Page 1 of 24

Printed from www.StudyDroid.com Computer Networks sjocorpe Front Back

OSI Model - 7 Layers

1 - Physical 2 - Data 3 - Network 4 -Transport 5 - Session 6 - Presentation 7 - Application

OSI Model - Physical Layer

To transmit bits over a medium; to provide mechanical and electrical specifications error control coding Units is Bits

OSI Model - Data Layer

To organise bits into frames; to provide hop-to-hop delivery Error control Units is Frames

OSI Model - Network Layer

To organise bits into frames; to provide hop-to-hop delivery Provides connection or connectionless service Units is Packets

OSI Model - Transport Layer

To provide reliable process to process message delivery and recovery Unit is Segment

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 2 of 24

OSI Model - Session Layer

To establish, manage and terminate sessions Unit is Message

OSI Model - Presentation Layer

To translate, encrypt and compress data Unit is Message

OSI Model - Application Layer

To allow access to network resources Unit is Message

Connection-oriented service

Connection oriented service requires a pair of processes in the two computers to establish a connection before sending data.

Connectionless-oriented service

In connectionless service, data packets are independent of each other and they may not arrive at the destination in the proper order.

Connection-Orentated service - Mulitple links Connection-Orentated

Path from source to destination must be established before data packets can be sent Called a Virtual Circuit (VC)

Connection-Orentated service - Mulitple links Connectionless-Orentated

No advanced setup is needed Packets called datagrams and carry the full destination address and are thus routed through the system independent of all the others.

Connection-Orentated service - Single links Connection-Orentated

A logical connection is established, with both sides initilize variables and counters to track which frames have been recieved

Connection-Orentated service - Mulitple links Connectionless-Orentated

Connection doesn't need to be established, data frames can be lost, duplicated, and out of order.

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 3 of 24

TCP/IP Networks

5 Layer model used

TCP Node

Provision of a reliable connection oriented service

IP Node

Routing on IP Addresses Provision of an unreliable Datagram service over multiple networks for the transport of UDP or TCP messages

Low Earth Orbit Satellites (LEOs) - Advantage

The transmission power and the propagation delay is much smaller compared to geostationary satellites.

Low Earth Orbit Satellites (LEOs) - Disadvantage

Sophisticated tracking and acquisition systems are needed to pick the wanted signal. One satellite may only be visible for a few miutes, thus suitable hand off procedures must be organized to switch to the next satellite.

Connection Orentiated Vs Connectionless differences

Connection orentiated needs to make a connection between the two computers before sending the data arrives in specific order Connectionless doesn't arrives in any order

byte stuffing

A special ESC byte inserted before each accidental flag byte in the data. If an escape byte occurs naturally in the middle of the data, it's stuffed with an escape byte as well.

Error Control

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 4 of 24

Single Bit Types of Error Burst Error

Checks on the number of ones in a byte Can only detect single bit errors Even Parity

Parity Check Code

Odd Parity

Hamming Distance

This is the number of differences of two words between corresponding bits. 000 XOR 011 (two 1's difference)

Detecting Errors

To guarantee detection of up to S errors, dmin = S+1. To guarantee correction of up to T errors, dmin = 2T+1.

Cyclic Redundancy Codes (CRC) - Remainder and Divisor

The bit pattern used is equvalent to the remainder from the message and generator. The Divisor is used to generate the codeword (data word + remainder)

CRC Code Word

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 5 of 24

Generation

Specifies functions of the physical and data link layers of major LAN protocols Data Link layer into 2 parts IEEE802 (Project 802) LLC Link Layer Control MAC (media access control) Layer

Logical Link Control (LLC)

Combines flow control, error control, and part of framing duties. Single data link layer control protocol for all IEEE LANs makes MAC sub-layer transparent PDU similar to HDLC

Data Link Layer - Framing

LLC header contains a control fiels like HDLC used for flow and error control.

Multiple access protocols Media Access Control MAC 3 access protocols Random access Controlled access Channelization Frames data from upper layer and passes it to physical layer

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 6 of 24

MAC Sub-layer frame format 7 Fields

Preamble SFD (Start Frame Delimiter) DA (Desitination Address) SA (Source Address) Length or type of PDU (Protocol Data Unit) Upper Layer data Unit CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)

Ethernet - reliability

No mechanism for frame acknowledgements so it is "unreliable"

MAC frame - Minimum Length

Payload length = 46 bytes Frame length = 64 bytes

MAC frame - Maximum Length

Payload length = 1500 bytes Frame length = 1518 bytes

Types of error - Single Bit

one bit in data changes

Types of error - Burst

multiple bits in data segment changes

Even Parity

If even number of ones in byte, binary 0 added to end

Odd Parity

If odd number of ones in byte , binary 1 added to end

Hamming Distance Limitations

Can only detext (dmin-1) errors dmin is the smallest hamming

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 7 of 24

distance between all possible pairs in a set of words.

