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Chapter 1 Functions and limits

LEARNING OUTCOMES: On completion of this chapter you should 1. understand the concept of a limit of a function at a point intuitively, 2. be able to estimate the value of a limit of a function at a given point by calculating function values close to the given point, 3. be able to evaluate the limit of a function at a given point graphically, 4. understand and be able to calculate one-sided limits, 5. know the behaviour of a function with innite limits, 6. understand and be able to determine vertical and horizontal asymptotes of a function, 7. be able to compute limits of exponential functions, 8. be able to use the approporiate Limit Laws to nd the limit of a function at a given point,

9. know how to prove that the limit of a function at a given point exists using one-sided limits, 10. be able to use factorization and rationalization to calculate limits of rational functions, 11. be able to use the Squeeze Theorem to calculate limits, 12. know, understand and be able to prove the theorems on trigonometric limits given in these notes on this section and 13. know how to solve the examinable tutorial problems and the worked out problems from these notes on this chapter. The single most important concept in all of calculus is that of a limit. Every single notion of calculus is encapsulated in one sense or another to that of a limit. In this course, we will only consider an intuitive and informal discussion of a limit of a function at a point. The precise approach to limits, using the standard - denition is reserved for the second year Analysis course and will not be considered here.

1.1

The idea of a limit

Consider a number L and a function f dened near the point x = a, not necessarily at a itself. We wish to investigate the behaviour of f for values x in the domain of f that are close to a. We rst consider this numerically, then graphically. x9 . What hapWorked Example 1.1.1. Consider the function f (x) = x3 pens to the values of f (range values of f ) when x (domain values of f ) is close to 9?

Solution. A table of values will conjecture the behaviour of f . We want to Approaching 9 from the right gives the following table of values. approach 9 and can do this in a direction closely from the left (x < 9, i. e. x9 x>9 f (x) = from values below 9) and a direction closely from the right (x > 9, i. e. from x3 values above 9). 9.1 x9 9.05 x<9 f (x) = x3 9.001 8 9.0001 8.5 8.9 8.95 8.99 8.999 8.9999 8.99999 It appears that as x approaches 9 from below (the left), the closer f (x) is to , the limiting value of f .
x9 x9

9.00001 Again, it can be observed that the closer that x is to 9 from above, the closer f (x) is to . We write x 9+ to denote x approaches 9 from above or x approaches 9 from the right. We then write lim+ f (x) (called the rightx9 hand limit) for the value that f (x) approaches as x 9+ . In our calculations
x9+

lim f (x) =

lim f (x) and lim+ f (x) are one-sided limits. We have

x9

lim f (x) =

= lim+ f (x)
x9

To say x approaches 9 from below or x approaches 9 from the left we and we phrase this combined result as the limit of f (x) as x approaches 9 and write write symbolically x 9 . We then write lim f (x) (called the left-hand exists and is equal to x9 limit) for the value that f(x) approaches as x 9 . In the above calculations lim f (x) = . we thus have x9 lim f (x) = .
x9

Both the left-hand limit lim f (x) and the right-hand limit lim+ f (x) of a Worked Example 1.1.2. (The number e) Let xa xa 1 function must exist and must both be equal for the limit of the function f (x) = (1 + x) x . lim f (x) to exist i. e., xa Use the tabular method to estimate lim f (x) (if it exists) to ve decimal x0 lim f (x) = L lim f (x) = L = lim+ f (x). places. xa xa xa Solution. From the left at x = 0: Graphically: The one-sided limits can be determined easily from the graph. 1 Consider the graph of x<0 f (x) = (1 + x) x x9 . f (x) = x3 -0.01 f (x) -0.001 6 -0.0001 -0.00001 -0.000001 We see that to ve decimal places lim f (x) =
x0

From the right at x = 0: 9 x x>0 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001 0.000001 f (x) = (1 + x) x
1

It is clear that x = 9 is inadmissible since f (9) does not exist. However lim f (x) = = lim+ f (x) both exist, easily read o from the graph of x9 x9 f so that lim f (x) = .
x9

We see that to ve decimal places lim+ f (x) =

x0

3. y = ln x has all the logarithmic properties: (a) y = ln x x = ey ,

Hence, lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) so that lim f (x) exists, and to ve decimal x0 x0 x0 places 1 lim f (x) = lim(1 + x) x
x0 x0

(b) eln x = x and ln e x = x, (c) ln xr = r ln x, loge x ln x (d) loga x = = , loge a ln a (e) ln xy = ln x + ln y, (f) ln

The exact value of this limit is given the symbol e (called Eulers number, accredited to the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) who was among the rst to study its properties extensively). We thus have lim(1 + x) = e
x0
1 x

x y

= ln x ln y.

You will encounter y = ln x in particular in the chapters on integration. Note The number e is an irrational number (like ) and is used frequently in all the properties above remembering that ln x = log x. e of Mathematics. 2 < e < 3 and to ve decimals e 2.71828. In the sequel, e will refer to this irrational number of Euler. Note: If f does not approach a unique value as x approaches a, then lim f (x) xa does not exist, i. e., Note. 1. The function y = e is called the natural exponential function. 2. Recall that the exponential functions given as y = a x with a > 0 have the inverse y = loga x. Particularly, the logarithmic function to the base e, loge x, is called the natural logarithmic function y = loge x which we denote in future as y = ln x (logarithmus naturalis), i. e., ln x = loge x.
x

xa

lim f (x)

xa+

lim f (x) lim f (x) DOES NOT EXIST.

xa

It is obvious that it is tedious to determine lim f (x), lim+ f (x) and eventuxa xa ally the existence of lim f (x) using the tabular approach. More importantly, xa the tabular approach does not prove the existence of the limit nor does it give the exact value of the limit. The graphical way (if we know how to sketch the graph) is more succinct. A computer algebra program may assist you in graphical sketching.

