,turningmovemenrs from the movements the left-turning crossroads For medianlanes. low-volume movesigns.The right-turning rampsnorrnallyshouldbe controlledby stop should be provided with an ments from the ramps into multilane crossroads by be or taper should controlled stopor yield signs' lane acceleration or generous be dC$rees-linementand stoPslgnss stopsigni shouldhaveclbseto 90 rpproaching Rampsapproaching nearly level for storageof severalvehicles. Tiaffic signalcontrolsmay be requiredat ramp terminalson the minor road the wherethereis sufficientvolumeof throughand turningtraffic. In suchcases in thesame and would bedesigned operated formedat theterminals intersections at intersections grade.Signal manneras any other traffic-signal-controlled to andconfined theminor highways on be should avoided express-type conrrols includesignal are highwayson which other intersections at grade,and some at application signalcontrolhasconsiderable In controls. or nearurbanareas, Here'the o c o r a m p t e r m i n a l s n s t r e e t s r o s s i n g v e r o r u n d e ra n e x p r e s s w a y ' and the cost of right-of-way and turning movementsusually are siz-able, savingmay be effected appreciable therconis high. As a result. improvernents and on terminafs the qxpressway by the useof dilnrond rampswith high-type of tbr Warrants the installation traffic on terminals the crossstreets. signalized are rampterminals givenin PartIV of the to tharcanbe applied diamond signals MUTCD (2). Distancebetweena free-flow terminal and structure. The terminalof a to If structure. it is not possible ramp shouldnot be nearthe grade-separation the of terminalin advance the structure. exiting terminalon the placethe exit shouldbe well removedin order that. when leaving' flr sideof the structure in atier passingthe structure, which to see the distance, tirivershrrvesorrrc c e S t h e t u r n o f fm a n e u v e r . i g h td i s t a n c e o m p a r a b l t o g u i d e ' a t u r n o u t n t lb e g i n i d s d e c i s i o n i g h t d i s t a n c e i s c u s s i o ns r e c o m m e n d e d l i n e s s e t o u t u n d e rt h e noseat and the approach the between structure wherepracticlt.The distance t s u f f i c i e nt b r e x i t i n gd r i v e r s o l e a v et h et h r o u g h l t h er a m pt e r m i n a s h o u l db e lanes wirhour undue hindrancero through traffic. Such distancealst'raids inir from a far sideterminalin havinqa clearviervwell backon the o b t h er o a db e v o n ttl h el i m i t so f t h es r r u c t u r e ,u ta sa g e n e r arlu l e .t h ec r e s t f t h e

AASHTO--lieometric Design of Highways and Streers

Gratle Separa Ii ons ancl I n terc'hanges

profile at an overpass and the columns,abutments, and approachwalls at an underpass obstructor impair their view of the traffic streamwith which they m u s tm e r g e . Although there is no directmeasure rhe severalvariablesinvolved.the of conditions for determiningthe distancebetween a structureand far side approachnose are similar to those discussedfor speed-change lanes. A reasonable minimum distance between structure the and an exit noseof about the length of speed-change raperis suggested. Decisionsight distances are desirable but are not rigid controlsfor ramp design.The overall shapeof the ramp to fit right-of-wayor topographic controlsmay govern. The safetyand convenience both throughand tuming traffic areenhanced of by a long distancebetweenstructureand exit ramp terminal, but too long a distancefor certain ramp arrangements such as cloverleaf loop ramps could as-ett as inf large addiiional right-of-way requirements creased travel time and lengthon the loops.where only one loop is requiredand it falls on the far side of the structure, speed-change a laneshouldbe developed on the near side and carriedacrossthe structureif sight distanceis a problem. Ramp terminalson the nearside of a gradeseparation need not be as far removedasthosebeyondthestructure. Both the view of theterminalahead lbr driversapproaching the throughroadand the view backalong the road for on drivers on an entranceramp are not affected by the structure.where an entrance ramp curve on the nearsideof the structure requires acceleration an lane,the ramp terminalshouldbe located providelengthfor it between to thc terminaland the structure, theacceleration or lanecould be continued through or over the structure.where far-side terminals are located close to thc structure, sightdistance the shouldbechecked because horizontal the sightline may be limited by the abutment parapet. or Distancebetweensuccessive ramp terminals.On urbantieeways therearc fiequentlytwo or more ramp terminals closesuccession in along the through lanes. providesufficient To maneuvering lengthandadequate space signing, for a reasonable distance required is between terminals. Spacing betweensuccessive outer ramp terminalsis dependent thc on classification the interchanges of involved, the function of rhe ramp pairs (entrance exit), and weavinr potential, or when applicable. The term "systemsinterchange" used to idenrify an interchange is that transt'ers traffic tieeway to fieeway.A "service interchange" the designation is tbr an interchange betweena tieeway and a local arterial. The ramp-paircombinations enrrance are ( tbllowedby entranceEN-EN),exit tbllowed by exit (EX-EX), exit tbllowetl by enrrance(EX-EN), enrrance tbllowedby exit (EN-EX) lweavine). and rumins roadw vanous ramp-parrcombinations they are applicableto the interchangc as

c l a s sfii c a t i o n s . minimum by ramp is tbllowecl an exit ramp,theabsolute Wherean entrance s r v e a v i n r e q u i r e m e n tA . g bJ i e t d i s t a n c b e t w e c nh es u c c c s s i vn o s e ss g o v e r n e < y e is combinations the to notableexceprion this lengthpolicy tor EN-EX ramp interchanges For interchanges. these loop rampsof cloverleaf between distance on loop ramp is EN-EX rampnoses primarilydependent between the distance lanebeyondthe noseof the radii and roadwayand medianwidths.A recovery loop rampexit is desirable. nosesis less than 450 m, the When the distancebetweenthe successive ro lanesshould be connected provide an auxiliary lane. This speed-change over relativelyshort auxiliarylane is providedfbr improvedtraffic operation as of sections the fieewayrouteand is not considered an additionto the basic

ql!q!gs.Seetheggtroli4lltilary t-ln.t l ,ilt chaqre1lo1{t:11: qlrmbqt

methodsof droppingtheselanes. Speed-changelanes. Drivers leaving a highway at an interchangeare as requiredto reducespeed theyexit on a ramp' Driversenteringa highwayfrom speedis reached. until the desiredopen-road a turning roadwayaccelerate provisionshould is in change speed usuallysubstantial, the Because necessary on to and for acceleration deceleration be accomplished auxiliaryIanes be made potential' accident with to minimizeinterf'erence throughtraffic and to reduce or primarilyfor theacceleration areas, tapered lane,including Suchan auxiliary is lanes, termed or entering leavingthe through-trafflc vehicles of cleceleration lane' lane, lane. a speed-change The termspeed-change deceleration or acceleraway joiningthetraveled lane to broadly theadded applies herein tion laneasuse<l y n a l r t h er u r n i n g o a d w a y n cd o e s o tn e c e s s a r i il m p l y w o f t h eh i g h w a y i t h t h a to f l t a I a o r a t j e t ' i n i tle n e l ' u r t i l b r l rw i t l r h . r i s a p a r to l ' t h ee l t l n g u t erd r n p e r m i n l la r et ' h, a s a m i n i m u n lr e c l u i r e n t e n ta v es u f f i c i c n t le A s p e e d - c h a n g a n es h o u l c l . l t b y t t a l e n g t ht o e n a b l e c l r i v e r o r n a k e h e n e c e s s a rc h a n g e e t w c e n h e s p c e t o f i o n t h et u r n i n gr o a d w a y r t a s i t l L ' a r t d h o o p e r a t i o n n t h e h i g h w a y ; . r ntd es p e e d n m c o m f o r t a b l e a n n e r .M o r e o v e r .i n t h e c a s eo f a n a c c e l e r a t i o l a n e .t h c r c s n p e r m i ta t l j u s t m e n ti s s p e e d o f b o t h s h o u l db e a d d i t i o n alle n g t hs u f f i c i e n t o v e h i c l e ss ( ) t h a t t h e d r i v e r o f t h c c n t c r t n g t h r o u g hv e h i c l e sa n d e n t e r i n g it a t v e h i c l e a np o s i t i 6 nh i r n s c l f t p p o s i t e g a p i n t h et h r o u g h - t r a l ' f sc r c l t nr t n t l c a a c c c l c r a t i o ln n c .T h i s l l t t c r t m a n e u v e irn t o i t b e f o r er e a c h i n gh ee n do f t h e l h r e q u i r e m e n ta s m u c h t o d o $ i t h b o t h t h c c o n f i g u r l t i o nr n dl c n g t ht l t ' r r n a a c c e l e r a t i ol n n c , tilnns.thctilpcrtypc antlthc' in are larrcs designed two qencral speed-change paralleltype.The tapertypc workson thc principlcol'il dircctcnlrv or cxtt 3t a Either rhe tlat angle;whereas parlllel rlpe hasan addedlanelbrspccdchangc. Thcre is a decidcd atc satist'tctorilv.
I'lttwcvcr. thc parallel type is still ilvorcd in ecrtlin ltrclts'Sotrtcagenciesuse the

attd Streets AASHTO--Ceontetri( Desi,gtt Hi.qhu'avs of

and I nter<'hanges Grade Separations

type lor exits anclthe paralleltl pe for entriinces to S e eC h a p t eI X f o r d i s c u s s i o n s p e e d - c h a n g e e s s a p p l i c a b l e a t - g r a d e r of lan a - intersections-

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AASHTO-Ceometri( Design of Highu'avsand Streets

onclI nterchanges Grade Separatiotls

T h e t a p e r t t h ed o w n s t r e a mn do f a p a r a l l e l - t y pa c c e l e r a t i ol n n es h o u l d a e e a l b e a s u i t a b l ee n g t h o g u i d er h ev e h i c l e r a d u a l l y n r or h et h r o u g h a n eo f r h e t g l o f r e e w a yA l e n g t h f a p p r o x i m a t e9y m i s s u i t a b l eb r d e s i g n p e e d u p t o I l 0 . o l0 f s s km/h. The lengthof a parallel-rype acceleration is generally lane measured from the point wherethe left-edse thetraveled of way of the rampjoins rhetraveled way of the tieewayto the beginning thetaper.It is noteworrhy of that,in thecaseof the tapertype,acceleration accomplished the ramp upstream the poinr is on of of convergence the two roadways; of whereas, the caseof the paralleltype, in acceleration usually takes place downstream from thispoint.However, in the as caseof the tapertype,a partof the ramp propermay alsobe considered the in acceleration length. provided curveapproaching accelerarion hasa rhe the lane ong-radius approxim-tefl 300rn or more, and the moiorist on the ramp has of view of traffic on the freeway to his left. The minimum an unobstructed lengthsfor entrance acceleration terminalsare given in Table X-4, and the adjustments grades given in Table X-5. for are The operational and safety benefitsof long acceleration lanes are well recognized,particularly where both the freeway and ramp cany high traffic volumes. long acceleration provides A Iane moretime tbr the mergingvehicles to find an openingin the through-traffic lanelengthof stream. acceleration An at least360m. plusthetaper, desirable is wherever is anricipated theramp that it and fieeway will frequently carry traffic volumesapproximately equal to the d e s i g n a p a c i t y t ' t h em e r g i n g r e a . c o a

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Taper type. The taper-type exit fits well the direct path pret'ened mosr by drivers.permittingthemto tollow an easyparhwithin the divergingarea. The taper-type exit terminalbeginning with an outereclge breakusually alinentent provides clearindication a ofthe pointofdeparrure fronrrhethroughlaneandin gcneralhas becn tbund to operatesmoothlyon high-volurne freervavs. Thc clivergence angleis usuallybetween degrees 2 and -5degrees. S t u d i e o f t h i st v p eo f t e r m i n as h o wt h a tm o s rv e h i c l e l e u v e h et h r o u g ha n c s l s r l y i r tr e l a t i v e l h i g hs p e e d s h e r e b r e d u c i n gh ep o s s i b i l i t i c .fsr e a r - e nc o l l i s i o n s t. y t o d because the startof decelerltion the throughllne. Oncc off the lane.thc of on nec'dcd speed chantecanbeetl'ected rheexitingvehicle rnoves llong thetaper as ontotherampproper. FigureX-7-lA showsa typicaldesigntor a taper-type exit.

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AASHTO--$eometic Design of Highways and Streets

and I nterchan4e.s Grade Separa!ions

IHRU LANES

Design Speedof Highway (km/h) All Speeds All Speeds

50t I TO 70, I TAPER F O RH I G H S P E E D A C I L I T I E S F

Deceleration Lanes Ratio of Length on Grade to Length for DesignSpeedof Turning Cun'e (km/h)" 3 to lVo upgrade 0.9 5 to 6Vo upgrade 3 to 1Vodowngrade

t.2
S t o 6 V od o w n g r a d e

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Design Speedof Highway AccelerationLanes

t.35

TAPERED ESGN D I Hru LrxEs yrorlFc6n-3nnNosE

Ratio of Length on Grade to Length for

(|(rrltd

lcsigrspe&of{lrrning Roadqef euryrth/tr)' 60

3 to 4o/o upgrade All Speeds

3 to 4c/o downgrade 0.7 0.65 0.65 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6

5 to 6()i dori ngradc ().6

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l.

-B- PARALLEL ESIGN D

NOTES' Lo lS THE REoUIRED CCELERATION A L E N G T HA S S H O W N N T A B L E X - 4 O R X - 5 . I

2 . P O r N T @ C O N T R O LS A F E S P E E D N T H E O R A M P . L o S H O U L O O T S T A R TB A C KO N N T H E C U R V A T U RO F T H E R A M PU N L E S S E T H E R A D I U S E O U A L S3 O O m O R M O R E . 3" Lg IS REOUIREO APACCEPTANCE G O L E N G T H .L 9 S H O U L D E A M I N I M U M F B 9Om TO lsom DEPENDING N THE NOSE O WIDTH. 4. I T H E V A L U E O F L o O R L g , I V HC H E V E R T PRODUCESHE GREATEST I STANCE D T FR D O } J N S T R E A M O MW H T R E H E N O S E IS SUGCESTED W I D T H E O U A L SO . 6 m O F O RU S E I N I H f D E S I G N F T H T R A M P E NTR A N C E ,

60 70 80 90 100 Il0 120

l.J I.-)

t.4
l4 1,1

1.4 1.4 1.5 1.5

ll

l.+

l.f

r.6
L-5
t<

1.6 1.6

1.5 l.-5 1.1 t.l 1.7

t.5 1..5 1.1 1.7 t.1

1.6 1.6 1.8 Lti t.8

5 to 6% upgracle

60 70 80 90 l(x il( l]r

1..5 l.-5 r.5 1.6 1.7 1.0

i.-1

l.-s 1.6 L7 l.r.i 1.9 l.:

,.-')

l.i L9

l.ti

1.0
f f

:.r
f I

l.s l.rr -r.() -l.l

0.6 0.-5.t 0 '5'i {).-5 ().-i 0.-i

r t t " R u t i ol - r o m h i st l b l c n r u l t i p l i c dr vt h c l c n g l hi n l l b l c \ - J o r - l ' : r b l\c t i g i r c s l c r r g t hr l spcetl chlngc lancon gnrdc.