Data Link layer - framing Destination service, DSAP Source Service, SSAP Two access point fields to define upper layer protocol

These define the upper layer protocol at the source and destinations that uses LLC.

802.11 Standard - 3 Frame Types

Management Frames Control Frames Data Frames

Hidden Station Problem

Exposed Station Problem

Hub

small, 2-8 computer networks only 1 protocol speed not prime importance Common subnet

small to med, 5-x computers 1 protocol

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 8 of 24

Switch

Speed id of importance common subnet

Router

Any number of computers on different subnets, or seperate from Public IP Network Number of protocols Security is potentially important connects 2 networks

Bridge

connect 2 LANs using similar LAN protocols Accept and forward frames to different networks minor protocol translation OSI kayer 2 (data link)

Internet - 3 Key concepts

Addressing Routing Interent Protocol

WWW Documents - 3 Categories

Static, Dynamic and active

WWW Documents - Static -Explain

Document content that does not change with time

WWW Documents Dynamic -Explain

a request for running program from server, sends content at time of request

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 9 of 24

WWW Documents Active -Explain

Applet runs at client end to generate document requested at server Sent to client pc to run.

Proxy Server

Acts on behalf of other clients to present requests to a server Acts as a server interacting with clients, and as a client when interacting with servers Security intermediary, firewall with proxy

HTTP request message contains

Request type URL HTTP version

HTTP request method

Digital Signiture - Provides

Integrity Non-reproduction Authorization

JPEG - 3 Phase Process

Discrete Cosine Transformation Quantization Data Compression

Works in a zig-zag format

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 10 of 24

JPEG - Data Compression Methods

Run length encoding Variable length encoding

JPEG - Discrete Cosine Function

Codes the blocks

JPEG - Quantization

Looses Data

Jitter - Introduced in realtime data by?

delays between packets caused by packets taking different routes

Jutter - Prevention methods

Time stamp Playback buffer

ICMP - Located in which layer protocol

Network Layer

ICMP - Message composition

header size of 64bits 8 bits for type 8 bits for Code 16 bits for Checksum

IPv4 - 1st Header

32 bit address Version IHL Type of service Total Length

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 11 of 24

Address Classes A-E

A 0 7 bits net, 24 bits host B 10 14 bits net, 16 bits host C 110 21 bits net, 8 bits host D 1110 28 bits multicast group E 1111 experimental

IPv4 header - version

specifies which version of the internet protocol is used

IPv4 Header - IHL

Internet header length, expressed in 32-bit words

IPv4 Header - Type of service

Packets precedence and desired routing

IPv4 Header - Total Length

Number of octets contained in the packet 16 bits long, limits to 65.5K octetc

IPv6 Header - 1st 32 bits Contents

Version Priority Flow Label

IPv6 Header - 2nd 32 bits Contents

Payload length Next header Hop limit

IPv6 Header - Version

4 bits 6 for IPv6, 4 for IPv4

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 12 of 24

IPv6 Header - Priority

Enables a source to identify the desired delivery priority of this packet (4 bits).

IPv6 Header - Flow Label

Used by a source to identify associated packets needing the same type of special handling, eg real-time service between a pair of hosts (24 bits).

IPv6 Header - Payload Length

Length of the payload following the header

IPv6 Header - Next Header

Identifies the type of header immediately following the IPv6 header

IPv6 Header - Hop Limit

Specifies the maximum number of hops that a packet may take before it is discarded (8 bits).

Link state routing Prefered over distance

distance metric focuses on how many hops it takes to get to the destination linked state calculates the states of the outgoing links and chooses the fastest and most suited link.

Distance Vector Routing

This is where the router will find the path with the shortest number of hops to reach it's destination.

Repeater

What comes in, it will rebroadcast along its output lines.

POP3 Advantages

Straight foward, Faster

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 13 of 24

POP3 Disadvantages

If you lose an email then it is gone forever

IMAP Advantages

More Redundant, Keeps a copy of everything on the server.

IMAP Disadvantages

Slower, takes up more space

POP3 Description

PassThrough tech, the server holds the mail until you request it and then when you do it will send the mail to you.

IMAP Description

Syncing server holds the mail on the server and when you request new mail it will send a copy of the mail while keeping a copy on the server If you delete or compose on your client then these actions will be performed automatically on the server copies.

Internet Assigned Number Authority - 3 groups

System - IETF User - IANA Dynamic - NOT

IPV4 to IPV6

To ease the transition there are a few options for networks. There can be Duel stacks or tunneling. Duel Stacks is where IPV4 and IPV6 can coexist where tunneling is where the non supported addressing version is encapsulated within the supported version.