We see that to ve decimal places lim+ f (x) =

x0

3. y = ln x has all the logarithmic properties: (a) y = ln x x = ey ,

Hence, lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) so that lim f (x) exists, and to ve decimal x0 x0 x0 places 1 lim f (x) = lim(1 + x) x
x0 x0

(b) eln x = x and ln e x = x, (c) ln xr = r ln x, loge x ln x (d) loga x = = , loge a ln a (e) ln xy = ln x + ln y, (f) ln

The exact value of this limit is given the symbol e (called Eulers number, accredited to the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) who was among the rst to study its properties extensively). We thus have lim(1 + x) = e
x0
1 x

x y

= ln x ln y.

You will encounter y = ln x in particular in the chapters on integration. Note The number e is an irrational number (like ) and is used frequently in all the properties above remembering that ln x = log x. e of Mathematics. 2 < e < 3 and to ve decimals e 2.71828. In the sequel, e will refer to this irrational number of Euler. Note: If f does not approach a unique value as x approaches a, then lim f (x) xa does not exist, i. e., Note. 1. The function y = e is called the natural exponential function. 2. Recall that the exponential functions given as y = a x with a > 0 have the inverse y = loga x. Particularly, the logarithmic function to the base e, loge x, is called the natural logarithmic function y = loge x which we denote in future as y = ln x (logarithmus naturalis), i. e., ln x = loge x.
x

xa

lim f (x)

xa+

lim f (x) lim f (x) DOES NOT EXIST.

xa

It is obvious that it is tedious to determine lim f (x), lim+ f (x) and eventuxa xa ally the existence of lim f (x) using the tabular approach. More importantly, xa the tabular approach does not prove the existence of the limit nor does it give the exact value of the limit. The graphical way (if we know how to sketch the graph) is more succinct. A computer algebra program may assist you in graphical sketching.

Worked Example 1.1.3. Sketch the graph of the given function and de- Solution. termine graphically whether the corresponding limit exists; if so, nd the limit. 1. f (x) = 4 x2 . Find lim f (x).
x2

Solution.

3. h(x) = Solution.

|x| . Find lim h(x) if it exists. x0 x

Find lim g(x) and lim g(x) if they exist.

x0 x3

2. Let g(x) = 3 x

if x < 0, if x > 3. if 0 x < 3,

(x 3)2

Find for any a R, lim d(x) if it exists. The function d is called the Dirichxa Find lim x if it exists. let function. x4 Solution. Let a R. As x a or x a+ , x passes through both rational Solution. and irrational numbers. (The rationals and irrationals are said to be dense in R. Between any two real numbers, there is a rational and an irrational number.) Consequently as x approaches a, the values of the Dirichlet function jump back and forth between 0 and 1 and thus d(x) cannot approach and stay close to a xed number L. Therefore lim d(x) does not exist.
xa

4. Let d(x) =

if x Q, i. e., x is rational,

5. Consider the greatest integer function dened as x = greatest integer less than or equal to x.

if x R \ Q, i. e., x is irrational.

The graphs of the remaining problems have been sketched with a drawing program. We evaluate the limits of the given functions below accordingly using the graphs. All trigonometric functions are dened in radian measure (refer to the Algebra Lecture Guide).

sin x 1 . Find lim g(x). . Find lim f (x). (In this 2. Let g(x) = x0 x0 x x example, using the tabular method to conjecture the value of the limit is misleading.) Worked Example 1.1.4. 1. Let f (x) = sin 1 1 0.8 0.5 0.6 0.4 1 0.5 0 0 0.5 1 10 5 0.2 5 0.2 10

0.5

1 Solution. As x 0, f frantically uctuates between 1 and 1 never ap1 proacing a xed value. Thus lim sin does not exist. The case is similar x0 x 1 1 for x 0+ so that lim+ sin also does not exist. Hence lim sin does not x0 x0 x x exist.

Solution.

1 cos2 x 3. Let h(x) = . Find lim h(x). x0 x 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 10 5 5 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Solution. 10

Tutorial 1.1.1. 1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. pp. 7576: 1, 2, 4, 7, 8 or 12th ed. 2.2 p. 73: 1, 2, 4, 7, 8. 2. If f is a function such that f (2) = 4, can you conclude anything about lim f (x)? Explain your answer and provide a graph for f to substantiate.
x2

3. If g is a function such that lim g(x) = 4, can you conclude anything about x2 g(2)? Explain your answer and provide a graph for g to substantiate. 4. Let f (x) = x x . For each integer n, nd lim f (x) and lim+ f (x) if they xn xn exist. In the above examples we showed that either a limit of a function f exists at x = a ( f (x) approaches a unique value L R) or it does not exist ( f (x) does not approach a unique value).

The limit of a function f can also be unbounded, i. e., as x a+ or x a , the values of f (x) become positively large or negatively large. We use the innity symbol to denote unboundedness. +, or shortly , will denote positively large values and will denote negatively large values. is a symbolic representation of having no bound/limit and is not a real number. You cannot algebraically operate with as if it were an element of the reals.

1 Worked Example 1.1.5. 1. Let f (x) = . Find lim f (x), lim+ f (x), x0 x0 x lim f (x). Solution. 1 2. Let g(x) = 2 . Find lim g(x), lim+ g(x), lim g(x). x0 x0 x0 x Solution. 3. Find lim sec x and lim+ sec x. Solution.
x 2 x 2 x0

The following innite limit cases arise 1. lim f (x) = = lim+ f (x) lim f (x) = means that f (x) is arbitrarily xa xa xa positively large for x suciently close to a. lim f (x) in fact does not exist xa here but the innity notation describes the behaviour of f close to a. 2. lim f (x) = = lim+ f (x) lim f (x) = means that f (x) is xa xa xa arbitrarily negatively large for x suciently close to a. lim f (x) in fact does xa not exist here but the innity notation describes the behaviour of f close to a. 3. lim f (x) = and lim+ f (x) = (or vice versa). lim f (x) in fact does xa xa xa not exist here but the innity notation describes the behaviour of f close to a and a+ .