TableX-5. Speedchangelane Figure X-73. Typical ramps. entrance single-lane

stment factors a function as of

AASHTO-Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

and I nterchanges Grade Separations

rL-.i^hr

-,1^-

^f

throughlane,to the point controllingthe safespeedfor the rarnp.The length provided between pointsshouldbeat least greatasthedistance as required these '- to accomplish necessarv the which is governedby the speedof deceleration. trafficon thethroughlaneandthespeed be attained theramp.Deceleration to on tbr may endin a complete terrninal a diamondinterchange, stop.asat a crossroad of or the critical speedmay be governed the curvature the ramp roadway. by speeds the for Minimum deceleration fbr combinations design of lengths various highwayand for the ramp roadway given in Table X-6. Gradeadjustments are aregiven in Table X-5. in The taper-type terminal design be used advantageously developing exit can areajust upstream the desiredlong, narrow,triangular maneuver emergency from the exit noselocated in r offset position from both the throughlane ramplane. alsoworkswell in thelength-width andseparate Thetaperconfiguration to superelevation adjustments effect a rampcrossslopedif ferentfrom thatof the throughlane. the The width of therecovery between inneredges the of area thedistance or at diverginglanes the rampnoseis usually6.0 to 9.0 m. This entireareashould path area, thedesired travel bepavedto providea safe maneuverand recovery but markings. by for the ramp roadwayshouldbe clearlydelineated pavement Parallel type. A parallel-type exit terminal usually begins with a taper, exit fbllorvecl a derivedlengthof addetlfull lanc. A typical parallel-type by a i l t e n n i n a l s s h o w ni n F i g u r eX - 7 - 1 CT h i s t y p eo l ' t e r m i n ap r o v i d e s n i n v i t i n g . lvidth are vicw the exit area.because fbreshortene-ci of thc taperanclthe aclded v c r v a p p a r e n tH o r v e v e rt,h i s d e s i g nA s s r . l n r t l r a td r i v e r sw i i l c x i t n e a rt h e . es rcaftcr.It rcquircsa bcginningoi the acldcd lane.anti cf'f'cct s1'rccd changc(lte condiunnatural. UndcrlOw-v()lurne rcvcrse-curve ntillleuver thilt is sonrc-what p l t h a n dt u m c l i r c c t l y ex t t i o n sa d r i v e rn r a yc h o o s eo a v o i r l h c r c v c r s e - c u r v c i t t e l S o f ' ft h et h r o u g h a n ci n t h c v i c i n i t yo f t h ee x i t n o s c . u c ha r n a n L ' u v mra y r e s u l t e l i n u n d e s i r a b ld e c e l e r a t i o n t h e t h r o u g h a n e .i n u n t i e s i r a b lc o n l l i c to n t h e e on speedin thc exit-nosc arca. lane,or in exccssir.e dcceleration -fhc lanc is usuallytncasurt-'tl the tiom lengthola parallt"'l-tvpe tlecclcration p t l i n t w h c r e t h c a d d c d l : r n ca t t a i n su - 1 . ( n r w i d t h t o t h c p o i n t * h e r c t h c r o l u l i n c r n e n tf t h e r a m p m l d w u v d c p u r t sf r o n r t h c l l i n c r n c n tc f t h e t ' r c c w a y . \ \ ' h c r ct h c r r m p p r o p e ri s c u r r ' . ' t ii.t i s t t c s i r l b l ct t l p r r l v i d c t r a n s i t i o n t t l t c a a r t c n t l o l ' t h ed c c c l c r l t i o nl a n e ., ' \ c o n r p t l u r rc lu r v c n l r r yb c t t s c t l v i t hl h e i n i t i a l t . o ) c u r v cd e s i r a b l y a v i n ga l o n g r a d i u s f . s u v ,- l ( X n r o r n r ( ) r cr \ t n t n s i l i o nt r a h w l l o n g r a r l i u s u r v e i s a l s r ld c s i r l b l c i f t h c d c c c l c n r t i o nu n c c o n t r c c t s i t h a c l s t r c l a t i v c l v t r a i g hr a m p .I n s u c hc a s c s p o r t i ( ) lo t ' t h er a n t pt t t a yb c c o n s i t l e r c t l a
L

tt,

g o
t,a,-=,= r.r=_i_:

CL ol

o o

o o o t, (g

3
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o+ .rc Q = 5 :? P - n .r=-: _

-]-l ;i

E
E;--:'':r

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L

V.t
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I
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o o tr c o = x o o

I ,=
3

'=
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x.: :F

rra.--rrr, a'-rrr
.= t. !J a -

a)J
1

=5
a-

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=-! !:rr'-

3E

L=:i

a'->

i.*; s

c-s
'a,rrl
.=r.= t>!

c-

ii-: a

=,; .i, x lqr

>.4

i=

l ruri.iustmentsgrrdcsin TablcX--i L o n g c l p a r u l c l - t l 1 t ct l c c c l c r a t i t l na n c sl t r e tbr

AASHTO-Geometric Design of Highu,oysand Steet.s

Grade Separations and I nt erc hanges

(0 ><

;?

()
oF IJ (J IJ (J

@ = lE
-,,,1 9 dcl o <
s lrjl J

x)<lz

( 9 | r , lI F I rl(,

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q
Jr

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trJ

z.

6'

fz. z. u1

Lrt

B= 6g
-^.? via a<
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2 , 3 tr)

z.
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z,

<l(, F F llttr!. J

z-z< A - tl

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AASHTO--Ceometric Design of Highu,ays and Streets

and Interchanges Grade Separations

-The

more likely to be usedproperly. Lengthsof at least240 m aredesirable. taperportionof a parallel-type deceleration desirably Iane shouldhave a t a p e r o fa p p r o x i m a t e lly t o 2 5 m l o n g i r u d i n a t lry I m t r a n s v e r s e lA . l o n g 5 o y .. -- taperindicates general the pathto be followedandreduces unused the portionof the deceleration lane.However,a long tapertendsto enticethe throughdriver into the deceleration lane. A short taper producesa better "target" to the approaching driver,giving him a positiveindication ofthe addedlaneahead. Free-flowterminalson curves.The previous discussion stated terms was in of tangent through-lane alinement. Because curvature most fieewaysis the on slight,it is usuallynot necessary makeany appreciable to adjustments ramp at terminals curves. on However, wherethecurves a freeway relatively on are sharp and it is necessaryto provide exits and entranceson these curves, some adjustments designmay be desirable avoid operational in to difficulties. of ]5 haVing -le-ign-speeds l0O km/h or more the curves are gentle thateitherthe sufficiently so parallel typeorthetapertypeofspeed-change laneis suitable. With the paralleltype the designis aboutthe sameas rhat on tangent theadded and laneis usually thesame on curyature themainline.With as the tapertype the dimensions applicable terminals to located tangent on alinementaresuitablefor useon curyes. methodfor developing alinement A the of tapered speed-change lanes curvesis illustrated FigureX-75. The ramp is on in tapered thesameraterelative thethrough-traffic at to lanes thecurved on section as the tangent section. Where a partof a tapered ver speed-change fhlls on curvedalinement, lane it i sd e s i r a b lte a tt h ee n t i r e e n g t h ew i t h i nt h el i m i t so f t h ec u r v e W h e r e h et a p e r h l b . t is introduced tangent on alinementjust upstreant fronrthebeginning ofthe curve, the outeredgeof lhe taperwill appear a kink at the point of curvature. as At rampterminals relativelv on sharp curves suchasthosethatmay occuron freewlys havinga designspeed 80 km/h. the paralleltype of speed-change of lanes an advanta-ee thetapertype.At exitstheparallel has over typeis lesslikely to cottfusethrough traffic. and at entranccs this type will usually result in smoother mergingoperations. Parallel-type speed-change lanesat ramp terminalson curvesare showndiagrammatically FigureX-76. in Entrances curvedsections highwavarertencrally of a pnrblenr ttn of lcss than c ' r i t sF i g u r e s - 7 6 Aa n dX - 7 6 Bs h o we n ! r l n c e w i t h t h eh i g h w l vc u r v i n g o t h e . X s t l c i t l n d r i { h t . r e s p e c t i v e l yt. i s i m p o r t a nfth a tr h et p p r o a c h u r v eo n t h e r a m p l c hrts verv lttng radiusas it joins the lccelenrtion r.t lune.This alinesthe entering vehiclewith the acceleration and lesscns chances nrotclrists lane the of entering ilircctly onto the throughlanes. The taperut thc cnd of the acceleration lane shttuldbe lon-s, preterably about90 m. When rcvcrsccurvc alinement occurs hctrveen ramoand the c h a n s c a n e . n i n t c r v e n i n t a n q e ns h o u l d l a u t An exit may be particularly rvhcre hirhrvly curvesto the left troublesornc thc

e8) nt|f
FF

i+,

+ +
F

tt,

.t

;\orr) ;$r,tr} Y+t+ )< :FFr,noo(n

-OOO

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F

vl

3.6m

4.8m

E XI T
ooo
r. FFF

lr) ro
t. F t^

o ()
F

.r,o,.
@coo]
vl
t, t'

a
o

0tn

o |r)

30 TO 70
d 3

()
4 7 tn
-.2--

+
F TN

.e

.--

|_

(^

'4l2m

6m

EN T R AN C E

on terminals curves. FlgureX-75. Layoutof taper-type

AA.tHTO--Ceometric Design of H ighways and Street.s

and I nterchanges Grade Separations

(Figure x-76c) because trafficon theoutside lanetends follow theramp.Exits to o n l e f t - t u r n i n g u r v e s h o u l db e a v o i d e di.f p o s s i b l eC a u t i o n u s tb e u s e di n c s . m p o s l t l o n l n g t a p e r - t y pd e c e l e r a t i o a n eo n t h eo u t s i d e f a l e f t - t u m i n g a i n a e ln o m line curve. The designshouldprovide a definite break in the right edge-oftraveled wav to providea visualcueto thethroughdriverso thatthedriveris not inadvertently off thethrough led roadway. orderto makerhedeceleration In Iane more apparent approaching to motorists. tapershouldbe shorter, the preferably no morethan30 m in length. The deceleration shouldbegineitherupsrream lane or downsrreamfrom the PC. Ir should not be_qin right at the pc, as the deceleration lane appears be an extension the tangent, to of and motorists are more likely to be confused. The ramp propershould begin with a sectionof tangentor a long-radius curve to permit a long and gradualreversing the of superelevation. Anrrlternate de-ign, wh-ch w-ll usually ivoiO op--tional problems,is ro locatetheexit terminala considerable distance upstream from thepC. A separate and parallelramp roadwayis providedto connectwith the ramp proper. with thehighwaycurvin-q therightandtheexit located rheright(Figure to on x-76D) thereis also a rendency vehiclesto exir inadvertently. for Again, the tapershouldbe shortto provideadditional"target" value for the deceleration lane. with this configurationthe superelevation the deceleration of lane is readily effectedby continuingthe rare lrom the travelecl way anclgenerally increasing to the raterequired the ramp curve. it on F i g u r e s - 7 7 , x - 1 8 , a n dX - 7 9s h o r v e v e r arla p e r - t y ps i n g l e - l a ne n t r a n c e s x s e e a n d e x i t s . I n t h e l o w e r r o a d w a yo f F i g u r c X - 7 7 t h c f i r s t o f r h e s u c c e s s i v c on-ritrnps tapered is into the freeway, whcreas seconcl carried the is ahead an as rrrlditional lane.Notethattheramps carr),two lanes f:rom loc.al street the systemi b u tt h e r e s a t r a n s i t i otn a s i n g l e a n e . n t h eu p p e r o a d w a y f F i g u r c - 7 7t h e r e i o l l o X aresttccessive exits.and a l'reewav Ianei.sdroppedatier the lirst exit. Therc is a transitionof the straightrampsto two lanesbetbrejoining rhe local street systcm.This transitionprovidesadditionalstorasecapacityand facilitates tunringmtlvements. Figure' X-7tt showsterminal treatments with cun,edranrps. theexit on the At uppcr roadwltv taper-t-vpe the decelcration iscarricd tungcnt lane on alinement rvcll bevondtherarnpnoscbetirre.joining long-radius the curycon the rarnpproper. On the lorverrcladway shown in Figure X-79 thc treirtntent successive ol o n - r a m p ss s i n t i l a r ( t t h a ti n F i g u r e - 7 7 .T h c f i r s rc n r r a n c cs t a p e r e dn t or h e i t X i i frcer"avand the secttnd entranceis clnicd aheadas ln auxiliary lane.Thc auxiliary lanc is of dift'erent color antj texturc than the throughlanesand is terminated the ncxt interchange at downstrcam. On thc upper roadwav an
reewtv

-c-

..t'---

--

t,---

EXITS

r i l t i oo f - 5 0I:. i s p r o v i d e d e y o n d h i se x i r . b t

dlagrammatlc. on ramp FlgureX-76. Parallel-type terminals curves

AASHTO--I}(ometric Design of Highu'aysanclStreets

e's nd G racl e Separa ri o n s (1 I n I er c hu tt,q

terminals' freeway X'79. Single-lane Figure

.E E
o o 3 o o o c g (') a

ftt

cl

.g tr o o o o

,i:

s
o
I

o c

Multilane free-flory terminals. Multilane terminalsare requiredwhere that Otherconsiderations may call opcration. traffic is too greatibr single-lane on queuin-e long ramps. continuity. are fbr multilaneterminals throu-sh-route flexibility. The most comnern mUltilane tq41n4!s lane balance,and de-sign are terminals Othermultilane and entrances exitsat freeways. of consist two-lane "branchconnections." The latterterms termed"major fbrks" and sometimes and a denote separating joining of two majorroutes. tbr are Two-laneentrances warranted two situations: Two-lane entrances. of, re'quirementstheon-ramp' of or connections because capacity asbranch either lanemust at requirenrents, leastone aciditional to satistylane-balance In order fbr This provic'led clownstream. additionnraybe a basic|aneif alsorequirecl be or 7-50 an auxiliarylanethatrnaybc clroppecl to 900 lll downstream or capacity. ttray lartc-s be necesslrl' s In someinstancetrvoarlclitiortal at thencxt iltcrchapge. ' h e c i t u so t 'c l p r r c i t lr c c l u i r c t r t c t t t s c cxit, by cntralcc is prccetlcd a 1rr'o-lanc tltcrcis p|obablyntl If t5c 6vo-lanc on basic nuntbcrof larrcs tlrc tl'ceuav tloltt a cltllacitl thc necd to incr.cusc s c l It s l a n ( l p ( ) i n n. t h i sc l s c t l r cl r l r l e t l l u r c ' t l t ltt'tc s t r l l st r t t t l t ct u t l - l l t n c n t r l t t l c ie 5o l l n e , u n d i t r l l y ' b c r l l o l t p c tllt p p t ' o r i t l t a l c l r ' 7 -n t0 r an corrsiclercd rrurilirrrv carlicr * tlrops crctliscttsscd ttt'llttlc Dctails frorp rlorc {9u 6st1cu11 tlteclttrancc. e i n t h i sc h a p t r . rt rvltcre lanc hlts tcrlllillals ciltfancc sirnplctr.ro-lanc FigurcX-lt0 illustrates ltaslittlc or ntt lancsorl thc tl'ccwitv The nunrberof becntcldctlto thc f reervay. lln(l cnlrrtrlcLa tcrnlinal.FigurcX-S().\shtlrrs titpcr-tvpc ort cft'cct dcsignol'1hc i lc . t c r n t i x r r to l ' l l t c l $ t l t l c s i g t t ss t t o l n r e I F i g u r cX - l l ( ) 1 3 . p a r i l l l c l - t v pL ' n t r i u t c
()r slSlL'111. rvithirt it s)stClll r()LttC lln urbOll-llfCil rCCtllttltCntlCtl clltrllllcc.ltsslto* rt itt [:igurc tltpcr-tvpc T5c basic lirrnr rtr l1;-ourttf a 119-larrcrtith I X - 8 0 , \ . i s r h u ro t ' 1 s i n g l c - l a n ct i l p c r .i l s d c s c r i b c de l r r l i c r i n t l t i s c h l p t c r . rt tl s l t r t r t t l t l co f s l ' l \ i l i l l r v tl l s c c c l n 6l n c u t l t l c r lt o t h c r i g h t o r ( ) u t c r s i d c a n t l c o n t i n t t c distltrlccs ot'ltccclcrlttitltt lanc ttn thc frccw trv.Tablc X--t shorvsrrrinirrtunrlcttgtlts ltlso rt consitlcretiort :ts tbr ctttrlncc ritlnps. Thc Ulrp ileceptilllcc lcngtlr is ctltrrlllcc [)c adiustcdl-' slrttwn in Tlblc X-.i. Thc lcngtlt tll lt tr,ro-liltlc'tllpcr-typc

g)

6 x
ra

x
l!

o)

