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CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

A centrifugal pump is one of simplest rotating equipment in any process plant. Centrifugal
pump may be single stage (one impeller) or multistage (multiple impeller) and can be horizontal
split or barrel type or vertical type. Higher the deliveryfdischarge pressure required more the
number of impellers will be needed. !n centrifugal pump energy is imparted to the fluid in form
of velocity or kinetic energy and which is then converted into pressure energy of the fluid that
is being pumped. This form of energy change occurs by virtue of two main parts of the pump.
First the rotating part impeller imparts kinetic energy to the fluids and then the stationary part
diffuser or volute converts kinetic energy of the fluid into pressure energy. All the forms of
energy involved in a fluid flow system are expressed in terms of Head or height of liquid column
discharged by the pumps.
Axial Flow centrifugal pump Nix flow Centrifugal pump
Principle:
The process liquid enters through the suction nozzle of the pump and then into eye (center) of
the impeller. When the impeller rotates, it spins the liquid in the space between the vanes and
throws outward in the volute and provide centrifugal acceleration. As the liquid leaves the eye
of the impeller a low pressure area is created causing more liquid to flow at the inlet. Because
the impeller bladesfvanes are of curve shape, the liquid is pushed in a tangential and radial
direction by the centrifugal force. The energy created by the centrifugal force is kinetic energy
and proportional to the velocity at the edge or vane tip of the impeller. The higher the RPN of
the impeller or bigger the size of the impeller, higher will be the velocity of the liquid and
greater kinetic energy will be imparted to the liquid. This kinetic energy of the liquid leaving the
impeller is then harnessed by creating a resistance to the flow. The pump volute or diffuser
creates the first resistance and then in the discharge nozzle where it gets further de-accelerated
and the kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy according to Bernoulli's principle.
Therefore, the head (pressure in terms of height of liquid column) developed shall be
approximately equal to the kinetic energy imparted at the periphery of the impeller.
!n axial flow pumps the principal of working is different as volute and diffusers are not there, so
Kinetic energy imparted by impeller gets converted partially into pressure and partially it
remains in same form.
Following imperial formula can give the performance of the pumps.
H = u
2
f2g where
H = Total head
u = velocity of fluid at periphery of impeller
g = Acceleration due to gravity
And Tip velocity
U =N X Df229 where
N = RPN of the impeller
D = Diameter of the impeller
229 is the constant
Pump curves related to the flow rate and pressure (head) developed by the pump at different
impeller sizes and RPN. The centrifugal pump operation should confirm to the pump curves
supplied by the manufacturer.
Construction of Centrifugal Pump:
Generally a single stage centrifugal pump consists of the following main parts
-A casing with volute
-An impeller(closed vane or open vane)
-A shaft
-A gland housing with gland packing or Nechanical seal assembly
-Anti friction bearings
-Lantern rings
But in a multistage centrifugal pumps there are much more components listed as below:
-Casing (split horizontally or barrel type)
-Shaft with keys
-!mpellers for all stages
-Diffuser f diaphragms For all stages
-Shaft sleeves or !mpeller sleeves
-!mpeller neck rings
-Wearing rings
-Throttle bush or Throat bush
-Diffuser bush
-Drive end(DE) and Non Drive end (NDE) bearing housing
-Bearings thrust and journals,
-Oil seal
-Nechanical seal assemblies
-Oil labyrinths
-Anti rotation devices
-Lip seals
-Balancing device with corresponding bush
- Coupling hub etc.
Sketch showing the functioning of Diffusers in Centrifugal pumps
A barrel type multi stage pump
Pump casings with single volute and double volute
Shaft SleeveJImpeller sleeve:
These are used in single stage pumps. !mpeller and sealing gland are not directly mounted on
shaft. A sleeve is fitted between the bore of the impeller and OD of the shaft and keyed with
the shaft i.e. impeller rotate with the sleeve along with the shaft. The wearable part in this type
of assembly is the sleeve, which is far less expensive than the shaft. The function of the
impeller sleeves is to protect the shaft from wear and coming in contact with the pumping fluid.
Wear ring J Casing ring:
Wearing ring provide easy and economically renewable relative movement joint between the
impeller and the casing and to protect the damage of impeller or casing in that area. OEN
generally recommends the clearances between the casing wear ring and impeller wear rings
and if these clearances exceeds, pump efficiency will be lowered and abnormal vibration
increase will be some of the consequences.