Vertical asymptotes arise when limits are innite. These are auxiliary vertical lines that the function values approach (but never attain). We say that the line x = a is a vertical asymptote of f if at least one of the following limits hold
xa

lim f (x) =

or (or

xa+ xa

lim f (x) =

lim f (x) = or or

xa xa

lim f (x) = ).

lim f (x) = or

xa+

lim f (x) =

The previous worked example illustrates the concept of a vertical asymptote. Horizontal asymptotes arise when we consider the limit of a function f for unbounded values of x, i. e., x f (x) and x f (x). If, for arbitrary lim lim positively or negatively large values of x, the function values approach a unique value b R, i. e., if x f (x) = b or x f (x) = b, then the line lim lim y = b is called a horizontal asymptote.

The following examples illustrate innite (unbounded) limits graphically. Horizontal and vertical asymptotes are useful in sketching graphs, as you will discover in Chapter 6 of this guide. In such cases lim f (x) DOES NOT EXIST.
xa

1 f (x) Worked Example 1.1.6. 1. Let f (x) = 2 + . Find x f (x) and x f (x) For functions of the form lim lim , we may possibly argue with the behaviour x g(x) from the graph of f . f (x) of the numerator and denominator near a to calculate lim . xa g(x) Solution. Worked Example 1.1.7. Evaluate the following limits without the use of a sketch. 2 2 and lim . 1. lim+ x3 x 3 x3 x 3 Solution:

2. Let g(x) = Solution.

1 . Find lim g(x) and lim g(x) from the graph of g. x x x2

2x2 3. Let h(x) = . From the graph evaluate lim h(x), lim+ h(x), lim h(x), x3 x3 x3 9 x2 lim h(x), lim h(x) and lim h(x). What are the horizontal and vertical x x x3+ asymptotes (if any)? Solution.

x1 . x2 x2 (x + 2) Solution: 2. lim+

1.2

Limit Laws

We now will make use of the following Limit Laws to calculate a limit of a function rather than the approaches used in Section 1.1. Theorem 1.1 (Limit Laws). Let c R and suppose that lim f (x) = L and xa lim g(x) = M both exist. Then
xa

1. lim[ f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = L + M. xa xa xa 2. lim[ f (x) g(x)] = lim f (x) lim g(x) = L M. xa xa xa 3. lim[c f (x)] = c lim f (x) = cL.
xa xa

3. lim cosec x. x Solution:

4. lim[ f (x)g(x)] = lim f (x) lim g(x) = LM.

xa xa xa

5. if M 6. if L

f (x) lim f (x) L 0, lim = xa = . xa g(x) lim g(x) M xa 0 and M = 0, lim xa

+ n

f (x) does not exist. g(x)

n

7. if n Z , lim f (x) = lim f (x) xa xa 8. lim c = c.

xa xa

Tutorial 1.1.2. 1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 2.5 pp. 117118: 6, 13, 16, 21, 39, 42, 43 or 12th ed. 2.6 pp. 114-115: 1316, 19, 64, 67, 68.

9. lim x = a. 10. if n Z+ , lim xn = an .

xa

= Ln .

11. if n Z+ , lim
xa

n n

x=

a. If n is even, we assume that a > 0.

n

12. if n Z+ , lim
xa xa

f (x) =

lim f (x) =
xa

L.

2 x3 + 3 x 2. lim . x8 4 16 x Solution.

13. if lim |h(x)| = 0, then lim h(x) = 0.

xa

Worked Example 1.2.1. Use the above Limit Laws to calculate the following limits if they exist. 1. lim(5x2 9x 8).
x4

Solution.

4x 3 . x2 x2 4 Solution. 3. lim

2x2 + 1 Worked Example 1.2.2. Evaluate lim 2 . x2 x + 6x 4 Solution.

For rational functions f (x) =

p(x) where both the numerator and denomiq(x) 0 nator tend to zero (said to be of the indeterminate form ), we use factor0 ization to simplify the limit and then use the Limit Laws.

Worked Example 1.2.3. Evaluate the following limits if they exist. x2 4 f (x) = bn x + bn1 x + + b2 x + b1 x + b0 1. lim . x2 x 2 with bi R for i = 1, 2, . . . , n and n any non-negative integer. A rational Solution. p(x) with p(x) and q(x) polynomials. We function is of the form f (x) = q(x) then have the following as a consequence of Theorem 1.1 (1,8,10,5).
n n1 2

Recall that a polynomial function is of the form

Theorem 1.2. If f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is in the domain of f , then lim f (x) = f (a). xa

x3 + 1 2. lim . x1 x + 1 Solution.

x4 16 4. lim . x2 x3 8 Solution.

3. lim

x+1 . x1 (2x2 + 7x + 5)2 Solution.

x 0 . Certain quotients are also of the form where the Quotient Limit Law 2. lim x0 1 + 3x 1 0 cannot be applied immediately. However, rationalizing the numerator or Solution. denominator may allow us to proceed with the Limit Laws. Worked Example 1.2.4. Evaluate the following limits. x+11 1. lim . x0 x Solution.

Tutorial 1.2.1. 1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 2.2 pp. 8385: 2, 4, 5, 8, 12, 1518, 24, 28, 31, 36, 36, 39, 42, 55, 58 or 12th ed. 2.2 pp. 7476: 1113, 18, 21, 22, 24, 34, 37, 42, 53, 56, 79, 82. 2. Given that lim f (x) = 2, lim g(x) = 0 and lim h(x) = 3 nd the limits xa xa xa that exist. If the limit does not exist, explain why. a. lim[ f (x) h(x)], b. lim( f (x))3 , c. lim 3 2 f (x) 4h(x), xa xa xa g(x) f (x) d. lim , e. lim . xa h(x) xa g(x) 3. Find the limit, if it exists. 1 +1 x2 + 4 5 1 1 3 x a. lim , b. lim , c. lim . x3 3 + x x1 x0 x+32 x 1+x x

Worked Example 1.3.2. Evaluate the following limits. 2x 3 1. lim 2 . x x + 7x 1 Solution.

2.

lim x

Solution.

9x2 + 2 . 3 4x

Theorem 1.4 (Vertical asymptote: x = a). 1. If n is an even positive integer, then lim

1 = . xa (x a)n 1 1 2. If n is an odd positive integer, then lim+ = and lim = xa (x a)n xa (x a)n . Worked Example 1.3.3. Evaluate lim+
x3

e x ex e x ex 2. lim x and lim x . x e + ex x e + ex Solution.