3 U' IL

AASHTO--Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

and I nterchanges Grade Separations

959

is approximately sameas thatfor a single-lane the entrance. in thecaseof a As single-lane entrance, is mostdesirable the geometrics the rampproper it that of permit motoriststo attain the approximate running speedof the freewaybefore reaching tapered the section. With theparallel typeof two-lane entrance, shownin FigureX-80B,theleft as laneof the ramp is continuedonto the freeway as an addedlane.The right lane of the ramp is carriedas a parallellane for 90 to 150m or more and terminated with a tapered section which is a minimumof 90 m long.The lengthof theright laneshould,as a minimum,be determined from the acceleration lengthor gap acceptance length,as shown in FigureX-80B. Major factorsin determiningthe neededlength are the traffic volume on the ramp and the traffic volume on the frceway. Where traffic from the two-laneentranceis only slightly in excess of the designcapacityof a single-lane ramp, a length equal to or greaterthan the acceleration le@h or gap acceptance lengtf, plus a taper,may suffice. Wherethepredominant two-laneentrances a particularStateor locality are in of the parallel type and drivers areaccustomed it, they are ill-preparedto use to a taper type, and vice versa.Thus, a particular type of entranceterminal is sometimes condemned beingunsatisfactory as when in fact thedifficulty may be lack of uniformity. Either form of two-lane entranceis satisfactoryif used within an areaor a region, exclusively but they shouldnot b intermixed along a given route. Two-lane exits. Wheretraffic leavingthe freewayat an exit terminalexceeds the designcapacityof a singlelane,it is necessary providea two-laneexit to terminal.To satisfy lane balancerequirements and not to reducethe basic numberof throughlanes. isusuallynecessary addan auxiliary laneupstream it ro from the exit. A distance approximately m is required developthefull of 450 to capacity a two-lane of exit.Typicaldesigns two-lane for exit terminals shown are in FigureX-81; the taperis illustrated FigureX-8 I A. and the parallel in type in F i g u r eX - 8 1 B . wherethebasicnumberof lanesis to be reduced In cases beyonda two-lane exit, the basic numberof lanesshouldbe carriedbeyondthe exit beforethe outer lane is dropped.This designprovidesa recoveryareafor any through vehiclesthat remain in that lane. This was discussed the section"Lane in Reduction"earlier in this chapter. W i t h t h e p a r a l l e lt y p e o f t w o - l a n ee x i t , a s s h o w n i n F i g u r e X - 8 l B , t h e operationis different from the taper type in that traffic in the outer through l a n eo f t h e f r e e w a ym u s t c h a n g el a n e si n o r d e r t o e x i t . I n f a c t , a n e x i t i n g m o t o r i s ti s r e q u i r e d o m o v et w o l a n e s o t h er i g h t i n o r d e rt o u s et h er i g h tl a n e t t of the Thus, considerable lane chansins is necessarv order for the in o f h i g h w a y ,w h i c h i s d e p e n d e nitn p a r t o n r h e r o t a l t r a f f i c v o l u m e o n r h e

O . 6 m- 3 . O m

rl TO 70rl F F O RH I G H S P E E D A C I L I T I E S

-A- TAPERED ESGN D I

O.6m-3.Om WIOTH NOSE

-B- PARALLEL ES GN D I
NOTEST l. A Lo lS THE REoUIRED CCELERATIoN I L E N G T HA S S H O W N N T A B L E X - 4 O R X - 5 . P O r N T @ C o N T R O L SS A F E S P E E DO N T H E R A M P . L o S H O U L DN O T S T A R T E A C K O N T H E C U R V A T U RO F T H E R A M PU N L E S S E T H E R A O I U S E O U A L S3 O O m O R M O R E ' I Lg I S REOURED GAP ACCEPTANCE B L E N G T H . L g S H O U L D E A M I N I M U MO F O 9Om TO l5Om 0PENDING N THE NOSE I YI D T H .
i .

T H E V A L U EO F L O O R L 9 ' W H I C H E V E R D P R O D U C ET H E G R E A T E S T I S T A N C E S D O V I N S T R E AF R O MW H E R ET H E N O S E M w I D T H E O U A L SO . 6 m . lS SUGGESTED F O R U S E I N T H E D E S I G NO F T H E ' : A M P ENTRANCE.

ramps. entrance FigureX-80. Typicaltwo-lane

AASHTMeometric

Design of Highways and Steets

ha s Grade Separations and I nterc' nge

EE o H o) g

tr, o-

,/

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ll

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f r e e w a ya n d e s p e c i a l l y n t h e v o l u m eu s i n gt h e e x i t r a m p .T h e t o t a l l e n g t h o o o f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g f t h e f i r s t t a p e rt o t h e p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f t h e r a m p way from theright-hand freewaywill rangefrorn traveled throughlaneof the 7 5 0 m f o r t u r n i n gv o l u m e s f 1 5 0 0v p h o r l e s su p w a r dt o 1 0 0 0m f o r t u r n i n g o v o l u m e so f 3 0 0 0 v p h . Figure X-82 featurestwo-lane entrances and exits on a freeway. The laneon on into one additional two-laneentrance the upperroadwayis tapered A in the freeway. Note the arrangement advanceof the freeway entrance. one-lanerampjoins the two-laneramp, and thereis transitionof thesethree lanesinto two lanes beforeentering freeway. the bottomroadwaya lane the On is droppedfrom the freewayfollowing thetwo-laneexit. Note the subsequent with sufficientdistance split in the two-laneexit. The facility is constructed smoothly. betweendivergepointsso that the secondsplit operates InFigure X=83 thstwo=lane entranceand exil are shownon very flat angles; and which encourage high-speed The outsidelanesofthe entrance operation. exit are carried onto the freeway as auxiliary lanes of different color and This designdiscourages texture. throughtraffic from usingthe auxiliarylane. split in the two-lane exit. The distancebetweenthe Note the subsequent perception, ramp terminals well over 300 m to provideadequate is successive time for the exiting motorists. reaction, and maneuvering Figure X-84 illustrates specialarrangement extremelyhigh-volume a of are two-laneentrances entrances exits.On the upperroadway, and successive from eachof these provided. singlelarieis added thefreewiry A to downstream encourage smoolh The entrances. flat entrance angles and Iongsightdistances The on operations. exit arrangement the lower roadwayis a major fork, thesi.r The freeway lanessplitting inqofoul thqoughlanesand three turning Ianes. e x i t s u b s e q u e n t sy l i t si n t o t w o a n d t w o . lp three-lan a T h e l o w e r r o a d w a yo f F i g u r eX - 8 5 i l l u s t r a t c s t w o - l a n cc x i t w h e r ct h e t h a t i s i n t r o d u c e r l p p r o x i r n a t e l3 0 0 m i n a y o u t s i d el a n e i s a n a u x i l i a r yI a n e gore area.The auxiliary lane is of dil't'ercnt color and texture advance the of front two to three than the throughlanes.Note that the ramp is transitioncd the lanesas it approaches local streetsystem. Trvo-laneterminals on curved alinement.The designol rarnptenninals undcr single-llne where the tieeway is on curved alinementis discussccl which oiticts from the edge of The sameprinciples design.in of terminals. roadwavare used.may be usedin the layoutof two-lunetcrminals. IVlajor forks and branch connections.A ma.iortbrk is defined as the freewayroutc into nvo roadway, a terminating of bifurcation a directional of to frceway. asthedivc'rging or rampsthatconncct ilnothcr directional multilane routes freewav of by area crerted theseparation l tieewayrouteintotwo scparate

AAStITO--lieometric De.sign Highv'a;-sand Street.s of

and I nterchang,es Grade Separations

terminals. Figure X-85. Multilane

FigureX-82. Multilane terminals.

Figure X-83. Multilane terminals.

any otherdivergingarea.The total numberof lanesin the two roadwaysbeyond the shouldexceedthe numberof lanesapproaching diverging the divergence by shouldbe increased only of the one.Desirably, number lanes areaby at least difficulties invariablydevelopunlesstraffic in one of the one. Operational Accordroadways. hasan optionof takingeitherof thediverging interiorlanes with the centerline of one be placedin directalinement ingly, the noseshould in as of rheinteriorlanes, illustrated FigureX-86A, B, or C, wherethealinement as This interiorlaneis continued a arein curves. roadways of thetwo departing Thus,thewidthof thisinteriorlane thegore. lane, bothleft andrightof full-rvidth stripes) of nose(prolongation pavement-edge 7.2 will beat least m at thepainted which the wideningfrom 3.6 to not andpret'erably over 8.4 m. The lengthover m. 7.2 m takesplaceshouldbe within the rangeof 300 or 5.10 However,in the and must alinenrent a tangent is at cirservlrere leastone of the approaches on develbe cantrot physically a on continue a tan-qent, trueoptionalinteriorlane mustbe usedasshown exit of the ,\s opecl. such. principles thetrvo-lane tacility i n F i s u r eX - 8 6 D . thereis no routes into separating two, two-lane roadway of In case .rtwo-lane to roadway three to it interiorlane.In suchcases is aclvisable widentheapproach thetbrk that on The laneis added thesideof an thuscreating interiorlane. lunes. Figure X-86A. the right scrvcsrhe lessertrlffic volume. In the illustration. (lttrvcr) tirrk rvouldbe the more lightly trlvclcd of thc two. The wideningtiom roadwcvto about l-t.'l or 15.0m at the paintednose l().ttnr tirr the approach curve with no reverse shoultl lre lccontplishedin a continuouss"vceping edges. curvilturcin the tlincmenttlf the roadwi.ly of roadway of is c()nnecrion definedas rhebeginning a directional ,\ branch from multilaneramps of fonncdby the convergcnce rwo ciirectional I frccrvav tbrm a sinqle
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roadways. sorne In totalon thetwo approach lanefewerthanthecombined cases lhe traffic demandmay requirethat the numberof lanesgoing away from thc merging areabe equalto the sum of the numberof laneson the two roadwavs problem. will poseno operational it. of Such approaching anda design thisty'pe a d e s i g n s i l l u s t r a t e d F i g u r eX - 8 7 4 . i in W h e r ea l a n ei s t o b e d r o p p e d u h i c h i s t h e m o r ec o m m o nc a s e . m e a n s a . i i f o r a c c o m p l i s h i n -te e r e d u c t i o n s d i s c u s s e dn t h e s e c t i o n" L a n e R e d u c h t i o n " i n t h i s c h a p t e r .T h e l a n e t h a t i s t e r m i n a t e dw i l l o r d i n a r i l y b e t h e s t e x t e r i o rI a n ef r o m t h er o a d w a y e r v i n g h el o w e s tv o l u m ep e r l a n e .H o w e v e r . s o m ec o n s i d e r a t i o ns h o u l da l s ob e g i v e n t o t h e f a c t t h a tt h e o u t e rl a n ef r o n t s l f t h e r o a d w a ye n t e r i n g r o m t h e r i g h t i s t h e s l o w - s p e e da n ef b r t h a t r o a d w a y : whereasthe opposite is true for the roadway entering from the left. If the t t r a f f i c v o l u m e sp e r l a n ea r ea b o u te q u a l ,i t w o u l d b e p r o p e rt o t e r m i n a t e h e - 8 7 8 . I n a n vc a s e c o n s i s t e n cw i t h i n y , an areaor region is oftenmore importantthanvolume per lanesincethe latter may changewith the specific design.The lane being terminatedshould be 3 c a r r i e da t f u l l l a n ew i d t h f o r a d i s t a n c e f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 0 m b e f o r eb e i n g o taperedout. insidemerge,as in of Anotherconsideration the possibility a high-speed is merging as FigureX-87C. This mergeshouldbe treated any otherhigh-speed b y a d d i n ga l a n eo n t h er i g h t . situation

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t e s t i n g s i n g l ep a t ho f t r a v e l . a T h e p l a ns h o u l d e t e s t e d v d r a w i n g r t r a c i n g e p a r a t e lty ep a t hf o r e a c h b b o s h p r r n c i p ao r i g i n a n dd e s t i n a t i o a n d s t u d y i n g h e r e o nh o s e h y s i c a f e a t u r e s l n r p l t that will be encountered a driver.The testcan also be madeon an overall by plan on which the path to be studiedand the stubsof connectingroadsare coloredor shaded. The plan shouldshow,or the designer have in someother form. the peak-hourvolumes,number of traffic lanes,and peak-hourand offpeak-hour runningspeed. Thus,thedesigner visualize can what the e.Kactly driver sees--only the road being traveled, with the variouspoints of ingress and egress and the directional signs along it-and have a senseof the accompanying traffic. Such an analysisindicates whetheror not confusionis likely because of exits and entrances too close togetheror interference likely because is of uccessiveweaving sections.Ir shouldThow also whether or northe path iS clearly defined,if it is feasibleto sign the facility properly,and if major or overhead signsarerequired and wherethey may be placed. The testmay show that the path is easyto travel,direct in character, and free from sections that might confusedrivers, it may show thatthepathis sufficientlycomplexand or confrontedwith disturbingelementsto require adjustmentin design.As a result,it may be necessary move oreliminate certainramps.In an extreme to casethe test may show that it is necessary changethe overall patternby to e l i m i n a t i n g n i n t e r c h a n g e . t o i n t r o d u c e o l l e c t o r - d i s t r i b u tro ra d s n o r d e r a or c o i to preventintert'erence with throughtraffic. or to make some other radical c h a n g en d e s i g n . i F i g u r eX - 8 8 i s a s i m p l ed i a g r a m m a t is o l u t i o n o a r v p i c a lf i e ' : w a yo p e r a c r tional problem.Thg freewayjoins a principalarterialat a branchconnection a n dd i v e r g e s t a m a j o rt i l r k i n a d i s t a n c e f a p p r o x i m a t e l I . - 5o - 5 . 0 m . T h e r e a o y t k 'fhe may be otherconnections and from the freewaybetween to thesepoints. throughfreewaymerges the left at point X anddiverges theright ar point on on Y. The desirable solution.as shown in this figure, doesnot requireany lane changes the throughlanes the freeway. on of Traffic on the localarterialenters a n de x i t so n t h e r i e h r .a n d t h e r ei s n o d i s r u p t i o n f r o u t ec o n t i n u i t lo n e i t h e r o , flcilitv.

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Pedestrians The accommodation pedestrians of through urban intcrchangcs should be c o n s i d e r ed u r i n gt h ed e v e l o p m e n tf i n t e r c h a n g e n f i g u r l r i o n s . i g hd e n s i r y d o co H l a n d u s c i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f a n i n t e r c h a n gc a n e ate heavv ncdestrian Thc rnovemcntof pedestrians through intcrchanges can be enhanced by

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Design of Highways and Streets

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providingsidewalks separate pedestrian traffic.When to the from the vehicular Sidewalks are provided,they should be placed as far from the roadwayas practical volumes, and be wide enoughto handlethe anticipated pedestrian To maximizepedestrian usage, sidewalkshouldprovidethe most directroute the throughthe interchange with minimum change verticalalinement. Through in complex interchange signingmay be configurations, useof informational the appropriate direct pedestrians alternatedestinations. to to Where pedestrians will be crossingan interchange sight ramp, adequate distancemust b provided.In addition to allowing the driver to detectthe presence gapsin thetraffic ofpedestrians, pedestrian the mustbeableto perceive flow. To provideincreased visibilityat night,pedestrian should rampcrossings haveoverheadillumination.At ramp crossings, wherethereis insufficientgaps in the traffic flow to allow pedestrians cross the ramp, pedestrian-actuated to signals a pedestrian or overpass/underpass shouldbe considered.