Impeller:
This is the main rotating parts of the pump that imparts the centrifugal acceleration to the fluid.
!mpellers may be classified in many ways. For example:
-According to the direction of flow in reference to the axis of rotation of the shaft:
i) Axial flow,
ii) Radial flow
iii) Nixed flow
-According on suction type
i) Single suction
ii) Double suction
-According to mechanical construction of vanes
i) Closed vane type
ii) Open vane type
iii) Semi open type.
Impeller wear ring
Casing wear ring
Balancing hole
Open vane !mpeller Semi open !mpeller Closed vane impeller
Gland HousingJStuffing Box and shaft sealing:
To seal the leakage of fluid from where the shaft penetrates out the pump casing, a gland
packing assembly or Nechanical seal assembly is provided and this assembly is fitted in the
Gland housing f Stuffing box provided in the pump housing. Specially made asbestosfglass
fiber f filled teflon rings are used for sealing which is mounted between the stuffing box
housing and shaft sleeve. Gland packing is very economical to use but this requires renewal at
fix interval. Also gland packing do not gives zero leakage assembly by any mean. For cooling of
gland ropes small amount of leakage is mandatory to maintain. For non toxic, non critical
services gland packing are used in industrial pumps but mechanical seal assembly are used for
all hazardous services.
Throttle Bush J throat bushing:
Throttle bush is a stationary device, which forms a restrictive close clearance around the shaft
in the pump casing just in front of gland housing. This helps in reducing the fluid flow load on
mechanical seals and also helps in maintaining the flushing fluid pressure in the gland boxes.
Lantern ring:
Basically lantern ring are provided in the stuffing box in case of gland packing rings sealing
system to give a recess and to cool the gland packing ringsfelements with the pump fluid. !t is
installed between or in the middle of the gland packing elements and a cooling line is
connected just above the lantern ring from the pump casing.
Bearing Housing:
The bearing housings are equally critical parts and they encloses the bearings in the drive end
and non drive end of the pumps. These housings keeps the shaft or rotor assembly in correct
alignment with the stationary parts under radial and axial loads. The bearing housing are built
with required oil reservoir for bearing lubrication and water jacket for circulating cooling water
for bearing cooling. Now a days bearing jackets are avoided as studies shows that oil cooling is
more effective than jacket cooling of bearing housings.
Axial thrust of a Centrifugal pump and its balancing principle:
!n centrifugal pumps, the impeller is surrounded by fluid at different pressure at different
locations in the casing. This variation in pressure on the surface of the impeller during running
condition creates axial hydraulic thrust, which is the summation of unbalanced impeller forces in
the axial direction. !n case of multistage pump if all the impeller suction faces are in the same
direction the total theoretical axial thrust acting towards the suction end of the pump will be
sum of the individual impeller's thrust in that direction. There are various methods which can be
employed to counter balance this hydraulic axial thrust in multistage pumps. Some times more
than one technique is used to take advantages of these methods. These are as below:
-Provision of balance drumfbalance stepped drum
-Provision of balancing disc
-Provision of combination balancing disc-drum
-Provision of impeller back side wearing ring and balancing hole
-Provision of double suction impeller
-Provision of fixing of impellers in back to back configuration
!n single stage pumps, additional balancing devices are seldom used. Big single stage pumps
are generally designed with double suction impellers and smaller pumps are provided with
provision of balancing holes, back side wear rings etc. The residual thrust is taken care by the
thrust bearings.
Nultistage pumps are generally built with single suction impellers however some manufacturers
uses double suction impeller in first stage of the pump assembly. Single suction impellers may
be mounted on shaft and each impeller suction eye facing in the same direction and its stages
are arranged one after another in an ascending order of pressure and the total axial thrust is
balanced by hydraulic balancing devices. But in this type of assemblies the resultant axial thrust
is generally very high and a big size balancing device is needed along with suitably big thrust
bearing. However this type of assemblies are easy to make and require lesser grades of skill in
maintenance.
Nore efficient, more balance multistage pumps are made with impellers fixed in tandem up to
middle stage and than in reverse direction again in tandem up to final stage. Combination of
two tandems in back to back neutralizes the axial thrust and resultant axial thrust is minimum
and can be taken by the nominal size thrust bearing. These type of assemblies are require
exact calculations and skilled group to assemble. Nanufacturer makes arrangement of
interstage connections in such a way that no out side lines are required to be connected.