Solution.

1 1 and lim . x3 (x 3)3 (x 3)3

Theorem 1.5 (Limits of exponential functions). For the exponential function a x , 1. if a > 1, then lim a x = x 2. if 0 < a < 1, then
x

and

lim a x = 0. x

lim a x = 0

and

lim a x = .

Worked Example 1.3.4. Evaluate the following exponential limits. 1. lim e x and lim e x .
x x

Solution.

1.4

Limits through One-sided Limits

2. Determine algebraically whether lim

The following theorem allows us to prove algebraically the existence (or Solution. non-existence) of limits and to calculate their value. We used this theorem graphically in section 1.1. Theorem 1.6. lim f (x) = L lim f (x) = L = lim+ f (x). xa
xa xa

|x + 4| exists. x4 x + 4

Worked Example 1.4.1. 1. Prove that lim |x| = 0.

x0

Proof.

Tutorial 1.4.1. 1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 2.4 p. 108: 13, 1820 or Worked Example 1.5.1. 1. Use the Sandwich Theorem to prove that 12th ed. 2.4 pp. 91-92: 1215, 1720, 52. lim(x2 + 1) = 1 using the fact that lim(|x| + 1) = 1. x0 x0 2. For the following functions f (x), determine if the one-sided limits at the indicated point a exist, nd whether the limit at a exists, and compare with the value of f (a) if f is dened at a. 1 x2 1 1 at a = 0, b. f (x) = at a = 1, c. f (x) = a. f (x) = x |x| |x 1| x + x at a = 3.

1.5

The Sandwich Theorem & Trigonometric Limits

Proof. 2. Use the Sandwich theorem to prove that lim sin = 0 and hence conclude 0 that lim cos = 1. (Note that is in radian measure.)
0

The next important theorem allows us to compute the limits of functions that are bounded (squeezed, pinched or sandwiched) between two other Proof. Consider the sector OAC with central angle in the unit circle for > 0 (rst quadrant) and < 0 (fourth quadrant). functions that have the same limit. Theorem 1.7 (Sandwich Theorem). If f (x) g(x) h(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and lim f (x) = L = lim h(x), then lim g(x) = L. xa xa xa Note. The Sandwich Theorem is also called Squeeze Theorem. | sin | 1 A || 1 <0 O | sin | A C || D C

O >0 D

3. Prove that lim x sin

x0

1 = 0 (note that x is in radians). x

Proof.

sin x 4. Determine lim . x x Solution.

The next theorem is a crucial result that will be used in Chapter 3 of these notes. You will need to recall the Area of sector calculation in the Algebra Guide. The area of a sector is given by 1 A = r2 2 where is the central angle of the sector with radius r. Again we must stress that all angle measurement is in radians. Theorem 1.8. lim sin = 1. 0

Proof. Consider the sector OAC in the rst quadrant (0 < < ) of a circle 2 of radius 1. 1 A The Sandwich Theorem has fundamental applications in trigonometric limit calculations as seen in the examples above. We will now consider evaluating trigonometric limits with all calculations based on radian measure. We recall from the above example, part 2, that lim sin = 0
0

O >0 We see that D C

and

lim cos = 1
0

which will be used in Theorem 1.8.

sin

tan

By the above sin A =1 A0 A lim or A =1 A0 sin A lim

Together with the above theorem and the Limit Laws we also have the fol- Worked Example 1.5.2. Evaluate the following trigonometric limits. sin 5x lowing important limit. . 1. lim x0 x 1 cos Solution. = 0. Theorem 1.9. lim 0 Proof.

sin2 x 2. lim . x0 x Solution.

sin(x2 ) 3. lim . x0 x Solution.

Worked Example 1.5.2. Evaluate the following trigonometric limits. sin 5x . 1. lim x0 x Solution.

sin2 x 4. lim 2 . x0 x Solution.

sin . 0 + tan Solution. 5. lim sin2 x 2. lim . x0 x Solution.

sin(x2 ) 3. lim . x0 x Solution.

Tutorial 1.5.1. 1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 2.2 p. 84: 4951 or 12th ed. 2.2 p. 75: 63, 64, 65a, 66a. 2. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 2.4 p. 108: 22, 25, 28, 29, 31, 33, 36 or 12th ed. 2.4 p. 92: 22, 25, 28, 29, 31, 33, 35, 40. 3. Thomas Chapter 2 Additional and Advanced Exercises 11th ed. p. 143: 2730 or 12th ed. p. 121: 2730. 4. Let f (x) =
x

if x is rational, if x is irrational.

Show that lim f (x) = 0.

x0

Chapter 2 Continuity of Functions

LEARNING OUTCOMES: On completion of this chapter you should 1. know and understand the limit denitions of continuity of a function at a point, continuity of a function over an interval and a continuous function, 2. be able to establish if a given function is continuous at a point using the denition, 3. know and understand left-continuity (continuous from the left) and right-continuity (continuous from the right), 4. know when and be able to test whether a function is continuous over an interval, 5. know and understand the various theorems on continuity given in these notes of this section,

6. know the statement of and understand the Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT), 7. apply the IVT in determining existence of roots of a given function over an interval, 8. know, understand and identify the various types of discontinuities and 9. know how to solve the examinable tutorial problems and the worked out problems from these notes on this chapter. The usual meaning of the word continuous in everyday language is that of going on all the time or proceeding without a break or interruptions and without abrupt changes. From a mathematics viewpoint, this can also be taken as a loose meaning of continuity. A curve is continuous between two points a and b if you can draw it in one go from a without lifting up your pencil until you reach b. We will now present the precise meaning of continuity, which is closely related to the concept of the limit described in the previous chapter.

2.1

Continuity at a Point

We have seen in the previous chapter that it is not necessary for a function f to be dened at a point a in order for f to have a limit at a as in Worked Example 1.1.3.3 or all the examples of Worked Example 1.1.4. That is, lim f (x) may exist even though a is not in the domain of f .
xa

On the other hand, if f (a) exists, i. e., f is dened at a, and lim f (x) exists xa it may not be the case that both f (a) and lim f (x) are equal as illustrated in xa the following example.