Grading and LandscapeDevelopment cross profiles, chieflyby thealinements, is at Grading an interchange determined highwaysand ramps' requirements the intersecting for and drainage sections, unit as Eachthroughroadwayor rampshouldnot be treated a separate andgraded roadsandto sectionwithout regardto its relationwith adjacent cross to standard Instead,the whole constructionarea should be the surroundingtopography. designedas a single unit to keep constructionand maintenancecosts lo a of the minimum,obtainmaximumvisibility,andenhance appearance the area' convergingroadways,the In some parts, such as at narrow sectionsbetween slopesand gradingcontrolsmay affect the alinementand profile design. design Contour grading design.An importantand eartystepin interchange andprofiles initial bridgecontrol studyin which thepreliminaryalinement is -of the 'mtersecting roads are developed to determine the co.tiols for b-dge the curbs,walks,andpositionand as design.Alternatesin suchelements clearances, extentof walls shouldbe examinedin regardto generalgradingbeforeconclusions are drawn for the bridge design,particularly for lengthsof wing walls. and walls, and in Minor modificationsin alinementand profile, in abutments relatedearthworkmay producea more desirablesolution as a whole. should earthslopes roadside as steep and At interchanges, elsewhere feasible, for be avoidedfor all roadsandramps.Flat slopesshouldbe usedwherefeasible, the and safety, to enhance to and construction maintenance, increase economical depressions or drainageways swalelike of appearance the area.Broadrounded good turf and easy.mower should be used, where feasible.to encourage V maintenance, ditchesand small ditcheswith steepside slopesshould be should be as inconspicuous avoided.Drainagechannelsand relatedstructures an or as They shouldnot be an eyesore, become and maintenance-free feasible. cut and fill slopes to obstacle an errantvehicle.Transitiongradingbetween and be The should well rounded in shouldbe longandnatural appearance. slopes shouldhave The contours terrain. to smooth blendthehighwayinto theadjacent and with the with thetbrm of theroadway flowing continuityandbe congruous tbrm of the adjacenttopographyas well. exist,thecontourgrlding and t'eatures Whcregoodtrees andotherdesirable as thescf-eatures. to plan should be designed protectand preserve drainage This eftbrt. however. must be consistentwith the abovc statr'd feasible. objectives. Plantings. Proposedplanringsshould be selectedwith regard to thcir ultimate growth. Improperly locatedshrubsor treesmay seriouslyshortcn on horizontalsight distance curvesand seriouslyinterterewith latcralsight E r n a d i a c e n t o a d w a v s . v e n l o w - l y i n g g r o u n dc o v c r s c a n

Ramp Metering The purpose of ramp metering is to reduce congestionor improve merge operations urbanfreeways. on The meteringmay be limited to only one ramp or integrated into a series entrance of ramps. Ramp meteringconsists traffic signalsinstalledon entrance ramps in of of entering advance the entrance the terminalto controlthe numberof vehicles freeway.The traffic signals the may be pretimedor traffic actultedto release enteringvehiclesindividuallyor in platoons. fretimgd signals releilsgvehiclesat regular intervalswhich have been determined traffic volumestudies. by require detectors signals Tratfic actuated placed on the fieeway, upstreamof the entranceterminal. to measurethe approachtraffic volumes.The metering rate is acljusted comparingthe by upstreamvolumes to the downstream capacity,which has been determined eitherby traffic volumestudies measured detectors the pavement. in or by Ramp metering to improve merge operationsrequiresdetectorson the upstream approach the tieewayto <letermine of acceptable taps in the trlffic tlow. The traffic on the entrance ramp is relersedto coincitleu,ith the gap detected the trattlc on the tieeway. in Forturtherintbrmation rampmetering, theHitlrrlu.t'Cuput'itt'tlluttual on see (2). The AASHTO Guide theDe signof Hiult Occupunc.r'l ehiclcFucilities fitr (7) provides rvith I-lOV lanes. treatments rampmeteringin conjunction tbr

AASHTO--ljeometric Design of Highways and Streets

and I nterchanges Grade Separa[ions

973

may be usedto outlinetravelpathsor to give driversa sense Treesor shrubs island approach or ahead. example, endsofa directional For the ofan obstruction that will be seenfrom a considnosemay be plantedwith low-growingshrubs for and directthe driver's attentionto the necessity a turn.These erabledistance vehicledamage impact, on not be of thetypethatcouldcause shrubs should nor warningdevices. shouldtheyever obscure signsor for on The AASHTO Roadside DesignGuide(l) may be ref'erenced guidance greater to than100 priorto planting whichwill mature minimumclearzones trees mm in diameter. Distancesgreater than the minimum are often necessary on and ofoverhanging branches because beinga distraction, leaves theroadway whereice and snow the when wet. In areas reducing skid resistance, especially from the traveled distance area problem,all treesshouldbe plantedan adequate way to allow for snow drifting and to preventicing in shadedareas.

Urban of 4 . Merritt, David R. "GeometricDesignFeatures Single-Point Transportation Research Record 1385. Washington, Interchanges." l D . C . : T R B N a t i o n aR e s e a r cC o u n c i l ,1 9 9 3 . h Impactof SpecificGeometricFea5 . FederalHighway Administration. Report No. tures on Truck Operationsand Safety at Interchanges, FHWAIRD 861057. at Movement Planning ForPedestrian HighwayAdministration. 6 . Federal Report No. FHWAIRD 74165. Interchanges, VehicleFacilities. AASHTO. Guidefor the Designof High Oc'cupancv Washington, . C.:AASHTO,1992. D

Models Models are modelsarehelpful in the designof interchanges. Three-dimensional particularly useful in communicatingthe designer's ideas to lay-groupsand from the plans.Design otherswho are not trainedto visualizethreedimensions concept teams and other officials find models helpful in analyzing proposed designs, modelsandpresenHighway modelsfall into two basiccategories--design the thus Designmodels simpleandeasilyadjusted, permitting are tationmodels. modelsare more with differentconcepts. Presentation to designer experiment to permanentand are valuableto highway offlicials in making a presentation termsand rnethods. otherswho are not familiarwith eneineerins

REFERENCES AASHTO. RoadsideDesign Guide. Washington.D. C.: AASHTO. l 989. HighwayAdministration. Federal 2 . U. S. Department Transportation. of Manual on UniformTraffic ContrtslDevices.Washington,D. C.: U.S. Government PrintingOffice, 1988. 3 . TransportationResearchBoard. Highn'av Capacin Manual, Special w ion ResearchBoard.
I

Index

INDEX

ACCELERATION Distance,40 Effects Grade, of 230,721.947 Intersections, 16 7O3-7 Lanes: SPEED-CHANGE see

Horizontai;see ALINEMENT-HORZONTAL Horizontal and vertical,general considerations of,294 Interchanges, 890-892

LANES R^tes,z0, 705-707 40,

+ryer.g+z
ACCELERATION LANES: see SPEED-CHANGE LANES ACCESSCONTROL; seeCONTROL OF ACCESS ACCESS MANAGEMENT; see CONTROL OF ACCESS ACCESSIBILITY,7-8 Commercial, 472-413, 4-47 47 5 ACCIDENTS:seealsoSAFETY E f f e c t s f L i g h t i n go n , I l 2 o Trucks,237 AESTHETICS Alinement Combination horizontal and verrical, 294-305 Horizontal, 221-22677 Vertical, 2942-294 I n t c r c h a n g e8 l,0 - 8 1 2 ,I I 8 , s 821-82.1 L a n d s c a p i n g , 7 - 3 0 89 l l - 9 7 2 30 , N l c d i a n5 6 5 - 5 6 6 . S i d cs l o p e s3 5 7 , ALINEiVIENT-Combinationof Artcrials;seeARTERIALS Collcctors. {59-.160, -463. 461 .16.1. .172 G e n c r l ld e s i g n o n t r o l s2 9 5 - ? 9 6 , c .

Inrcncctions Crad.,627_EO3 at Localroads stleers. and 420-42. I

4n

Passingsight distance;see PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE Sight Distance; SIGHT see DISTANCE Vertical: see ALINEMENT-VERTICAL ALINEMENT-HORIZONTAL Accidents,109 Aesthetics, 459-460 Arterials,485, 499,5 14 C h a n g eis , 4 6 3 , 4 8 5 n CollcElors,463-464 Combination with vertical a l i n e m e n t ,9 4 2 C o n s i d e r a t i o nls .l - 1 4 3 4 ' Curves; see CURVE_HORIZONTAL Curvilinear.,160-46464 I. D e s i g n p e e d6 2 - 6 8 ,l 4 l - 1 . 1 2 s , Dividcd highways, 890-892 E f f e c to n o p e r a t i o n .1 3 ,5 l - l 5 Frictionfactors.I 13-I .17 General controls,I -12143 Interchanges, 890-892 Intersections Grade. 627-803 at Local Roadsand Stree

STREETS

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AASHTO-Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

M i n i m u m r a d i u s ,1 5 3 , P a v e m e nw i d e n i n g6 76 - 6 1 , t 8 690-692 Ramps;seeRAMPS Recreationroads,448-449 Residential areas, 430 Sharpest curve without superelevation,172 e, Sight distanc 46 | -463, 485, 490-49l. 123-124'.seealso SIGHT DISTANCE Speed-change lanes; seeSPEED

CHANGELANES Spirat arrres,t7+175; r*.h" TRANSITIONS Superelevation; see SUPERELEVATION

T h e o r y ,l 4 l - 1 4 2 Transitions;seeTRANS ITIONS ALINEMENT-VERTICAL ; see also PROFILE A c c i d e n t s1 0 9 - l 0 , A r t e r i a l s 4 8 5 ,4 9 9 ,5 1 4 , B r o k e n - b a c k ,2 5- 2 2 6 ,2 9 3 2 41 Collectors, 0-47l, 48 1 Combination ith horizontal, w 291-296 C r i t i c a ll e n g t h s f g r a d e s e e o ; GRADES Curvessee ; CURVES-VERTICAL Eit'ccts gradcon, l7i of Gcncralcontrolstbr, 292-29.1 Cradcs;seeGRADES lntcrchangcs. ll89: seetlstr INTERCHANGES Intcrscctions gradc,29.1, ar 646; seealso INTERSECTIONS .120, .130 Local roadsand streets,

..

RAILROAD GRADE CROSSING Ramps; RAMPS see roads,488 Recreation way design of Traveled edge, profiles 184for, 185 smooth see Verticalcurves; CURVES-VERTICAL Verticalrise,total,832-833 ALLEYS.435 AMENITIES:seeAESTHETICS APPROACH NOSE BulIet,755,758,787 Curbs,683;seealsoISLANDS Offset,686,785 73 Superelevation, I Taper,73l Treatment; MARKINGS see ARTERIALS:seealsoDIVIDED HIGHWAYS,MULTILANE HIGHWAYS 485, Alinement, 499,514 Bikeways,546 403 Busturnouts, and 522Borders sidewalks, 523 15, Characteristics; 459, 4 8 3 - 4 8 4 , 5-l5 1 2 l 487, Clearances, 489,5 15, 525 489, Section, 501,507,525 Cross 487 Slope, , 497 l4-515 Cross ,5 D e f i n i t i o n ls . - 1 5 4 8 3 , 0 , 493-.196, l3 5 l2-5 lanc 539-543 Directional usage, -{96-508: also see Divicled. DIVIDEDHIGHWAYS 523, 19 E.ramples, 5, 522526-53 I roads; see Frontage

508-509 Intersections, 491, 491,493-494, width, Lane 5t5-516.544 5I Left turns.496-49'7,499, 7-5I 8, 535-538,542 485, Levelof Service, 5 I 3 -494, 367 Medians, -369,491 51 498-499,508, 6-520 485-486, 516 of Number lanes, 522 5 4 Parking, | | -412, | 6, 521' 535-536 Rightturns, 488, -498,520 Shoulders, 497 see conrols; SIGNAL Signal CONTROL SIGNS Signs;see see Speed; DESIGNSPEED 484, 226-227, 485-486 Terrain. 534-535; devices, control Traffic alsoCONTROLDEVICES see to Two-lane four-lane 491-494 development, 494-496 Undivided, utilities,532-533 ARTERIALSYSTEMS 5I I2 483-484, I--s Characteristics, , M i n o rI l - 1 54 8 3 ' . ll, Principa0-15,483 I 15, References, 553 5 R u r a ll,0 - 1 4 , 4 8 3 - I 1 3 U r b a nl , - 1 5 , 5 1 1 - 5 5 2 ; AT-GRADEINTERSECTIONS seeINTERSECTIONS AUXILIARYLANE 904-906 At interchanges, 473-474' 5ll' At intersections, 8',7 7 49-7 | , 778-7 5 .103 Busturnouts, see Lanes; CLIMBING Climbing LANES

-5t9, 535-531 517 , 54t-542, t 40,773-714,711-118, 183-186 Length,780-781 see Medianlanes, MEDIAN LANES 830-831 On overpasses, LANES see Passing; PASSING lanes; Speed-change seeSPEEDCHANGELANES 7 Taper, 49,180,78l-786, 906-907 87, width, 335,780,783-7 904

AveRace oeu-Y TRaFFIc

(ADT);seeTRAFFIC BALL BANKINDICATOR, r44-145 TRAFFIC BARRIERS;SCC oTNOISE BARRIERS. BENEFITANALYSES;SCC ROAD USERBENEFIT or ANALYSES ECONOMIC EVALUATION RATIO:see BENEFIT/COST EVALUATION ECONOMIC 104= 25 BIKEWAYS, 105, I, 388, 343.346-341, .10-5. 338-339, 4 0 1 . 1 t 25 1 0 , 5 4 6 , 7 9 0 . I BICYCLEFACILITIES.04-I 05, 464,410, 173. 428,443, 402-403, -629,679,681. 480.5 10.627 689.749.792 BICYCLELANE 5I CONSIDERATIONS,6, 7.19. 792 BORDER(S) 523-513. 503-504, street. Artcrial 525 I 560-56 Freewavs.

R . r i l r o a d r a d cc r o s s i n g s ;e e s s

5 t3-5r.1

Left-turn,368-369,496-197

6 S i d e w a l k , 7l ; s e er l s o

AASHTO-Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

SIDEWALK Width,349,418-479, 522-523 BRAKING:seealsoDRryER '-time.I l8-120 Brake reaction (table) l19-l2l Distance. see Effects grades; GRADES of see BRIDGES; alsoGRADE SEPARATIONSTRUCTURES 467 Approach, -469 465-468,55-5I 6, I Clearances, 826-828 roadsandstreets, Collector 465-468 and Localroads streets. 422-425,438 309-31 I Lighting, accommodations, Pedestrian 438; 349-351,390, seealso FACILITIES PEDESTRIAN section, -469 467 Roadway width,422-425, 438, Roadway 41 465-468, 6-47 48t, s21 8, BUSES: alsoMASSTRANSIT see cation, 546-552 Classifi 255 Equivalents, 402-406 Turnouts, 403-406, 10, 550 Arterials, 5 Freeways,402-403,607-610, 612-614 ParkandRide,405-410 CAPACITY;seealsoTRAFFIC 460-,161, 418-419, ADT,53-57, 484 472,516,628 Analysis, 485, Arterials, 513 Definition,74 see Degree congestion; of DEGREE CONGESTION OF
55

and Alinement profile, 83,463 333-334 clearances, Lateral 250 Obstruction, 4W-411 Parking, interference, Roadside 82-83,94 Terraintyp;see TOPOGRAPHY Trucks,244-250 250,333-334 Width of lanes, see terminal; Entrance TERMINALS Exrt t"rmi"at: seeTERMINALS 8, 7 Flow Rate, l-73, 7 5-7 79'80 74 Characteristics, General Highways,82-83 I 809-8 0, 818 Interchanges, flow,79 Intem:pted 43 Intersections 40-7 ,'7 48674-618,7 Channelized, 749;seealso INTERSECTIONS 1,93-94 79, Signalized, 80-8 see 87-90; also Levelof Service, LEVEL OF SERVICE and Localroads streets, 424-425 structures, 86 Factor), PHF(Peak-Hour 84and Ramps rampterminals, 85,971 541 flow operations, Reverse I volumes, 76,809-81 75, Scrvice 337 Shoulders, 264'265 hi Threc-lane ghways, | 241'25 highways, Two-lane flow, 258 (table) Unintem.rpted
U r b a nh i g h w a y s , 9 3 Versusdesignvolume,75-76

i I

CHANNELIZATION B u sS t o p s , 6 l 0 Accidents, | | - 112,748 1 Bridges,466 Advantages, 5-67 748 67 6, Curb, 826 Definition,748 on DividedhighwaYs, left' 826 Design principles, 48-7 7 49 see structures; Gradeseparation DividingtheHighway CRADE SEPARATION at interchanges, l-914 9I STRUCTURES at intersections, 533, 509, Cuardrail.826-827 -64t,673, 674-67 748 631 8. 3 l0 Lightingstandards, Examples, 7-678, 742,7 46,'7 67 47 for On curve, sightdistance, Islands channels, 538and 508, 723-724 532,673-680 Railtransit,6l6 Medianlanes; see Signsupports,3I5,3l9 MEDIiIN LIINES line,5'14576 to UuitOing Pavement markings; see 468-469, 477 on collectors, MARKINGS 44, ns, To obstructio 342-3 Roadway width,521 425.438,524-526 Warrants,748 2l Turning roadways, l-212 CHANNELS-Drainage; seealso 825-828 Underpasses, DRAINAGE Vehicles opposite in directions, Interceptor, 353 132 Lining, 353;see EROSION also Vehiclcs curves, on 647-673 CO}I-IROL Vertical. 438.826-828 Medians, 501-503 353, 487. on arterials. 515 CLASSIFICATION, I-8 468,477 on collectors, Functional, 5-6,552-553 l, roads, 454 on recreation Characteristics. 8-l0 cr.EARZONE,343,425,452, -468,478, 524-525, Concept, I 164.467 559, Movement. l-3 971 Relationships, 5-6 CLIMBINGLANES References, l7 gementof, 24| -243 Arran s Systems, l0-17, 483, I, 510-51 Bcginning of,246-250 555 lengths grade, 238 Critical of CLEARANCES see SLOPE Cross slope; CROSS At intersections, -673 647 Ending 250 oi, At structures 1, General, 1,489-49 499-500 24 for sightdistances, 723-721 Marking, 250,490 horizontal, 466,826,829 highways, On Multilane Iocalroads streets. and 423-125 251-261,499-500