Public Vs Private key

Private - Both parties have a copy of the encryption/decryption algorithm and they use these to send messages. Public - There is only

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 14 of 24

encryption

one private key that will decrypt the message if it is encoded with the persons public key. The user sends out the public key to others so they can use it to encrypt data for them.

Capabilities provided by multi-service Core in the Next Generation Network

Allows a heighrachy of charging systems to support local, reginal international and interconnect acounts. Support for a layered security model with centeralised administration with passive and active monitoring capabilities. Support for tighter QOS specifications for performance improvements in various data connections.

Differences between TCP and UDP

TCP implements Flow control so the data is sent accuratly to the receiving computer. This method is reliable but slow. This is generally used for webpages and databases. UDP is only concerned with speed. There is no flow control and this is usually used for non essential appliactions like streaming media across the internet/

equal cost multipath routing

if there are multiple best paths the tie for the top position in the routing table, packets ay be sent via different paths to balance the loading in the network which should improve the bandwidth per pipe.

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 15 of 24

The two army problem

This is where two armies are in a war, one army splits their forces and forms a pincer movement. If both sides of the pincer attack at the same time then this army will win. They both set up camp and then the problem is how to communicate to the other party when they will attack. If they send a messenger and the messenger does not arrive in time then they will attack alone and lose. This is like the connectionless service and hence we call it unreliable as we dont actually know if the message was sent and received.

NAT

Network Address Translation Converts an external IP to an internal IP in a network. This allows less IPV4 addresses to be assigned to end users. This meant that there would be a great reduction in external assignmnets and thus saving IPV4.

Packet Switching Network Four sources of delay

Nodal processing Queuing Transmission delay Propagation delay

Packet switching network Virtual Circuit

This is where all the packets are sent along the same routing path and this means that the packets cant arrive out of order.

Shortest Path Advantages

This algorithm allows the network to use the shortest path between any two nodes minimising delay.

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 16 of 24

Shortest Path Disadvantages

This algorithm is very resourse heavy to search

Security in the OSI layers

Application- Firewall and Anti-virus Session - Authentication checks to make sure the session is correst Datalink - Encryption so when transmitted people can't intercept it. Physical - Gas Pressure in lines

IPv6 - Factors influncing adoption

IPv4 is running out of addresses to be used increased security quality of service

Modulo-2 arithmetic

Produces the same results with addition and subtraction

Protocol Designed to handle realtime internet traffic

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

UDP header - First line

Source Port (16 bits) Destination Port (16 bits)

UDP header - Second line

Length (16 bits) Checksum (16 bits)

UDP header - Thrid line

Data

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 17 of 24

UDP Header - Source Port

The port number of the sender. Cleared to zero if not used.

UDP Header - Destination Port

The port this packet is addressed to.

UDP Header - Length

The length in bytes of the UDP header and the encapsulated data. The minimum value for this field is 8.

UDP Header - Checksum

Computed as the 16-bit one's complement of the one's complement sum of a pseudo header of information from the IP header, the UDP header, and the data, padded as needed with zero bytes at the end to make a multiple of two bytes. If the checksum is cleared to zero, then checksuming is disabled. If the computed checksum is zero, then this field must be set to 0xFFFF.

Error control in Transport layer

Has ICMP where identification of the errors takes place

Session Initated Protocol

Intitates, terminates or modifies a multimedia session

Session Initated Protocol Message types

Requests Response

REGISTER: Used by a UA to

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 18 of 24

Session Initated Protocol Request Messages

indicate its current IP address and the URLs for which it would like to receive calls. INVITE: Used to establish a media session between user agents. ACK: Confirms reliable message exchanges. CANCEL: Terminates a pending request. BYE: Terminates a session between two users in a conference. OPTIONS: Requests information about the capabilities of a caller, without setting up a call. PRACK(Provisional Response Acknowledgement): PRACK improves network reliability by adding an acknowledgement system to the provisional Responses (1xx). PRACK is sent in response to provisional response (1xx).

Session Initated Protocol Response Messages

Provisional (1xx): Request received and being processed. Success (2xx): The action was successfully received, understood, and accepted. Redirection (3xx): Further action needs to be taken (typically by sender) to complete the request. Client Error (4xx): The request contains bad syntax or cannot be fulfilled at the server. Server Error (5xx): The server failed to fulfill an apparently valid request. Global Failure (6xx): The request cannot be fulfilled at any server.

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 19 of 24

Flooding Algorithm

Receive message. Look for record in database. If the record is not yet included, add it to the database, broadcast the message. Else if the number in the base is lower than the number in the message, replace the value with the new one and broadcast the message. Else if the number in the base is higher, transmit the current database value through the incoming interface. Else if both numbers were the same, do nothing.