Worked Example 2.1.1. Let f (x) =

1

if x

0,

if x = 0.

In most cases we will use the above three conditions to determine continuity at a point algebraically. If just one of the three conditions above fails, then f is not continuous at the given point. If such is the case, then f is said to be discontinuous at the given point. Worked Example 2.1.2. 1. Determine whether f (x) = x + 3 1
|x + 3|

Find f (0) and lim f (x). x0 Solution.

if x

The above example clearly shows that f (0) lim f (x). However, in many x0 cases we do have equality of these two quantities f (a) and lim f (x). This is continuous at x = 3. xa Solution. leads to the denition of continuity at a point given below. The function f is continuous at the point a if and only if f (a) = lim f (x).
xa

if x = 3,

3,

Equivalently (called the slot-machine test), f is continuous at a if and only if the following three conditions are satised: 1. f (a) is dened, i. e., a is in the domain of f , 2. lim f (x) exists, i.e., lim f (x) = lim+ f (x), and xa
xa xa

3. f (a) = lim f (x).

xa

2. Is

continuous at x = 2? Solution.

g(x) = 5

x2 3 x

+4

if x < 2, if x = 2, if x > 2,

3. Show that

is continuous at x = 0. Solution.

h(x) = 0

sin x

if x > 0, if x = 0, if x < 0,

x cos x

4. Let

x+1 Find the value(s) of a and b so that f is continuous at x = 1 but not continuous at x = 2. continuous at x = 2 and x = 1. Solution.

f (x) = 3x

ax b
2

if x 1, if x 2.

Tutorial 2.1.1. 1. Find the values of a and b which make the function f (x) = ax2 + c
x 1

if 1 < x < 2,

if x 2, if x 1,

bx a

if 2 < x < 1,

2.2

Left and Right Continuity at a Point

From the examples in the previous section it is apparent that we can speak of continuity from the left or right at a point. We thus have A function f is continuous from the right at a if lim+ f (x) = f (a).
xa

and A function f is continuous from the left at a if lim f (x) = f (a).

xa

Worked Example 2.2.1. 1. Let f (x) = 2x 0

|x| +

if x

0,

if x = 0.

Determine the right and left continuity of f at x = 0.

The above theorem gives a bisection method for locating roots or zeros of Worked Example 2.4.4. 1. Show that the equation cos x = x has a solution a continouus function within an interval. (IVT gives an existence method in the closed interval [0, ]. 2 for nding values of x within an interval for which f (x) = 0). However, it Solution. does not specify what the root is if it exists. As a special case of the IVT we have: If f is continous on the closed interval [a, b] and either f (a) < 0 < f (b) or f (b) < 0 < f (a), then there is at least one number c in the open interval (a, b) such that f (c) = 0. Therefore, if the sign of a continuous function f changes within a closed interval [a, b], then we are guarenteed the existence of at least one root of f within the open interval (a, b). The IVT is of course not true in general for discontinuous functions as the following illustrates. f (b) y=N f (a)

In the above f is discontinuous on [a, b] and there is no c (a, b) such that f (c) = N. Thus continuity is essential in the IVT.

2. The equation x3 4x2 + 2x + 2 = 0 has three solutions. Find intervals between successive integers that contain the solutions. Solution.

2.5

Discontinuities

If one of the three conditions for continuity of a function f (the slot-machine test) fails at a given point a, we know then that f is discontinuous at a. The following are the various types of discontinuities. 1. Removable discontinuity If lim f (x) exists but f fails to be continuous at x = a because either xa (a) f (a) is not dened or (b) f (a) is dened, but a number dierent from lim f (x), xa then f is said to have a removable discontinuity at x = a.

Tutorial 2.4.1. 1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 2.6 pp. 129130: 1320, This discontinuity at a can be removed by redening f (a) = lim f (x). xa 2333, 40, 4750, 5356, 59 or 12th ed. 2.5 pp. 101103: 1320, 2335, 47, 5558, 64, 65, 67. 2. Thomas Chapter 2 Additional and Advanced Exercises 11th ed. p. 142: 19 or 12th ed. p. 120: 19. 3. The equation x3 12x + 8 = 0 has three solutions. Find intervals between successive integers that contain these solutions.

2. Jump discontinuity If lim+ f (x) and lim f (x) exist but f is not continuous at a because lim f (x) xa xa xa does not exist, then lim f (x) lim f (x) and f is said to have a jump xa+ xa discontinuity at x = a. The function jumps from one value to another one.

a a

3. Innite discontinuity If f is not continuous at a because lim f (x) = or lim+ f (x) = , then xa xa f is said to have an innite discontinuity at a. a a

Below are some illustrations for innite discontinuities.

f (a)
xa

lim f (x)

xa+

lim f (x)

lim f (x)
xa

Continuos or discontinuous at a?

Discontinuity type

Worked Example 3.1.1. Let f (x) =

1 . Evaluate (x + 1)2

The derivative of the function f at a, denoted f (a) is dened as f (a) = lim

h0

f (5 + h) f (5) . lim h0 h Solution. or equivalently,

f (a + h) f (a) h

f (a) = lim
xa

f (x) f (a) xa

provided the limit exists. The above limit calculations provide the derivative of the function f at a by rst principles. Worked Example 3.1.2. Find the derivative of the following by rst principles. 1 . 1. f (5) if f (x) = (x + 1)2 Solution. From rst principles,

as calculated in Worked Example 3.1.1.

2. g (4) if g(x) = Solution.

x2 + 9.

If f (a) exists we say that the function f is dierentiable at a or f has a derivative at a. Now given a function f and the point a we dene the left-hand derivative of f at a as f (a + h) f (a) f (a) = lim h0 h and the right-hand derivative of f at a as f+ (a) = lim+
h0

f (a + h) f (a) . h

Equivalently, f (a) = lim

xa

Then certainly

f (x) f (a) xa

and

f+ (a) = lim+
xa

f (x) f (a) . xa

f is dierentiable at a provided that f (a) and f+ (a) both exist and f (a) = f+ (a) so that f (a) = f (a) = f+ (a). Of course f is not dierentiable at a provided that f (a) f+ (a).