, 1 ,4 7 0 4
l8 Workzones.3l6-3

Effect of

. A t w a l l s .. 1 9 88 2 6 - 8 2 8

vehicles, 257 Recreational

AASHTO-4eometric Design of Highways and Streets ' Two-lane rural arterials 489-491 Ultimatefour lane,491-494 CROSSSLOPE , , Arterials, 486-481 497 514-515 Breakover,339-341 Changein,729: seealso SUPERELEVATION' Runoff Climbing lane,25l,260 463, Collector roadsand streets,
A1a qtL

on,251 Shoulders 250 Signing, Summary,25l Taper,25A 247(tzble),255,25'7 Trucks, , 490,500 flow,251 Unintemrpted 242-246,254 Warrants, Width,250,490 CLOVERLEAFS;see INTERCHANGES COLLECTORROADSAND STREETS desi General gn considerations, 460 2-5, Purpose, ll-13, 15-17,459 Rural,I I,459-470 References,48l 472 Residential. Urban,14,15,462,470-481 on,411,412 Parking UTOR COLLECTOR-DISTRIB 9 595,607,862-863, 10; ROADS, seealsoINTERCHANGES see CONNECTION; RAMP OF See CONGESTIONT DEGREE CONGESTION SURFACES CONTRASTING 346 Curbandgutter, 347 highvisibilitY, Curbs, 687-689 680-683, Islands, lanes,783-786 Median Ramps,936 569,582 343, Shoulders, 566, Turnouts,403 CONTROLDEVICES 67,534-542 Arterials, 459, and roads streets, Collector 470
Markings; seeMARKINGS Reverseroadways,595-602

see grade crossings; Railroad RAILROAD GRADE CROSSINGS see Signals; SIGNAL CONTROL SIGNS Signs;see CONTROLOF ACCESSAND ACCESSMANAGEMENT 106-107 Accidents, 10, 7, 8, 94,459,509-5 Arterials, 5r2.525-53r 459, andstreets, roads Collector 470

crown line, 331-332 Crossover CROSSSLOPES CrosssloPe;see 557 Freeways, Pavcmcnt'463-4&, 47 l' 134 Recreationroads,449

I
I

j44Ll55 Dennidoq,

93 considerations, Design control,95,370 Driveway 508 Fencing, Full.95 General,459,555 and Interchanges intersections, 809 94-95 features, Operational 94,556 Partial. 93-94 Signals, highwaYs,459 Two-lane 503-508' roads, With frontage 528-531 RADIUS;seeRADII CONTROL CROWNLINE; see CROSSOVER SLOPE CROSS SECTION CROSS CURBS Curbs;see 496, highwaYs, 503-508 Divided 503 roads, with frontage on shoulders ' 339-340 Drainage 326-327 Elements, 5, 57 563-566, 1-57 Freeways, 588-589 340,358-361 typical, Highway 687-688 Islands.
u Superelevat , lvJr

crown line, 330' 734Crossover 739 Divided highwaYs,328-332, 461,471i87, 497,51f Drainage,48'7,514-515 557 FreewaYs, 646-641 roadwaYs, Intersecting and streets,421' 430 Local roads Maximum, 330-331,734 Minimum, 172 N o r m a l ,1 6 6 ,1 7 2 ,3 5 8 - 3 6 1 l P a r k i n ga n e s , 5 l 4 Prohle,723 see RamPs; RAMPS Rate of, 330-332 449 roads, Recreation for Removing, suPerelevation, l 173,8l Rollover.controlfor crown' 330,731 Pavement 3 S h o u l d e r s ,3 9 ,3 6 1 Tunnels:seeTIINNELS bus;see Turnouts, TURNOUTS ShaPe,173 486' Superelevated, 500' 734 STREETS CROSS D e s i g n8 1 7 - 8 1 8 , CROSSWALKS'532' 671; seealso

433-434 cuL-DE-SACS, CURBS 506'508Arterials. 50G502, 532 509,518-520, 344-345 Asphaltic concrclc, 5 Barricr,344-346, I 8, 520' 558,679-687 Bituminous,34T eofl ccc rcrsrcE fs; 415'417 Concrete, 345-347 Considcrations Pcdestrians for andBicYcles ,306' 344'345' 435,532 Cross Scction, 347 Drainage, 345,545 306, 47 Drivcway ttccc$lt, 4.4'l'7 Exrrudcd. 344-'145 Frccways. 5llll 34t|, Gcncral. 476'/l'77 Cranitc,3,14.145 34(r Cuttcr, '147' (rl{ Highvisihility, (r7() /, sccalsol.Sl,ANI).S
'l Local roitds lln(l tilrccl:i,'1.16' ll

TRIAN FACILITIES,
CROWN

47 5 3 M c d i a n .4 4 ' 3 4 5 , 4 , 1 95 2 0 , 6tl6 680,685, 1411. 6110' Mountlblc.344'146, 681,6tl6'6ltll Offsctfromnormnl P$vclllcnt 6rt7 681'6t'1' 3'18, cdgc. 829 OvcrPasscs, 558' Placcmcnt,-34t, 6f{) 6l{6 344'145 Precast, RADII Radii;sec rcc RamPs: RAIVIPS
w i t h o u t4 7 ? ,J l ' ) 1 l { } ,

I, 360-36 500-503

MSHTO-Geometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Turningroadways Effect of on traveled,wayl

roadway width,ZI0,474, 660-662 Types, 344,475 Typical highway,346 Underpasses, 826 Utilities,313, 532-533 width,347,474 CURVES-HORIZONTAL Brokenback,225 Compound, 199-Z0O
Design speedand curvature, 142,J67-J:t| (rabtes)

155_:156 Semi_trailers,654-662,75g_j59

SU andBuses, 654_655,15g, 757,759 Minimum radii,667,670,752_ :l55 Ramps; RAMpS see Speed_curvarure relarions, 195_196 Spiral, tg6_tgg Turningroadway,lg4_200 CURVES_VERTICAL
Broken back,226 erest,2g2_2gg;7LT-724, g32

Design tables, 64g-651 Lowspeed urban, r87-le3

Drainage, 501 Formula, 153,189

D"ii:,"r';,:;:rror, 283,288,
passing sightdistanc 2g6_2gg e,

221-231, Truck,on grades, 490,499-s00 OF DEGREE CONGESTION 77-79, 81-83 limits, Acceptable Definition,75 see speed; DESIGN Design SPEED 82 Freeway, 82-83 alinement, Horizontal highways, 82-83 multilane Other 79-82 Principles, Ramps,84-85 to Relation trafficflow, 75-78 Weaving;83 MARKINGS DELINEATORS;see
DESIGN Capacity;seeCAPACITY Controls and criteria,2 Alinement-Horizontal,82-84 Alinement-Vertical, 83; see also ALINEMENTVERTICAL t B r a k er e a c t i o ni m e . I l 8 - 1 1 9 volumes, 90 87, Designscrvice , L c v e l so f s e r v i c e8 6 - 9 0 264 distance, -sight Passing s i g h td i s t a n c ci, 1 7 , Stopping
I f .t

Collectoroads,461 62-68 General, HigMow,68 Local roads,4l'7-419,429, 443, 443-444,455 Intersections ,72-73 RAMPS Ramps;see Relationto 461 Average highwaYsPeed, 68-70 speed, Averagerunning Average trip length,65 Density,T2-73 Grades,lengths,233

MaximumaradesJ3-2j4; 486,514
Maximum relative Profile gradients,177 Maximum relative sloPe betweencenterlineand edge line profiles,729-134 Minimum grades,234 design,I 38 Preliminary s Running peed,68-71 ; S i g h td i s t a n c e1 1 1 ,4 6 3 , 499-500,485 l c S p e c d h a n g ea n el e n g l h ; SPEED-CHANGELANES plus Superelevation side tiiction factor.153 I runofflen-eth,77 Superelevation Traffic volumes,464 Use of spirals,174 DESIGN VEHICLES, I 9..I2 Bus (BUS). 23,26-21 C h a n n e l i z a t i o7 ',l u n I 9-20 Characteristics, 752-7-i6 Controlradii for leti turns, Definition. l9-20 2 D i m e n s i o n s ,l see For protiledesign;

Friction facrors, 143-147, tsr

Intersection; CURVEsee INTERSECTION Maximum curvature,l53, 172 Ramp; see RAMpS Sightdistance on, l3g, 219 Spiral;seeTRANSITIONS S u p e r e l e v a t i os e e n; SUPERELEVATION Transition;seeTRANSITION Traveledway wideningon; see wtDENINc Turning roadway, 192-196 CURVES-INTERSECTION Compound,199-200 Control radii for lefr rurns, 152-153 C u r v a t u r e1 9 4 , Encroachment: TURNING see Minimum designs sharpest for turn,478, 47_652 6

tt"rllil;tnt

distance,

Drainagerequirements 2g0, on, 286.291 Generalconsideration s,2-19_ 280, j22 Lengrhs,2g}_2g2,:/23 Minimum gradient,2g0,2g6 parabolic.2g0 Ramps;seeRAMpS Sag,288_292,723,g3Z Si-eht distance on, 137, 2g2_2g7, 4gg,723 Turning roadway, 722_lZ4 DEAD-END STRdETS; SCC CUL_DE-SACS DECELERATION Acljustingspeedapproachrng i n t e r s e c t i o n s , Z , g , qlO , tt Turning roadways, 692_694 Braking, I l g_125 L a n e s , l 7 g _ 7 g 0s e ea l s o ;

Choice design, of 656-664

Passenger vehicles,652-653.

SPEED_CHANGE L Taper,692-694, 944-948, 952

2 W i d e n i n gc u r v e . l 2 - 2 18 , E l c m c n to f , l l 7 s 1 G e n e r ac o n s i d e r a t i o nIs , 2 , 4 5 9 l Period,60 D S p c c d : s e e E S I G NS P E E D V a l u c s , 2 31 2 4 1 Vehiclcs;seDESIGN e VEHiCLES ( DESIGNHOURLY VOLUN,IEDHV); seeTRAFFIC D E S I G NS P E E D Artcrials,65-68,77, 4tt4 i C h a n g e sn , 6 8 . 7 . 1

MSHTO-Geometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Height;seeHEIGHT openrngs, l5l-767

Minimumturning radius and paths, 22-23, 20, 24-27 29-39, , 647-667 Overhang, 23,ZO3, 20, 204,213 (P), Passenger 19,Z3-Z4,652 Performance. 28 Recreation vehicles; see RECREATIONVEHICLES Single unittruckandbus(SU), 20-23,25,654_655 501-503 Trackwidth,20,20t, Zt3 Superelevation runoff, I 86- I 87 Truck combinations (WB_12ts Widely separated roadways,5O2, _652, wB-35), 29-35, 2M, 647 508 654,656-662, 721:seealso DRAINACE TRUCK Channels, 351-353, 305, 359,368 DESIGNVOLUME; see CAPACITY, Controls,305-307 TRAFFIC onvertical curves,280, 286,291 DETOURS,3I6.318 Curbandgutter, 339-3 346-347 40, DIAMOND INTERCHANGES; see 475-477,520-521 INTERCHANGES Erosion EROSION CONTROL ; see DIRECTIONAL;seealso 307-308.460 INTERCHANGES Pavement, 306 Distribution; TRAFFIC see References, 353,414,553 305, Laneusage, 539-540 Stormfrequencies, design, for DISABILITIES;See PERSONS 305-307 WITH DISABILITIES DRIVER.42-52 DIVIDEDHIGHWAYS, 496-508 Alertness,49-52 Alinement; ALINEMENT see Behavior, 749-751 Clearances; CLEARANCES see Braking time,I 18-123 Cross sections; CROSS see Characteristics relation in to SECTIONS design, 41,51-52 Cross slope, pavement, 463,197 Comfort. 280.291 5l, Definition,496 Decision maneuver time.126-127 Different roadway levels, 499 Enor,.13, 49-51 Dividingthehighway; see Guidance,43-44 CHANNELIZATION Height eyeandobject; of see General features, 496-497 HEIGHT Interchanges intersections, and 509 Information processing, 42-47
M c d i a no p e n i n g s4 9 7 , Performance, 42-43.809-8I I

Median variation width, 498-499, 506 Medians;see MEDIANS Operationalproblems,508 517-520 Profile, 890 Right-of-Way; see RIGHT-OF.WAY Shoulders, 497-498, 503 Stopping sight distance,499 Superelevated crosssections,

Extra width PrimacY,46,49 of driving on curve,204 I 13 References, runoff, ft' Lengthof superelevation Safety,42,51,109,628'646 r92 94, DRIVEWAYS, 369,38l-382' 220, Middleordinate, 221 -438. 6-477,526,793 47 437 153 radius, Minimum DUAL-DIVIDEDFREEWAY of' elements distance, sight Passing 602-606 Advanmges, t)L 602 Arrangements, 256-257 244-245, volume, Service CROSS also section,602;see Cross factor,143 Sidefriction SECTION 7 e' Sightdistanc 123, 96-802 Design,604-606 282-283 curves, Crestvertical 603-604 Disadvantage' 725 curves, Horizontal 606 Examples,605' Sagre{iealcurYqs' 2gt -29r E6OtOGY;seeENVIRNMENIAL 3I intersection, 4' StoP-conu. EVALUATION 702-703,707-708 EVALUATION ECONOMIC 696-698 Sighttriangle, 813-814 748' ll2, General, 473, 175 length, Spiral cost' operating Motorvehicle on' of effects grades Stopping 813-814 123-124 68, and Roadusercosts benefits, 201 turning, Trackwidth,vehicle 808 216 waY Traveled widening, EVALUATION ETWIRONMENTAL on oPeration a curve, Vehicle 351-354 channels, Drainage t4t,204 l12' General, 226 see Weavingsectlons; 438' for TreeRemoval SafetY, WEAVING SECTIONS 467-468.418,504 FOUR-LANE HIGHWAYS CONTROL EROSTON CAPACITY CapacitY;see 307-308' channels, Drainage 491-493 DeveloPment, 3 5l - 3 5 3 DMDED HIGHWAYS see Dividcrj; 488' 307-308, 545 General, runoff;see Superelevation 308 Rcferences, SUPERELEVATION 308' and Seeding Planting, -'19'1 of, Ultimatedevelopment 49 I -428, 48 442'442' | 127 57, 35 6-3 494-496 Undivided, ' 4'70 308' SidcsloPes, 352-35'7 FREEWAYS see RAlvtPS; RAMPS ESCAPE B o r d e r , 5 6 0 - 5 65 8 J 1' AESTHETICS ; SCC ESTHETICS Bus turnouts,'103 FENCING,507 80-83,258 (table) CapacitY, FORIVIULAS verticaland horizontal' Clearance I distance,l9 Braking 559-560 189 163-165' e andfdistribution, Combination-tYPe'

difficultY allowances,

986

AASHTO-Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

Braking-stopping, - 123 I 19 OF ACCESS Iceandsnow, l2l, 152 Cross secrion, 564-566, 4_5i 51 5, Sidefrictionfactors: 587_588,593_595 Openhighways, 143-147, Curbs along, 558 182-146 Definirion,555 Urban streets, 189 187Depressed, 66,55'7, 65, 562 FRONTAGEROADS Design speed, 63-65, 555_556 Access controlwith andwithout; Dualdivided;see DUAL seeCONTROLOF ACCESS DIVIDED FREEWAY Arterials, -370, 503-509, 369 Elevated, 559,572-5g4 64, 525-53r,543-5M Examples, 566-57 579-584, 2, 590, Continuous, 528,559 595_598, 602-606 Cross connection 816-8 to, l7 58 eross sections with;370-373; Grounds levet, 559,587-590 543-sO7,625-626 width,557 Lane Freeway, 369-370, 560-56 l, Maximumgrades; GRADES see 573,584,623,625-626 Outer separation, 560-561, 578 Functions, 369-370 Overpasses; GRADE see General, 369-373 SEPARATIONS; GRADE Interchanges 847-849 with, SEPARATIONSTRUCTURES Meansofdriveway control,369-370 Profi control, le 593, 622-623 Outer separatton, 4, 543 544; 37 Ramps, 573 seealsoOUTER SEPARATION References, 626 P r o b l e m s i t h , 3 6 9 - 3 7 01 8 l - i 9 0 w , Reverse-flow, 695-602; also see Two-way, 372-373 REVERSE FLOW GRADES ROADWAYS A r t e r i a l s 4 8 6 ,4 9 9 - 5 0 0 5 I 3 - 5 l 4 , , Rural. 620-626 Alinement coordination, 499-500, Srfety, 620-622 6 4 6 - 6 4 78 I 5 - 8I 6 . Shoulders width,557 and Climbing lanes; seeCLIMBING Superelevation, 558 LANES Terminals, 937-966; also see C o l l e c t o r s 4 6 4 ,4 7 l , 4 1 2 , TERT\IINALS Control for design,233-231 Tcrrain. 589-593, 620-622 lvlaxirnum, 233 Tunncls; TUNNELS see Minimum,234 Urban, 512.561-620 Critical lengths,231-211 Viaduct. 558, 557, 572-584, 586, Effect on 815-821 Acceleration, 230, 646,721. Volume, 82-83, 556 823 Width.575-518 Capacity, 244-261,5 I 3-5 1,1 SUPERELEVATION
Drainage,5l3-514