IPv4 - 2nd Header

Identification Flags Fragment offset

IPv4 - 3rd Header

Time to live Protocol Header Checksum

IPv4 - 4th Header

Source address

IPv4 - 5th Header

Destination Address

IPv4 - 6th Header

Options Padding

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 20 of 24

IPv4 Header - Protocol

when packet reaches the destination, this field determines what program uses it

IPv4 Header - header Checksum

Used to error check

IPv4 Header - Options

e.g routing options (no satellites)

IPv4 Header - Padding

Contains No Op fields

BPG - 4 basic message types

Open Keepative Update Notification

BPG - Open message

open and confirm the connection parameters

BPG - Keepative message

sent periodically to ensure the liveness of the connection.

BPG - Update message

Incremental updates are sent as the routing tables change.

BPG - Notification message

sent in response to errors or special conditions.

IP, LAN, WAN Protocol

Classed as unreliable as it has no acknowledgement for messages

An IPv6 address can have up to __________

32

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 21 of 24

hexadecimal digits.

An ICMP message has _____ header and a variable-size data section.

8 byte

hidden station problem can arise in an 802.11x Basic Service Set. Briefly explain how this difficulty is overcome.

To overcome this problem, handshaking is implemented in conjunction with the CSMA/CA scheme.

port address

port address is the address of a session running on a host as used by the transport layer.

logical address

logical address is an address used in the network layer to identify a host that is connected to the Internet.

physical address.

physical address (link address) is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN, it is the lowest level address and is assigned to a physical device.

An organisation is granted the block 125.238.0.0/16. The administrator wants to create 512 subnets: - Find the subnet mask required

This is a class A address range so that the default mask is /8. We need sufficient bits to produce 512 subnets so 2x = 512 where x is the number of bits required. Hence x = 9, thus we require the mask to be /8+9 = /17. OR 255.255.128.0

An organisation is granted the block 125.238.0.0/16. The administrator wants to create 512

There will be 15 bits remaining so the number of hosts per

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 22 of 24

subnets: Find the number of addresses in each subnet

subnet is 32768 2 = 32766 since 2 addresses are not able to be used for hosts (they are reserved addresses).

An organisation is granted the block 125.238.0.0/16. The administrator wants to create 512 subnets: Find the first and last allocatable addresses in subnet 1

01111101 11101110 00000000 00000001 (125.238.0.1) Finally, we note that the broadcast address is the last one of the 32768 addresses so the last allocatable one is the one before that broadcast address so it must be 01111101 11101110 00000000 00000000 (125.0.127.254)

An organisation is granted the block 125.238.0.0/16. The administrator wants to create 512 subnets: Find the first and last allocatable addresses in subnet 14

The first and last allocatable addresses in subnet 14 are: To find the 14th subnet we have to add 13 to the subnet number of the first subnet. We can add this amount to the first allocatable address of the first subnet as we know that the first address in every block is not allocatable as it is a special address.

BGP is regarded as a Path Vector Protocol, how does it differ from Link State and Distance Vector Protocols?

The primary function of a BGP system is to exchange network reachability information with other BGP systems. BGP is rule based rather than metric based as distinct from the case of the other two protocols. Link state protocols pass around topology and network status information using a flooding protocol.

Fast, loopless convergence. Support of precise metrics and multiple metrics - if

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 23 of 24

List three reasons why most network specialists prefer Link State Routing instead of Distance Vector Routing.

desired. Support of multiple paths to a destination. Separate representation of external routes.

methods for enabling a smooth transition from IPv4 to IPv6.

Dual-stack methods Tunnelling Header translation

Dual-stack method

Dual stack means running IPv4 and IPv6 simultaneously until everyone is ready for IPv6. (To figure out which version of IP to use when sending a packet to the destination, the source must send a query to the DNS server. If the DNS server returns an IPv4 address then the source sends an IPv4 packet, else it sends an IPv6 packet.)

Tunnelling

Tunnelling involves encapsulating an IPv4 packet inside an IPv6 packet or vice versa and setting the protocol indicator for the packet as IP

Header translation

Header translation used if the receiver doesnt understand IPv4and you are using IPv6. Translation is required at the router that connects to the IPv4 destination network.

Version- IP version number (Version 4) IHL Internet Header Length Type of Service Type of service

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012

Page 24 of 24

IPv4 header

Total Length Total length of the packet Identification Flags Indications as to whether a packet has been segmented Fragment offset Offset if a packet must be segmented Time to live number of hops before packet is dicarded Protocol identifier for the program to be run at the destination (TCP, UDP OSPF, etc etc) Header Checksum A checksum CRC-32 for the header only Source address a 32 bit address for the source address Destination address a 32 bit address for the destination address Options Extra options required to be passed to the destination Padding padding to complete 32 bit fields if options dont use all 32 bits of a word.

http://www.studydroid.com/printerFriendlyViewPack.php?packId=170516

3/15/2012