Worked Example 3.1.3. 1. Show that f (x) = |x| is not dierentiable at x = 0.

Solution.

2. Is the function

dierentiable at x = 1? Solution.

g(x) =

4x

if x < 1, if x 1,

We say that f is dierentiable on an open interval (a, b) if f is dierentiable for all c (a, b). In like manner, we refer to functions that are dierentiable on intervals of the form (a, ), (, b) or (, ) = R. A function f is dierentiable on the closed interval [a, b] if f is dierentiable on the open interval (a, b) and the one-sided limits f+ (a) and f (b) both exist. Dierentiability on an interval of the form [a, b), [a, ), (a, b] or (, b] is dened in the obvious way, using the one-sided limit at the endpoint. A function f is called a dierentiable function if f is dierentiable at each point of its domain. Tutorial 3.1.1. 1. Thomas Exercises 3.2 p. 131: 1, 2, 4, 6, 12. 2. Find f (a) if it exists, where (a) (b) f (x) =
x3

2x2 + 2

if x 1 f (x) = and a = 1. 3 2x + 1 if x > 1 3. Thomas Chapter 2 Practice Exercises 11th ed. p. 139: 1316 or 12th ed. p. 118: 1316. Each limit represents the limit of some function f at some number a. State such an f and a in each case.

3x2

cx + b

if x 1 if x > 1

and a = 1.

3.2

Tangents

then

The derivative of a function at a point also has a geometric interpretation.

3.2.1

Non-vertical tangents

Consider the continuous function y = f (x) with point P(a, f (a)) and arbitrary point Q(x, f (x)) approaching P along f as x a. Q P Q Q

f (x) f a) = f (a). xa xa xa In other words, the slopes of the secant lines PQ, mPQ , tend to a limiting slope m which is the derivative of the function f at P corresponding to the slope of the tangent line of f at P. Thus the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P(a, f (a)) is the line through P with slope m = lim mPQ = lim m = lim
xa

The equation of the tangent line to the graph of f at x = a is then

f (x) f a) = f (a). xa

Worked Example 3.2.1. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = x2 at x = 3. Solution. a The slope of the secant line PQ is mPQ = f (x) f a) . xa x

As x a, we see geometrically that the point Q tends to the point P and the secant line PQ rotates around P. Intuitively it seems as though PQ approaches a limiting line as x a and this limiting line must be the tangent line to f at x = a. If the function f is dierentiable at x = a,

Tutorial 3.2.1. 1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 2.7 pp. 135137: 5, 8, 11, The denition for vertical tangents may be modied to include vertical tan16, 17, 31, 32 or 12th ed. 3.1 p. 125: 5, 8, 11, 16, 17, 31, 33, 34. gent lines at an endpoint of the domain of the function. Thus, if f is continuous on [a, b] but is undened outside [a, b], then f has a vertical tangent at x = a if lim+ | f (x)| = and f has a vertical tangent at x = b if xa 3.2.2 Vertical tangents lim | f (x)| = . xb The function f has a vertical tangent at a provided that f is continuous at a, dierentiable near a, i. e., f (x) exists for x a with x close to a, and Worked Example 3.2.2. Let f (x) = 3 x. Show that f has a vertical tangent lim | f (x)| = . at x = 0. xa Solution. Vertical tangent Vertical tangent

cusp a Vertical tangents at endpoints a

Tutorial 3.2.2. 1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 2.7 pp. 137138: 33, 39, 44 Dierentiability: or 12th ed. 3.1 p. 126: 35, 41, 46.

3.3

Dierentiability vs. Continuity

Since both continuity and dierentiability involve limits, we can investigate the relationship between these two concepts. 1. A function can be continuous at a given point without being dierentiable there. Worked Example 3.3.1. Let f (x) =
x2

if x > 1.

if x 1,

Investigate the continuity and dierentiability of f at x = 1. Solution. Continuity: The above example shows that CONTINUOUS DIFFERENTIABLE

2. Every function that is dierentiable at a point is continuous there. Theorem 3.1. If a function f is dierentiable at x = a, then f is continuous at x = a.

Proof.

Worked Example 3.3.2. Consider the greatest integer funtion f (x) = x at x = 0. Discuss the continuity and dierentiability of f at x = 0. Solution. By Worked Example 1.1.3.5, f is not continuous at 0. By the contrapositive of Theorem 3.1, f is not dierentiable at x = 0. Cases in which a function f fails to be dierentiable at x = a are: 1. f is discontinuous at a. Graphically, if we observe a removable, jump or an innite discontinuity at a. 2. f is continuous at a and the graph of f is pointed (e. g. |x|) or makes a sharp turn or corner (e.g. Worked Example 3.3.1), 3. f has a vertical tangent at a (e.g. Worked Example 3.2.2). Tutorial 3.3.1. 1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 3.1 pp. 154155: 3544 or 12th ed. 3.2 pp. 133134: 3748.

3.4

The derivative as a function

We observe that if for a given function f we let X = {a R : f (a) exists}, then we can associate with each x X the number f (x) and we obtain a function f with domain X: f : XR x f (x).