Control of access; CONTROL see

CONSTRUCTION see Structures; GRADE SEPARATIONSTRUCTURES for, Warrants 807-809 roads,528-529 With frontage 809, ramPs, 833'890 Without GRADE SEPARATION STRUCTURES to, Approaches 544,829-833 487,524 Arterials, 829,831 365-367, Bridgerailings, 487, Clearances, 515,532, 558-561,826-831 s CuTbs; CURBS Local roadsand stteETs,4Z0421, 544, Design considerations, 430,455 -228 821-825 r Mass/powerauo,227 Freeways,558-559 Maximum General,544,814-821 14 486, On arterials, 5 13-5 Guardrailat; seeGUARDRAIL On collectors,463-464 826-831 ; Horizontal clearances, 233 sPeed, to Relation design seeCLEARANCES Minimum.234 to le Profi pertaining intersections; Lighting, 365'366 8 Long-span, l4-8 I 5 513-514,646 M e d i a n ,8 3 1 see Ramps, RAMPS 422-425 On localroadsandstreets, 444,44'l roads, Recreation 8, 2 3 - 8 3 I s Overpa ,815-816 Vehicleoprations, 8 O v e rv s . u n d e r , 2 1 - 8 2 4 cars, Passenger 221,646 390-393 Pedestrian. Trucks,221-233 8 R a i l r o a d s ,1 4 - 8 1 5 GRADESEPARATIONS 825;seealso Shoulders, 14, 486, Arterials, 5 13-5 528, SHOULDERS 544.816-817 facilities; and Sidewalks pedestrian 816 freewaY, Depressed 8 390-393, I 7-8I 8. 826,9'lI grade separatlon, toeffect Distance Types,8l4-821 832-833 8 Underpass, l't-82 l, 825-828 Leftturns,566-571 8 3 3 ,8 3 5 ;s e ea l s o 821 (vs.underPass), Overpass CLEARANCES 35 96-97, l, 390-393' Pedestrian. -532,6l, 8 I 7-8I 8,826,97 GRADING | I 53l see Climbing lanes CLIMBING SAFEfi Safetv:see
4 Noise, l 134 sightdistance Passing 72 intersection, I Sightdistance, distance, Stopping-sight 124-125,645,721 4 l7 Superelevation, 3-17 55'1-559 Freeways, General,228 Grade separations,824, 832-833 Grates,47G471 Gutter, 475-4'71 at Intersections grade,5 l3-5 l4' 646-647,721

7-8r8.894
see Stageconstruction; STAGE

LANES 97 Interchanges, l -9'12

AASHTO-Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

Index

989

-iGd-adr-.cmEDri$lr

888'910-914 GUARDRAIL colecror-distdburor road., Additionat foi,336,338-339, widrh E60-E61, EEE,894-897 453 combinarions, E82-885 At overpass, 829 conrinuiry,889,894,896-897 At underpasss, 826-828 Definiuon,805-806 cleamnce payemen! ftom dge, Design elements, 544 826-828,831 procedure, Design 814-820, Design I l0-l I I of, 836842, 888-889,963,966-972 Go.es, 927-931 Diarnond, 805-807, 823,845-860, Location lightsbndards; of scc 882,888-889, 910 LIGHTING Direcaonat, 783-785, 837-838, grrrr*r:ry*rro,

stageconstruction; sTAcE see CONSTRUCTION coNsrRUcrIoN

cloverteaf, 841-842, 860-870,

CoNSTRUCTIoN

rff{a1ia

les' Three 836-839 628' considerations' 643' Traffic s a:6-e+t, 12 i, i' or-trump*, t4t-t4) '-- --, ^141-143 selcrion,888-889^ Type -^.r aee-*o ^ se roadwavs; Tuming 9r2-9^t3 891, iincs, s05a07, RoADWAYS TURNING riniiormitv, as+,e96's:'l-s:e INTERSECTIONS ror-409 w"rr-r., ozo-ezz' 106' experience' I08 Accident ro 862' *eavingsections, r0s--e Alinement'292'294'643-645'674 iriniluv (/3-645 "nov "tlz+lzt A^gle'426'44o',47o' si 'gi-gls Arlerials'509'533 INfERSdCnoN DESIGN 533' 294' Ar grade' 508-509' ELEMENTS and Alinement p!ofile,4??-4?8' ^ y:,t:1. ." ^^'' cap*tv'16'fas41
695;s' 'lso 644-647' curves, cuives-rNrsnsrcfioN Economicfactors,62s' 6a3'644' '148

se supereleva[on: SUPERELEVATION

t4l61+'{?s

Pfacement, 437,438,826-831 GUIDEPOSTS, 680;seealso GUARDRAIL GUTTER;scCURBS HEADLIGHT Glte, 4g'l,508,543-5ta Heighrof,285 Sightdistanc, 285,288 HEIGIiT Eye, 127,136-137,444, 461-463,110 H.,dtighr,288 obJecr, r21, 131 461-463 , Tail ligbts,13? vehicles.I37 HoRIzoNTAL ALINEMEM; see ALINEMENT-HORZONTAL HORIZoNTAL cuRvEsi sec CURVES-HORIZoNTAL INF0RMATION CENTERS: s RFsT AREAS INTERCHANoEs Adaprability, 807-8 l , 891 1 Alinemenr, 83G82t0, 871-8?2, 873,890-892 annmrhpc '^ rqn-Ror
Capacity,808

Economic facrors, 813-81 4 cenerat,E05-E07, 833-834 c"uni*g,gTl-g1z Landscape developmenr, l-g72 9? Lane batance,899-909 Lighting;seLIGHTING Models,97z Muitipte,level, 876-877, zo 8 onser, 881,893,929 operarion, 966-968 Parriat cloverteal 841-842, 863-870, 888-889, 912 Pdestrians, I 97 preliminary design, 888-889 profile,890-892 Ramps, I I -u 12;sealsoRAMps E Ramps onequadrant, in 538-540, 842-a4s Rampmerering, 97o sataty,ES7-ESE,812. El6 sem'direcrional, 87G873 sighr disr'nce,818.889,892 signingandmarking,897-899 sits conditions, | I 8 spacing, E94

629'63l'632' Channelized 673' 635-640', 614'616'142' ,151"711 14G749 517' lefi-tumlanes' continuous

EdEe desie\ 647-67-2see controldevices; coNTRoL Ge;ed' 431,445,509,51? SIGNALS DEVICFs SICNS', 627Ag' 643,673'6gi-,722' ' cornerradius468-4'10'752"154 726'129'731:732"t4(.74L clrrb tadli' 664-672'752'754 151,168-11o,'1't8'180 curve radii l94 T2-723 Humanfactors, 627 Islandsandchannels;seelsl-ANDs Dcnnidon' 426'440'468'469'478' Design yl'442 Lighrirr1, ,-480' 509' 533' 627-803 sceMEDIAN Mldian-lanes; ex$ung Examples' LANES Four|cg634 636'638-64o7ao s Medianopeningsr MEDIAN 'rtueel,l 63l'613'742'745'111 oPENINcs 629 Flared, ' 635'"140'742 MinimumdesigNfor tums. Fo .l.'lel 629'632'641'749 641'612'7i2-155 787-7m roads' Frontage 628' elements, 643 Physical 627'629 643'673'696 Ceneral' 426 Rd.ilroad $ade crossings ' 13t-'13?'746.t17 122'726'129 a*,-+l ' a1o,a:n' a;s 751 768'7707?8-?80 1%-8m scc crades; GRADES 44o,46!-4?0 sight dislance 441 levels' lllumination 4n-491,643' 696'124 673'674'690 Islands' SPEED' se' Speed-changelansi Lighting'441'480'792.. -, CHANGELANES
LANES

also STAGE

AASHTO-Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

Unchannelized, -634,7 40-1 633 41 U-turns; U-TURNS see U-turns, indirect U-turns, and widrh,664-772 indirect rurns, left 535-539, ISLANDS 768-777 Approach-end treatment, 680-687 Median width Approach nose,68l,683 At-grade intersections, 6-517, 5I Offset, 681,683,689,783, 550,755-768 783-786 Multi-leg,641-642 Radil752-768 On curves, 644-645 Taper,68l,683 Pavement widening, 629-635 Channelized, l, 63| -632, 21 Preliminary design, 738-739 635 -64l, 674-676, 726; see Profi 646-647, Ie, 721,738-7 39, qlq qgqr.rEUZAIoN, INTERSECTIONS Railroad, 470, 479,523-524, Corner.687-690 793-802: Cross section, 680-681, 685,686 seealsoRAILROAD GRADE Curbed, 210-212, 635,673, CROSSING 675-676, 679-687,689 Transitions, 198 196, Definition,673 Rampterminal,937-942 Delineation, 679-687, 689 References. 802-803 Divisional, 6-61 683,686 67 8, Shoulders; SHOULDERS see Intersection with, 678,147 Sightdistance, 645-641, 696-724. Examples with,677-678 796-802 Functions, 613-676 Sight triangle, 696-698,701, i98, General, 673-616 80r Jiggle bars, 679,680,683 Signalcontrol,effect of; see Minimumsize, 679-687, 1 69 SIGNAL CONTROL Non-paved, 679-68 I Signs;seeSIGNS Refuge, 394,396,676, 679 Skew, 635, 674-676, 7 18-720, Shoulders adjacent 2 I 0-212, to, 682, 765-767 Sizeanddesignation, 211,674Staggered,644-645 675,679-680 Superelevation, 726-739 Types, 673,674-67 679-680 8, Three-leg,629-632 Warrants,673 Traffic control devices;see LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT CONTROL DEVICES. Erosion control;seeEROSION SIGNAL CONTROL,SIGNS CONTROL Turning movements, 535-537, General.9Tl-972 7 n -7 t6, 752-177, 83-7 7 87 Islands. 680
sec

Medianopenings; MEDIAN see OPENINGS

481 e, Sightdistanc 438-440' LAND USE 509-510,526 Controls, Zoning,428,526-528 LANES CLIMBING Climbing;see LANES widthsin combination, Different
sl{-516

bus, Exclusive 550-552 HOV,610 Exclusive

on section 2-lane Four-lane highway,262

see Medianopenings; MEDIAN OPENiNGS e, Sightdistanc I l7 -141,698 Spirals,175, 198-200 Storage,780-781 runoff, 175-l80 Superelevation Transitions,693-694 Traveledby vehicle turning left to clearlane,Tl I Vehicles;seeVEHICLES see WeavingSections; WEAVINC SECTIONS

of, Number 89-904, 908-909 Description,248 (seetable) 488,493-494' on arterials, see -498,516,539-542 Design capacitY; CAPACITY 497 Freeway,259 4 473-47 464, on collectors, 258 MultilanehighwaYs, and on localroads streets, Reference,48l 421-422,431,448 485' 513 of, Selection 459-460, see lanes; PARKING Parking 259 Servicevolumes, see lanes; PASSING Passing (V/C) criterion, Volume/CaPacitY LANES 244-246 Placement,43 908-909' LIGHTING 3I Reduction, 8,902-904, Arterials,545-546 958-966 Benefits, 545-546 see Turning,474-415 also 3l Breakaway, I AUXILIARYLANES 3l I Bridges, 489 arterial, Two-lane-rural Design,309 left Two-way turn,368'431'411.
) lo. / / i

LEVELSOF SERVICE g Climbin lan-s, IQ.,2a8, 256

487-488' 333-335, Widths. .19.1-.197. 5 l5-516 433 withcurbandgutter, Widths LENGTHS at lanes intersection' Auxiliary 778-186 Curves
695 Intcrsection, 2'79-292 Vertical,

I 567,569-57 Freeways, 480' 515-546 309, General, see Headlight; HEADLIGHTS I 3 o H e i g h t s f l u m i n a r i e s '1 0 - 3 1 3 Interchanges,l0 3 lntersections,l0' 792 3 Locationof lightingstandiuds, I I l M i n i m u m i l l u m i n a t i o ne v e l s ' ' l {I 3 Objects, l5 II Pedestrian, t' 3l t.'l'll

Types,627, 629,7 40-7 7 68-7 4 47, 7

NOISE

260'(tables) 247,249,255, Grades,

309 Standards,

AASHTo-Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

Index

Uniformity,441-442 Warrants, 441-442 Workzones, 316 LOCAL ROADSAND STREETS General, 417-418 References, 455 Rural.4l8-428 Alinement.420 Bicycle facilities,427 Bridges remain place, to in 423-424

Border area,438-451 C r o s ss l o p e , 4 3 0 Cul-de-Sacs, 433-435 Curb-cut-ramps, 437 Curbs. 432-433 Design consideration 426-428 s Design speed,429 Design traffic volume, 426 Drainage,433 Driveways,437 Erosioncontrol.442 Grades,430 Hq4zo414l s!94{4nc9 slopes,42l to obstructions.438 Curbs.426 Intersectiondesign,440 D e s i g ns p e e d , 4 l 8 Landscaping,442-443 Design traffic volumes,418 Lighting, 441-442 Erosion control.427 Median,432 Foreslopes,425 Number of lanes,431 Intersection design,426-4Zj Railroad grade crossings, Grades,420-422 440-441 Horizontalobsauctions. 425-426 Right-of-way,439 Numberof lanes, 421-422 S i d e w a l k s4 3 5 , 4 3 1 , Railroadgradecrossings, 429 Sight distance, 426-427 Superelevation, | 43 -Right-of-way width, 424-425 Traffic control devices, 442 Sight distanc 418-420 e, Utilities,439 S i g n sa n d m a r k i n g s , 4 2 6 Verticalclearance, 438 Structures, 422-423 Width of roadway, 431-432 Superelevation, 1 42 Widths for bridges,438 Traffic control devices,427 LOOP; see RAMPS Vertical clearance. 424 MAILBOXES, 382-384 Width of roadway,4Z2 MAINTENANCE Specialpurposes,443-458 lnterchanges, I 3 8 Local service, 455-458 Side slopes, 355-357 Recreational,443-454 Traffic, during construction, Resourcedevelopment. 316-318 454-455 MAJOR FORK; see Urban,428-443 INTERCHANGES, Major forks pproachnose treatment 921-931