The function f is called the derivative of f and, by denition, the values of f at each x are given by the following (or an appropriate one-sided limit)

f (x) = |x|

f (x)

1 Worked Example 3.4.1. Let f (x) = |x|. Find the derivative function f of f. Solution. Worked Example 3.4.2. Let g(x) = |x2 4|. Sketch the graph of g. Use the graph of g to sketch the graph of g . Solution. g(x) = |x2 4| 4

2 The graphs of f and the derivative function f are given below.

g (x) < 0 for x < 2. g (x) does not exist at x = 2 (sharp corner). g (x) > 0 3.5 Derivative Rules for 2 < x < 0, whereas g has a horizontal tangent at x = 0, i. e., g (0) = 0. For 0 < x < 2, g (x) < 0. At x = 2, g (x) does not exist (sharp corner). For It is quite cumbersome on each occasion to calculate the derivative of a dierentiable function at a given point using rst principles. We will now x > 2, g (x) > 0. develop formulas that give the derivatives of known functions that we will encounter. The proofs of these results use the denition of the derivative and are examinable. g 4 2 2 df , D x f or f dx are commonly used to denote the rst derivative function. Theorem 3.2 (Derivative of constants). If c R and f (x) = c for each x, then f (x) = 0. Proof. Tutorial 3.4.1. 1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 3.1 pp. 153154: 2732 or 12th ed. 3.2 p. 132: 2732. The symbols

The above theorem says that the derivative of constant functions are zero, i. e., c R d (c) = 0. dx

d Using a similar proof to that of Theorem 3.12 we have the following. We Theorem 3.14 (Derivative of tan x). tan x = sec2 x present here an alternate proof using the aid of a trigonometric identity and dx the Chain Rule. Proof. d cos x = sin x Theorem 3.13 (Derivative of cos x). dx Proof.

Theorem 3.15 (Derivative of cosec x). Proof.

d cosec x = cosec x cot x dx

Theorem 3.16 (Derivative of sec x). Proof.

d sec x = sec x tan x dx

Theorem 3.17 (Derivative of cot x). Proof.

d cot x = cosec2 x dx

Worked Example 3.6.1. Find the derivatives of the following. 1. y = sin x cos x. Solution.

2. f

if f (x) = x cot x. 4 Solution.

Note: For a double composite f (g(h(x))), d f (g(h(x))) = f (g(h(x)))g (h(x))h (x). dx Thus the problem can be done in one go dierentiating from the outside towards the inside:

5. y = 3. sec x Solution.

x2 + cos3 (sin(3x)).

Solution.

4. g(t) = sin3 (4t). Solution.

3.7

Implicit Dierentiation

Equations of the form y = f (x) give y explicitly as a function of x, e. g., y = x3 + 1 and y = sin x. Thus far we have been dierentiating functions of this type. In some cases y is not given explicitly as a function of x, of dy which we need to nd as illustrated in the next example. dx Worked Example 3.7.1. Suppose that y is a function of x that satises the equation 3x3 y 4y 2x + 1 = 0. Find

dy by rst nding y explicitly. dx Solution. The only way that we know to solve for y is to somehow write y explicitly and this can be done with this example.

It is generally not so simple to write such equations explicitly as y = f (x). Such functions (like the above example) are said to be given implicitly by the equation. When these functions are dierentiable, it is possible to dy nd without solving the equation for y. This method is called implicit dx dy dierentiation. This technique to nd is given below. dx

Implicit dierentiation: Dierentiate both sides of the equation w.r.t x taking into account the Chain Rule dy and then solve the resulting equation for . dx In the above example we dierentiate implicitly as follows.

dy Worked Example 3.7.2. 1. Find by implicit dierentiation if x2 + y2 = dx 4. Solution.

When using the method of implicit dierentiation it is important to remember that y is a function of x and that we are dierentiating with respect to x. Hence, powers of y are powers of functions and the Chain Rule is required for their dierentiation. Also be prepared to use combinations of the Chain Rule, Product Rule and Quotient Rule.

2. If p, q Z and q

0 prove that
p p p d q x = x q 1 . dx q

3. Find y if xy tan y = x2 + y3 . x Solution.

(This proves the Power Rule for all rationals). Proof.

4. Find the equation of the tangent line at (x, y) = ( , 5 ) to the curve 6 6 x sin y + y sin x = Solution. . 2

3.8

Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Consider the exponential functions f (x) = a x , a > 0. All such functions have the only intercept (0, 1). The derivative at x = 0 of each exponential function is of great signicance. Using the limit denition to calculate f (0) we get f (0) = lim f (0 + h) f (0) h0 h 0+h a a0 = lim h0 h h a 1 = lim . h0 h

Thus for each exponential function f (x) = a x , the slope of the tangent at x = 0 is given by the limit ah 1 f (0) = lim . h0 h We will use the following fact, without proof: Of all possible exponential functions, the natural exponential function f (x) = e x is the only one whose tangent line at x = 0 has slope 1. Thus for f (x) = e x , f (0) = 1, i. e., Tutorial 3.7.1. 1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 3.6 pp. 209210: 19, 22, 25, 26, 30, 31, 34, 35, 45, 47, 54, 56, 59, 61 or 12th ed. 3.7 p. 174: 1, 4, 7, 8, 13, 14, 18, 19, 31, 38, 40, 43, 45. eh 1 lim =1 h0 h Consequently, we have the following important derivative theorem.

Theorem 3.18 (Derivative of e x ). d x e = ex dx Proof.

Incorporating the Chain Rule we have d f (x) e = e f (x) f (x) dx i. e. Incorporating the Chain Rule we have Derivative of eFunction = eFunction (Derivative of Function) Worked Example 3.8.1. Find y in the following. 1. y = e
x2 +1

Solution.

2. y = e2x cos(x). Multiples of the natural exponential function are the only functions whose Solution. derivatives are themselves, i. e., d Ce x = Ce x dx

3. xey ye x = 2. Solution.

Incorporating the Chain Rule we have d f (x) a = a f (x) (ln a) f (x). dx

4. y = e

ex .

Solution.

Worked Example 3.8.2. Find y if 1. y = 5 x Solution.

To nd the derivative of y = a x for any exponential function we resort to the properties of exponentials and logarithms, in particular eln x = x and ln xr = r ln x.

2. y = 35x 23x . Solution.

Theorem 3.19 (Derivative of a x ). d x a = a x ln a. dx Proof. Tutorial 3.8.1. 1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 3.2 p. 167: 23, 24, 27, 28 or 12th ed. 3.3 p. 143: 29, 30, 39, 40. 2. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 3.6 p. 209: 32 or 12th ed. 3.7 p. 174: 16. 3. Thomas Practice Exercises 11th ed. pp. 255256: 44, 73, 74 or 12th ed. p. 214: 44, 73, 74.

Theorem 3.20 (Derivative of ln x). d 1 ln x = dx x Proof. Let y = ln x. We use the properties of exponentials and logarithms, the Chain Rule and incorporate implicit dierentiation.

Solution.

Worked Example 3.8.3. Find y if 1. y = xr for r R.

The above proves the general Power Rule d r x = rxr1 dx 2. y = ln(ln x). Solution.

Together with the Chain Rule we have d f (x) ln[ f (x)] = dx f (x)

3. y = ln(x + Solution.

x2 + 1).

x2 (2x 1)3 5. y = ln . (x + 5)2 Solution. Direct dierentiation would require using the Chain Rule together with the Quotient Rule and the Product Rule. Instead we use the properties of logarithms to rst simplify and then dierentiate.

4. y3 + x2 ln y = 5x + 3. Solution. Implicit dierentiation.

Theorem 3.21 (Derivative of loga x). 1 d loga x = . dx x ln a Proof. Let y = loga x. Using the change of base property of logarithms, loge x ln x y= = . Then loge a ln a

2. f (x) = ln(log x). Solution.

Incorporating the Chain Rule we have f (x) d loga f (x) = . dx f (x) ln a Worked Example 3.8.4. Find f (x) if 6x + 4 1. f (x) = log5 . 2x 3 Solution. Herewith a summary of exponential and logarithmic derivatives. y ex ax ln x loga x dy dx ex a x ln a 1 x 1 x ln a Using Chain Rule with u = f (x) y = eu y = eu du dx du dx

y = au y = au ln a y = ln u y = y = loga u y =

1 du u dx 1 du u ln a dx

Tutorial 3.8.2. 1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 3.7 pp. 221222: 13, 14, 21, Worked Example 3.9.1. Find the linearization of the function f (x) = 22, 28, 30, 33, 38, 57, 58, 59, 60, 76, 77, 86 or 12th ed. 3.8 pp. 184185: at x near 1 and use it to approximate the value of 1.02. Solution. 13, 14, 21, 22, 28, 30, 33, 38, 57, 58, 59, 60, 76, 77, 86.

3.9

Linear Approximation and Dierentials

Using the derivative, we will illustrate one of the simplest types of approximation methods, namely linear approximation. The idea is to use the value of the function and its derivative at a single point to nd approximate values of the function at nearby points. Assume that f is a dierentiable function at x = a and that we are interested in approximate values of f (x) for x near a. We use the tangent line of f at (a, f (a)) as an approximation of f (x) when x is near a. The tangent line is a graph of a linear function and the equation of the tangent line at x = a is

equivalently,

The approximation

is the linear approximation of f at a. The linear function

whose graph is the tangent line is called the linearization of f at a.

In many problems we are interested in the change, or approximate change, Worked Example 3.9.2. Find the dierentials dy of the following functons. of values y = f (x) that correspond to a change in x. If x changes from x1 to x2 , this amount of change is denoted by x. Similarly y ( f ) will denote 1. y = 1 + x2 . the change in the dependent variable y that corresponds to the change x. Solution. Thus y = f (x2 ) f (x1 ) = f (x1 + x) f (x1 ). In the linear approximation, if x = x a represents the change in x, the corrsponding change in y = f (x) is y = f (x) f (a). If f is dierentiable at a, then we know that f (x) f (a) + f (a)(x a) so that i. e., f (x) f (a) f (a)(x a), y f (a) x.

2. y = (1 + 2r)4 . Solution.

We use a notation that suggests the derivative in the linear approximation. We write dy for y and dx for x. The dierential of y = f (x) at x = a is dened as dy where 3. y = t2 et . dy = f (a) dx. Solution. The symbols dy and dx represent variables with dy dependent on dx. dy is called the dierential approximation of the change in y = f (x).

 3 8. know and understand how to use the technique of Integration by Parts 2. F(x) = 1 (x2 + 1) 2 and f (x) = x x2 + 1. 3 (IBP) in evaluating a denite or indenite integral, Solution. 9. know how to solve the examinable tutorial problems and the worked out problems from these notes on this chapter. For a given function f we have been able to compute the (unique) derivative f . In this Chapter we consider the following question. 3. F(x) = x ln x x and f (x) = ln x. For a given function f , can we nd a function (or functions) F such that Solution. F (x) = f (x) for each x in an interval?

4.1

Antidierentiation and the Indenite Integral

4. F(x) = e x and f (x) = e x . Solution.

A function F is called an antiderivative of the function f on an interval I if F (x) = f (x) for all x I.

Worked Example 4.1.1. Verify that F(x) is an antiderivative of f (x) in the following. ax 5. F(x) = and f (x) = a x . 1. F(x) = x cos x + sin x and f (x) = x sin x. ln a Solution. Solution.

Antiderivatives are never unique. Since the derivative of a constant is zero, The process of indenite integration is thus the procedure of nding the it follows that if F is an antiderivative of f , then so are the functions G(x) = most general antiderivative of a given function. F(x) + C for every number C. Functions of this type, F(x) + C, are the only possible antiderivatives of f . f (x) dx is all solutions to the question What must I dierentiate to get the integrand f (x)? If F is an antiderivative of f , then the most general antiderivative of f on an interval I is F(x) + C, where C is an arbitrary constant. The most general Theorem 4.1 (Integral of power functions). Let f (x) = xr where 1 r antiderivative is denoted by the symbol R. Then f (x) dx and called the indenite integral of f . The function f (x) is called the integrand of the indenite integral. Here and dx are merely parts of a Proof. symbol and have no individual meaning. Thus if we know that F is an antidervative of f , then the most general antiderivative or indenite integral of f is f (x) dx = F x) + C. Based on the previous Worked Example we may conclude the following results. Worked Example 4.1.2. 1. x sin x dx = x cos x + sin x + C. 3 2. x x2 + 1 dx = 1 (x2 + 1) 2 + C. 3 3. 4. 5. ln x dx = x ln x x + C. e x dx = e x + C. ax x a dx = + C. ln a xr dx = 1 r+1 x + C. r+1