Tunnels,3l0

601-620 Bridge,487 616'620 Rail,607-608, 315 Centerline, transit,616-620 Rapid Collectors,4T0 and ramPs, escalators, Stairs, 250,490-491 lanes, Climbing 610-61I visibility -349:see high '347 Curbs, and location sPactng, Station alsoCURBS 6t6,6t9-620 3 l5 Delineators, 5 bus, 315,343,663'665,936 Turnouts, 403-406' 10'550 lines, Edge MEDIAN 314-315 General, ' 498, Accidents, 519 see Guideposts; GUARDRAIL 494'498-508' divided, Arterials, 6, 61 Islands, 4-67 683,69I 516-520 427 and Localroads streets, ' 442' 513' Banier,498,561-562' 453 588-89 lr, 41 lanes, 4-47-,517:5 Median
637,'l8l-',786 1 N o - p a s s i n g ,3 3 , 3 1 5 315 Objectmarkers, Parking, 412-413,521-522 Passinglanes,2J2, 490-49| 3 Pavement, l 5, 534-535 396 Pedestrian, I 440-44 ' crossings, Railroadgrade 195 and Recreation resource 453 roads, devcloPment n c c .3 1 5 Refcre 3 S h o u l d c r s .4 3 T y p e s .3 l 5 . W o r k z o n c s3 1 6 MASS TRANSIT -552' 6 10-616 . Bus, .103-409547 . B u s l a n e s5 5 0 - 5 5 2 547-5J9' Bus stoparrangements' 6l0,6ll-616 , B u s s t o pl o c a t i o n5 1 0 ,5 4 7 - 5 5 1 B u ss t o ps p a c i n g , 6 l 0 vehicle(HOV) High-occupancY facilities,607-616 608' Joint useof Right-of-WaY'
vlr .r1r!r r.r.Jr

474 Collector roadsand streets, 783-'l9Z Contrast,637, 501-508,525-526, Crosssection, 686 5, Curbs, 344-349,474-4'7 7 83-781 Definitions,368 368,5 19 Depressed, nts. to Deterrent wrong-waymoveme 726-728 levels,365 DifferentroadwaY 35 channels, I Drainage of, End, shape 368, 414' 623' 7s5-168,'783-187 F l u s h , 3 6 84 7 4 , 4 8 3 , on For 4-lanesections 2-laneroads' 474-415 of For ultimatedeveloPmcnt highway,491-194 561,573' 623'624 Freeways, 787-792 roads, Frontage 367-369.411 General, 8'16 Interchange, see Islands; ISLANDS Lane; seeIvIEDIAN LANES '132 Local roadsand streets,

B icycle facilities, 443

403, on Operations freewaY'

o P E N I N G S ,1 6 8 - 3 6 9-,1 7 { - 1 7 5

AASHTO-Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

R u n o f fw i t h , 1 8 6 - 8 7 1

Slopes, 625 Summary, 361-369 Superelevated roadways, -503 501 Superelevation with;see runoff SUPERELEVATION Types, -369, 4-47 504, 367 47 5, 622-624 Variation widthof,499,5 I 6-520, in 622-624 -369, 4, 498-499, Width,367 47 503-507, 768,774-776 561,

-641, 5t1 414.496-498, , 631 152-197 624 crossovers, Emergency 498-499, 75 | 517, General, Intersections. 368 (andshape), 474,631, Length ',7 '7 50-7 . 7 55. 57-771 5t 4'7 Minimumlength, 4, I 55, -764.767 157 498, -5 496-497, 5 11 19 Onarterials, andstreets, roads On collector 474-476

4!t4qfq99!qns,a98,I I 6517. 519

&pqcqeq !eq,49!.1qry68
Semicircular,7 5 5-756, 7 65-766

MEDIAN BARRIERS Shapemedian end,7 55-756 Curbs; CURBS see Skew,effect of ,765-767 Types,5l8-519 Spacebetween,64l,776 MEDIAN LANES U-turn, 774-777; see also Continuous. 517-519 U-TURNS Ends Median,l5l-7 of see 52,7 54-7 lanes; MEDIAN 68, With median 783-187 LANES Left turns, 494-49'1, 5 16-5 11, MULTI-LANE HIGHWAYS; 783-181 DIVIDED seealsoARTERIALS, Special designs left turns, for HIGHWAYS 494-491516-517632-635, 490-49 1, 24 lanes, 1-262, Climbing , , 63't 639-64t,768-781 500 , Storage, 508,632,637,641, 499, 497,514-515 slope, Cross 780-78 |,789-790 with, Intersections 509 Taper, 488, 493-49 497, 633,781-786 width, 4. Pavement Width, 5 i 5-517, 641,7 503, 637, 68, 516 776,783-785 Safety,494-497 IVIEDIAN OPENINGS 136 Sight distance, Aboveminimum design dircct 496 for Undivided, lefi turns, 761-768 NOISE,28,4l--13 7 Bulletnose, 53-7 765-7 54, 66. Barriers,3l5-316 774-777,786-787 procedure control, to Dcsign -380 of Control access, 773 37'7 s, 3'l5,377 Controlradii,474,7 52-7 55, consideration General , 759-766 824,8?9
ettccton, scaplng Location.effect on. 379-380

decibels' measurement, Physical 3'75.3't8 377,560,563 design, Reduction NOSE seeAPPROACH NOSE: seeCLEARANCES OFFSET; ONE-WAYROADWAYS;see DryIDED HIGHWAYS 4I 540-5 ONE-WAY STREETS, SPEED,62 OPERATING OUTERSEPARATION 373-375 Definition, 376 Designs, Drunage,375 560561t576J78 Freeways; 37 roads, $376' 506' Frontage 87 507,543,625-626,',l -790 6, width, 374-37 787-789,9 l0 see OVERPASSES; GRADE SEPARATION PARKING (ParkandRide) 405-410 Areas. district,413 522 ' business Central 409-413,668-770 Curb. 474,522,539 Design, 2,3, General, 521 521'522 Lanes, 4lZ Lani width,411, 5Zl-522 on arterials, 474 on collectors, and localroads streets, on 131-432 409,413,4'12-473' On-sueel 521-522 432, areas, 473 Residential see Restareas; RESTAREAS 520 Shoulders, CAR PASSENGER 40, Acceleration, 703-'ll l see vehicle; DESIGN Design VEHICLES
Traffic, 58

4 23, Turningpath, 24, 593-59 LANES,2OI,264-265, PASSING 490-491 SECTIONS PASSING 133, Frequency, 135-136 Length,133-134 267-268 Shoulders, 265 Transitions, 266 Turnouts, SIGHTDISTANCE PASSING l, 484,490-49 500 Arterials, 461-463 Collectors, 128-133 for Criteria design, 133-134 values, Design
Effect ofgrade, 134

and Frequency length,135-136 Heightof eye;seeHEIGHT see Heightof object; HEIGHT 418,420, L ocalroads streets, and 429 136-l4l Measuring, 136 highwaYs, Multilane 223 curves, On horizontal 44'7-448 roads,444, On recreation 286-287 curves, ' On vertical 463,500 484-485 sight' to Relation stopping I 28-I 36, highwaYs, Two-lane 262-264 alsoTURNING, PATHS,24-39;see TURNINGROADWAYS see PAVEMENTS: also TRAVELEDWAY see Contrasts; CONTRASTING SURFACES see 328-333; sloPe, Cross SLOPE CROSS also -'7 39 64'7 Edgedesign, -672 "129 line,3'13 Edge see Lanewidths; LANES 64'7 468-469, -672 Radius.

Designsfor left turns,minimum.

MSHTO-Geometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Railroad gradecrossin 470, 479 g, -448 reation roads,44'7 Skid resistan I 19-123, ce, 333-335

453-455 Widening curyes, also (see on TRAVELEDWAY), 647-612 widths Protectivescreens, 1-393 39 Divided intersections, 635,647 Ramps, 391,393,395, 610-61 I Lane.333-335 for Curb-cut disabled, 103-104, Turningroadways, 670, 200, 393-402, 437, 532,792 673-674,687-691,931-935 Separation, 347,390-394 Two-lane highways, 213-218 see Sidewalks: SIDEWALKS CTORIPHF); 86; Signals;531; 5j2;552 257;see alsoCAPACITY Signs, 396 PEAK-HOURTRAFFIC ofseparated Spacing crossings on Design, 54-58 freeway, 390,391 General,53-58, 86 (stairways), Stairs 391 Maximum,53-54 Verticalclearances, 391-392 Thirtiethhighest, 55-56 Warrants, 390-393 350, PEDESTRIANS:see also width, 39| -392.397.399 SIDEWALKS,INTERCHANGES PERCEPTION REACTIONTIME, Accidents, 97 4 5 - 4 9l, r 8 - l l 9 1 Capacity, 00-104 WITH DISABILITIES, PERSONS Characteristics, 100, 10397105 l 03-l 05,431 476-477 , , 6tl Definition.95-97 PLANNING nisabtea, 105, 103350, 391-393, 470. . Comprchcnsivc. 817 821 539-541, 6rt,792 555-556, Frceway, 564-566 Safety, l0 5 classification; Highway see Subways, 104-105 CLASSIFICATION Walking rate,99-100 Landuse.491-493
Walkways,atintersections,l03-104 Transportation improvemcnts,

FREEWAYS 103Disabled, 104,391-393, 396, 402,40't 437 61r,'792 , , Gradeseparation; GRADE see SEPARATION Pedestrian overpasses, 97 gT Pedestrian underpasses,

PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES see ; alsoPEDESTRIANS Arterials, 10,53l-532.539 5

At gradecrossings. 627-628,661.

5 12,5'16-547 development four-lanc oI Ljltirnate -19 dividedarterials, I -494

POLLUTION CONTROL; seealso NOISE Noise,4l-42 Vehicular,28, .l l, 7.1

668,670-67 673-674, |, 679. 680-68 687.748 1,

Crosswalk distance, cffect of radii

on,394-396, 668-670
Dcprcssed freeways; see

see PROFILE:
PUBLIC TRANSIT; seeIvIASS

TRANSIT RADII Curb,665'672 470 194-212, Intersection, ends Islands, of, 75{755; seealso ISLANDS 153-174 Minimum, without curves Minimumradius 166, superelevation, 172-173 59 22-23, 56-7 7 Minimumturning, 753 for turning leftturns, Minimum 666-667 Tables. ,669, 67l-672 RAILROADCROSSINGS Alinementandprofile-793402 Arterials,5ll, 523-524 310,792 Lighting, 5l devices, l, 523-524, Protective 79s-796 e, Sightdistanc 426,440-441 , 4'19-480 468-470, 426,440-441, Trafficcontrol, I 96, 470. 419. 79 5-7 800-80 426, 44 Widths, 4 40- l, 470,479'480 RAIL TRANSIT;secMASS TRANSIT RAMPS 915-923 Alinement, nose,92'l Approach 915 Button-hooked, 83-85 Capacity, 936-937 Clearances, 936 825-829, structures, At seeCLEARANCES Horizontal; 915 Components, 9 curves, 19-920 Compound frontage roads, to Connection 8.17-851,9l.l surface, 938 Contrasting crownline,924 Crossover 93 section, l-935 Cross 391 Curb-cut, -102,437,

476-477,532 929-930 Curbs, 9 -920'923 Curvature, 19 915-916 Definition, 860, 64-65' speed, Design 916-919,922 566,515-917 Diagonal, 870-873' connection, Direct 916-917 ramP successive between Distance 566, terminals, 940-941 9 268'27 escaPe' Emergency and Entrances exits,84-85' 902, 580.584, 9l G9 15, 37G3?3, 937-938.942-966 573,92'7'931 Gores, 920-922 Grades, see Lanereductions; LANES 582-583 Lateral, Left,937-938 Lengths,920'921 4' 87 Loop,800-863, 3-87 888-889' 915-919 see Metering; RAMPMETERING 863-870 Number, 9 l6-9I 7 connection, Outer 860,863-870 cloverleaf, Partial see Pedestrian; PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES 938-939 le, Profi 920-922, see Radii: RADII 918 Rightturn, 9 870-873.l6-9I 8' 92"1 Semidirect, 915-920,921 Shapes, 931-937 Shouldcrs, 915, distance, 920 Sight 770"772. 595,608, 370, Slip, 920-921
ge Speed-chan lanes,1 32, 94 l -94? Spiral curves;seeTRANSITIONS , , T e r m i n ad e s i g n 8 3 - 8 4 9 l 5 ' 9 l 9 ' l

MSHTO-Geometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Index

grg,gz5,g3g Taper,g42-g5l Traveled way widths,g3l-g3l Types,gr5-ir6,9r. verticalcurves,923 Weaving;see WEAVING SECTIONS

927-931,937-966;seealso TERMINALS Traffic conrrot, 724-726,809-8 I, t

Examples,602_604 pelated to freeways, 595-604 Terminats, 600-603

js2 wheerchair, 3s3-402,

Widths,200-212 gt4_ wrong-way entry,724-726, '415 RAMP METERING,97O RAPID TRANSIT;,"" uass TRANSIT RECOVERY AREA;seeCLEAR ZONE RECREATION ROADS, 443-4s4 RE.REATI'NAL 'EHICLES,2g, 37-38,444 climbinglanes 233 for' Effects volumes' on 245,257 on grades,235-240 , Passenger equivalents,2lT car (table) RESouRcEDEVELOPMENT ROADS'454-455 RESTAREAS,52, 308-309, r r 5 Information centers, 308 Scenic overlooks, 309
RETAINING WALLS,506 Lateralclearances; see CLEARANCES on depressed freeways, 379, 559,562,566 Sight distance,563-564

RIGHT_'F_*A' Arterials,4gg,5p-sa4, 525 Collector streers, 467-46g,47g controred access highways, r I ,' g l er Drainage, 305-30j Freeways, 564_565,574_575, 560, 516_578,587

rnterchanges ,Bn,ete_s2o
Local roadsandstreets, ' aJ7 421,43g Two_lane , Ls,,v,,,6,,n4rr, _e, highways, 489 Urilities,accommoilaiting,3|I, fiz-533 width, 477,503_506,52s withfrontageroads, so6,soT,sz5, 576_578,587_589, -vLv 625_626 ROADSIDE Borders sidewalks;see and B'RDER('), 'IDE*ALKS Control,94, 381-384, 459-460, 464-465 Driveways, 95,381-382, 437, 470-471,476-477,526,793 _ Erosion control, 356-358, 488 Fencing,5oT Mailboxes, 3gz-3g4 Recovery areas, 356 seeding pranting; and see EROSION coNTRoL Sightdistance; SIGHT see
DISTANCE Turnouts, 402-403 ROADWAY, dcfiNitiON, 327,340,359 ROADWAY WIDTH, 335, 464, 466_468 RoAD usER BENEFIT;see

Srope,563-564
REVERSE.FLOWROADWAYS
Crosssection, 599

EC'N.MIC L ' n L v n EVALUATI'N rrvrr

Lvvrlv[rrv

ROUTECONTINUITY.sg6-It97 Cross slope, 340, 336, 356, I 4-5I 5 5

Continuous, 338,339 510 343,566-561, Contrast, 520 335-341, Cross section, values,39-341 3 design slope, Cross Sideslopes' 336'340'354'360' for maximum roll-over; Cross slope, 4U-465 SLOPE seeCROSS RUNoFF;seeSUPERELEVATI'N RLINour' Curb,344-349 -T?TfANGENT 338-340, Curb,alongouteredge, I /)-16/ 363.520 SAFEry 105-lI l 335 Definition, -498 339,497 Dividedhighways, fi::*::::ffi-",",T' I | ' 342' Driving,267-268 O"rr,:J_j:i"i:t t"" I l0- I on For4-lane section 2-laqq 459.460,199 ryqds, 262 Driveways'381-382 roads, on section 2-lane Effectof grades,236-237 For 3-lane 264-265 Lighting'll2'309'3lI Speed' Freeways,557 105-108 335-338 characteristics, 106,107,I l0 General Fatalityrates, 464-465 108-110 Features affecting, Graded. width.335-336 warrant for, Graded Grade separation, 339 Intermittent. 807-809 highways, divided II Leftshoulder, 107_108, l_l t2, Intersecrions, 497-498.551 3u-382,621-628,i93,833-836 339,487 497 area, 10, 464-46g, l On structure, Recovery , 488-489 Paved, 5-343, 33 480_48 r,520_521 see 5 Ramps; RAMPS Rest areas, 30g-309;I l 358, Rounding, 339-341, 360 sIGHT Sightdistance;see see Sidewalks; SIDEWALKS DISTANCE 497 highway, -498 Vehicular, 105_l 12 Six-lane l 341,342-343 work Zones, i 6_3 u Stability, 3 see roadways; Superelevated SCENICovERLooKS; seeREST ADEAa FREEWAYS, ^^''^-,-.. r rI ^ YI'OYC'U" '',. SUPERELEVATION SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS' 966-967 210, roadways, 2l I I Turning SERVICE VOLUMES. 460-46 see Turnouts; TURNOUTS SHOULDERS 488 width, 335-341, Accidentexperience, l0g- I l0 Usable 267-268 Usesections, Adjacentto see clearance; a,'l?'^Tp".s;seecLIMBING Vertical CLEARANCES,464 LANES
-_-)-_ ^az ^44

1 ,-1 ,o. lstano corners'oo l ' 06r edses'340',359-360 l:lt:"il Shoutders,336

.197-,198, 520 Artcrials.-ll't9,

A c c i d e n t s3 5 l . 3 5 - l - 3 5 6 .

I00I

Intersections grade, at 628,643, 61-6!9,69514;see also ight distance;seeSIGHT INTERSECTION DESIGN DISTANCE Local roads streets. and 418-420. Treatmentto avoid snowdrifting, 429 352,357,361 Measuring recording, l4l, and I 38SIDEWALKS 221 Along arterials, 349,522-523,531 Multilane highways, 136 Alongtraveled ways Passing; PASSING see SIGHT Rural, 349-350 DISTANCE Urban, -350, 6-4i1 349 47 grade g, Railroad crossin 491, Curbcut;seeRAMPS, curbcur 793-802 Location, 6-471 481, 41 522,523, , Records,139-l4l 531 Recreation roads, 444 - - Ov.erpasses, 467-468,625 S k c w7 1 8 - 7 1 9 , Pedesrrian, I 12,344-348, 103, Stopping; STOPPING see SIGHT 393-404,435; also see DISTANCE PEDESTRIANS; Turning roadways, 723 24 212, -7 PEDESTRIANS Underpasses. 8 l8 FACILITIES Vertical I curves,38-141,282-286, Underpasses, 826 288,723 Wanlnts,349 Walls;seeRETAINING WALLS Widrhs, 349, 435, 43i,116-175 SIGHTTRIANGLE, 696-698 SIGHTDISTANCE SIGNALCONTROL Arterials, 490-491,tl 485, 5 Artcrials. 533-536 ,159-460, I .17 Collector streets with,7 l-11, 76-7'1, Capacity 79, Critcria measuring, 138 for 136533 Decision, 126-121 D e v i c c s .1 9 3

Channels, ainage,5 1-35 dr 3 4 355 Earthslopes, Erosion prevention; see EROSION CONTROL General, 354-358, 351, 525 Regions, 354 Right-of-Way, 489 Roadsjde recovery area, 351,356, 425,431-438,452 Rockslopes, 358 Rounding, 354-355, see 357; also ROLTNDING

Design speed,in relatjon to, 120, 489-490 General117 , Headlight, 288-292 Height of eye, 136-137 Height of object,137 Horizontalcurves,138139, 219-223,723-724 Interchange; see INTERCHANGES

for, requirements 3l9' Installation 534-535 319,542 signals, control Lane-use 319 Location, 103Pedestrian, 105,ll ll12' 534 Principles,111,319 terminals,939 Ramp 319' Warrants, 480 SIGNS,3I4-3I5 487 Arterials, 487 Bridges, lanes,250 Climbing +lf Colt.Ctors, 316-318 Construction, Design,314 Detour,3l8 276 ramPs, Escape 314-315 General, 643, -7 Intersections, 699 Ol Islands,683,687 42"1,442 and Localroads streets, Location,3l4-315 gs, crossin 426 grade Railroad 921,939 Ramps, and Recreation resource 453 roads, development 313-314 Reference, flow, 542 Reverse 265 sections' Three-lane 3 Types, 15 SINGLEPOINTDIAMOND; see INTERCHANGES 498,506 HIGHWAYS, SIX-LANE 561 539 Capacity, on Effects 763' oPenings, 765 Median see SKID-RESISTANCE;

Designior. 123-124, 126-t27 I 3 3 -1 , 1 . 15 1 36 9 6 _ 6 9 7 -. ,

637 ,6.r .7 t6-718,739-740,8.+7

Hriaht I lt)

SPEED 68-70 running, Average 68 sPot, Average Function,3-4 Operating,62 to trafficvolume average Relation running,69-70 64,66-73 Running, 143-lM indicator, bY Safe, ballbank Trends,63 227-233 Trucks,on grades, 237-241 SPEEDCI{AI{GE I;AilEF 5l' 573,7 49-7 lanes, Acceleration 941-944,952-957 Busturnous,403 I' 749-75 lanes, Deceleration 94r-951 -942 Definition,749-750,941 5l 637'7 49-7 628, General, ' 639 Intersections ,637 Length,573 RAMPS RamPs;see 50, 7 635, 49-'1 78 I -782 Taper,633Warrants,750 X Width:seeCHAPTER TRANSACTIONS SCC SPIRALS; SPLINE For runoff,185 Useof, 499-500 STAGECONSTRUCTION' 564-565,603,623 structures' seParation Grade 8 1 38 1 7 - 8 1 ' 8 , 808-809 Intcrchange, of develoPment 4-lane Ultimate 49 dividedhighwaYs, I-494 STOPCONTROL Intersections 39'740 "l SIGHTDISTANCE STOPPING SPEED 485,490'499 Arterials, 237; Accidents, seealsoDESIGN

1002

MSHTo-Geometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Barriers, noise.3 I 5-3l6 Brake-reaction time, I 17-l19 Braking distance,I l9-lZ3 D e s i g n( m i n . )v a l u e s I Z 3 - 1 2 4 , Effect of grade, 124-125

Definirion,175 Design, smooth profiles, On vertical curves 184-185 Crest,282-286, 22-7 7 24 Designwith medians, 186-187 Sag,288-292,723 Length, 175-180, 186-187 Perception time,722 Location, respect ofcurve, end Definition. 118 180-r81 Railroad crossing,9 5-802 7 Low speed urbanstreets, 192 Recreation roads, 4M, 447 Methods attainment, I84 of I8lTrucks, 125 Multilane highways, 186-l 87 Wetpavemen l2l - 123, 8-42A, I, 41 With medians. 187 1864s9-463 Sharpest curvewithout, 166,172 STRUCTURES; GRADE see Tables, 167-l7l SEPARATIONSTRUCTURES Typicalcross sections, 340 SUPERELEVATION Turning roadway terminals, Arterials, 486,501-503, 515 729-139 Ball bankindicator. 144-t45 Urban low streets, speed, 187-193 Collector roadandstreets, SURFACE: PAVEMENT see 463-464.48t_482 SYSTEMS; CLASSIFICATION see Design rates, 158-162 TANGENTRUNOUT. I8O Distribution e andf. 148-151. TAPER of 191 Auxiliarylane, 904-908, l, 958, 94 Effectof grades, 173-lj4 96r Freeways, 558 Beyond offset nose, 758-759,787, Fnctionfactor,143-144 929-93r General, 142 lanes,250 Climbing Grades, 173-17 463-464 4, Construction zones, l8 3
tzo-t59 Maximum rate.726-739

General,l7 I Intersections grade, at 701-703, 71t,716 Localroads streets, and 418-420, 429 Multilanehighways, 136,494-496 Measuring, 136-14l On horizontalcurves,219-223, 3t 5 - 3 6 l

Runoff,129-130 Limitingfactors, 65-66 Localroads sfeets,421-422, and 431 Maximum rates, 142,151-153, 726,729-731 Outercross sections, 328,330-331 Ramps;see RAMPS "729,731 Rates design, for Recreation resource and
development r oads, 448-449 Runoff, l7 4-187, l9Z, 726-730

roadways, 508 lanes, Speed-change 633-635, Widelyseparated separation, 49-750,18 | -782,94t -942 for grade 7 Warrant section, 265 Three-lane 807-809 terminals, Turningroadway TRAFFIC 692-694 Assignment,542 daily (ADT), 53-59,61, Turnout.266 Average 488 TERMINAIS 62,460-46r,484, 4 and cs, Alinement curvature, 919-920, Characteristi 53-7 952-954,961 Composition59-61 , 44; At grade,9l9 Controldevices, see see Capacity; CAPACITY CONTROLDEVICES Definition,93T Current.53 between, -940 939 Distance _D"qtgn !9!4I lglume (DHV), 47 from stnrcture, -940 7 Distance 939 56-57, 5-76, 46U462, 0-471, 929,937-938,942-9 44, 484,513 Entrance, 2A9 0 957-958 DesignTraffic Condition, -21 |, year,56-5'7460,470-47 Exit,87,690-695, 724,726, Design , . 927-93t,93't-938,944-955, 484,513 54 57-58, I 958-961 distribution, Directional 85-86 ow, factors, Multilanefree-fl 957-966 Equivalent 936-937 Shoulders, Flow,7l,75-80 2, e, considerations,53 Sightdistanc 920,938 General free-fl 9 44-9 3 ow, 58 Generated, Single-lane (HV), 690, HourlyVolume Superelevation, 923-925 Highest roadway, 54-58 Turning 690-695 construction. during Maintenance TERRAIN,226,233 HIGHWAYS. 316-318,493-494 THREE-LANE hourly, annual 55 Maximum 264-265 car. Passenger 59 TOPOGRAPHY 53-59 Peak-hour, Effecton 233,463,472,484Plans,3l6-318 Alinement, 57-58, 486,499-500, 6 16, 59-6 I Projcction, 508, fluctuation. 56 620-623 Scasonal factor,6A-62 speed, Speed Design 484 hourlyvolume Thirtiethhighest Grade separations structures, (30HV),54-58 805, t.82t,823-824 8l see Truck.59-60; alsoTRUCKS Interchange design, 805, 4 Volume, 53-58, I 8, 428-429, 8A9 807-812,845 TRAFFICBARRIERS Location, 226,508,525

ran lanes, Section. 265

210,34.1-347, Curbs, 361

AASHTO-Ceometric Design of Highways and Streets

Index

r 005

Crash cushions, I -362, . 929 36 367 Intersection, curves 206-21 at, 0 1r0-l t|,361-362, , TRENDS 367-368, 366-361 .929 .92t Mass/power ratio,232 Longitudinal, -363,392-397 36t Speed, 63 Median,364-365 Vehicle size,23 Roadside, l -212,338-340, 2l TRUCKS; aisoDESIGN see _364, 363 453,464_ 525. t9 466. 6 VEHICLES References, 15,366-367, I l3-l Acceleration 4& At intersections, 706 7M, TRAFFIC CONTROLDEVICES, On grades, 230 lll, 426,442,534-535; also see Climbinglanes, | -261,49024 CONTROL DEVICES 49t,5AO TRAFFIC REGI.JLATION. 534.540 Deceleration grades, on 227-231 -TF{ANSIT; see MAss TRANSIT Definition,59-60 TRANSITIONS Effect on capacity,244-245 Advantages, 3-4,174 Equivalents, 2 44-245,247, 255,260 Clothoid, 175 Heightof eye,131 Euler, 175 Mass/power ratio,228,233 General.174 Minimumdesigns sharpest for turn, In conjunction with superelevation 25-39 runoff,174-180 Off tracking, 201-206 Intersection, 196-199 Operating characteristicsgrades, on L e n g t h ,1 7 3 ,1 9 8 ,2 0 0 , 6 9 5 227-238 Roadwaywidth at structures, Single unit,25 825-826 Stopping sightdistance, 125 Spiral curve, l7 4- l7 7, t9 6- 199,225 TUNNELS Superelevation runofi 174-ll.9 Clearances, 387-388 Traveledway widenin 212-219 g, Costs, 386-387 Turning roadway terminals, Cross section. 385-389 692-695 Design considerations, 384-386 Two-laneand 4-lanesections, 262 Examples,389 TRAVELED WAY, 328, 337.339. General. 384-385 342, 349,359, 360, 384 Grades, 385-386 Definition,327, 310, 359 Lighting, 386-387 E d g ed e s i g n l, 8 l - 1 8 7 Sidewalks, 387-389 3.1.+-348. Four-lane sections, 262,4i 1 Types, 384-386 R a m pw i d t h ,9 3 1 - 9 3 6 Ventilation, 386-387 Traffic conditions, 206-210 TURNING: alsoDESIGN see Turning roadways, 206-210 VEHICLES Widrhs

Radi minimum, -652;see us, 647 also Runoff,115-187,192 DESIGNVEHICLES Three-lane sections, 264-265 on Definition, l9 ULTIMATE DEVELOPMENT;see Speed,20 STAGECONSTRUCTION -202,213-216 Trackwidth,201 LINDERPASSES; GRADE see Turninglanes AUXILIARY see SEPARATION STRUCTURES LANES LINDIVIDEDMULNLANE Turningmovement, 535-539; HIGHWAYS 494-496 , seealsoINTERSECTIONS UTILITIES Indirect turns. left 773-'174 489 Clear zone. TURNING ROADWAYS Coordination,l l -312,532-533 3 -732 Approach nose,'731 Costs, 312 eurvaturs-1gLZ00, 9 19.920 Gereral-312413,4:18 Intersections 643-645 with. Location, 313-314,532 Islands, 673-676 Multiple uses,439 Minimumdesigns, -662 647 Reference,I 3 3 Shoulders, 1-212, -652 21 647 U.TURNS Stopping sightdistance, 722-724 Designs for,768-777 Superelevatio73 1-739 n, Length opening, of 774-777 Terminal design, 690,692-695, Spacing, 776 73t-734 designs, 774, 778 Special 772, Widths,200-212 VEHICLES: also see DESIGN TURNOUTS VEHICLES, RECREATIONAL Bus, 403-407, 608-616; 510, VEHICLES, TRUCKS, TURNING seealsoBUSES VERTICALALINEMENT;see Length, 550 ALINEMENT,VERTICAL On one-lane roads, 449 VERTICAL CURVES CURVES, ; see On two-lane roads, 266 VERTICAL Shoulder.5l0 VIADUCTS; FREEWAYS, see Taxi,521 Elevated viaduct TWO-LANEHIGHWAYS WALKWAYS;seeSIDEWALKS Adjustment factors, 248 WARRANTS Artcrials. 484-491 Climbing lanes, 242-246, | -26l 25 Maximum service volumes, 244 For4-lane sections 2-lanc on roads. Passing distance, 136, sight 128262 134(table), 490-491 Grade separations, 807-809 Ianes, Passing 135, 262-264,490Interchanges, 807-809 l3-14, 49r Passing lanes, 262 Four-lane sections, 262-261 Pedestrian separations, 390
Superelevation Effcct of grades,1'73-lil S i d e w a l k s .4 9 - 3 5 0 3

Operationon curves,213-214

1006

MSHTO-Geometric

Design of Highways and Streets

Climbing lanes, 250;seealso Capacity,909-910 CLIMBING LANES Cloverleafs. 862 Extraallowance operation for on Definition, 909-910 83, curyes.212-218 General,909-910 Gutter, 346-347, -468 467 Interchanges , 909-910 Lanes, 333-335; alsoLANES see Length, 91,940-941 Localroads srreets, and 4ZZ,431 Number lanes, of 9l Median lanes, 783-786: also see Simple, 9l MEDIAN LANES Types,9l-93 Passing lanes, 490 WIDENING Pavement;see PAVEMENT Attainmenr of,2l8-Zl9 Ramps, 931-937 Design values, 214-Zl8 Reclgalianroads,499 On curves,212-218 Right-of-way, 439,503-506, 525: Designvalues,2l'7 seealsozuGHT-OF-WAY To introduce divisional island. Shoulders, 2lO-212, 2Sl, Z6i, 676-678 335-338, 422,464; also see Widening curves on SHOULDERS Artainmenr ,218-219 of Sidewalks; SIDEWALKS see Design Values, 217 Track,200-207 WIDTH Turningroadway; TURNING see Arterials, 488,493-496, 503-507, ROADWAY 516-520, s74 WRONG-WAYENTRY Borders, 394,438-439, 478. Design discourage to ,914-915 522-523 ZONING;see LAND USE Bridges drainage and structures; Access conrrol,526-528 seeBRIDGES

WEAVING SECTIONS