!mpeller dimensions and weights of each stage is very critical for such type of assemblies and
casing designs become very difficult.
Balancing Devices.
Balancing device is an additional part which is fixed in the assembly to neutralize the axial
thrust while in operation. !n this system a balancing drum is attached with the shaft to rotate
with the shaft at the back of the last stage impeller and there is a balancing chamber which is
connected to the pump suction. The radial clearance between stationary balancing bush and
rotary balancing drum is very critical.
One of the latest development in this category is the stepped drum design. This type of design
is employed on BFW pumps of super thermal power plants where multi stage pumps develops
pressures of 200 kgfcm2.
Balancing Drum
Two forces acting on the balancing drum are:
i)Towards the discharge end which is discharge pressure multiplied by the front
balancing area=F1
ii)Towards the suction end which is back pressure or pressure in the balancing chamber
multiplied by back balancing area=F2
As the cross section area on two sides is equal but the pressure on impeller side is high,
therefore force F1>F2 . Therefore the axial thrust generated in the multistage single suction
impeller assembly is counter balanced by the additional balancing device.
Balancing Disc: The functioning of the balancing disc is same as that of balancing drum. This
is a compact device as compared to balancing drum and is employed for comparatively smaller
high pressure pumps. !n this device a balancing disc is allowed to rotate with the shaft and this
disc is separated from the balancing disc head, which is fixed to the pump casing with a small
axial clearance. The back of the balancing disc is subject to the balancing chamber
backpressure and the disc face is subjected to the discharge pressure of the pump. There is a
continuous leakage through the axial clearance between the disc and the disc head, and fluid
flows into the balancing chamber. !f the axial thrust of the impeller at any moment exceed the
thrust on the disc, the disc assembly moved towards the disc head reducing the axial clearance
between the disc and disc head and reduced the leakage which in turn lower the back pressure
in the balancing chamber. This lowering of pressure automatically increase the pressure
difference acting on the disc and move it away from the disc head, increasing the clearance
until an equilibrium condition is reached
.
Combination of Balancing drum and Balancing disc: This is one of the latest
developments in the balancing devices. !t is developed for automatic compensation for axial
thrust changes along with advantage of balancing drum. !n this system the radial clearance
remains constant regardless of disc position but the axial clearance of the disc element varies
with the pump position in operation. High discharge pressure at the impeller end gets let down
to medium range pressure over the balancing drum and then this medium pressure acts on the
balancing disc. !n modern multistage pumps this device is used for balancing the axial thrust
Material of Construction of Pump Components:
Except the mechanical seal mating faces, none of the pump components comes in direct
contact with each other, however the service of the pump, in which it has to perform, dictates
the material of construction of the pump components. The following criteria should be
considered important in the selection of NOC of the pump components
i) Corrosion Resistance
ii) Abrasive Wear Resistance
iii) Cavitation Resistance
iv) Strength
v) Tensile Strength
vi) Endurance Limits
vii) Fatigue Strength
viii) Cost
ix) Naintenance
All components of pump may not be required to fulfill all above mentioned criteria. Depending
upon the function it has to perform, different components require to meet some or all the
above criteria to be found suitable for selection. e.g. NOC of an impeller is required to meet
requirements of corrosion resistance, abrasive wear resistance, cavitation resistance, shall be
suitable for casting and machining properties but for shaft of pump it is required to meet only
endurance limits, tensile strength, hardness, corrosion resistance and machining properties.
For pump casing material of construction shall have properties equivalent to impeller NOC.
The most widely used materials in pump components are cast iron, bronze, cast steel, austenite
steel, martensite steel and different grades of plastics, selected according to application. During
selection of material cost and availability should also be considered. Unnecessary costly material
should not be used unless it is required for the service.
Future maintenance shall also be a point to consider for the selection of the material of
construction of the components. Some of the components are required to be replaced during
the normal operation after normal wear 8 tear however, major components are designed to
perform for the service life but maintenance of all parts shall be considered at the time of
selection.
Mechanical seal:
Nechanical seals are the positive sealing devices used for the sealing of fluids at the shaft end
of the pumps. Now a days in petrochemical industries and refineries, mechanical seals as per
AP! 682 are only approved seal designs which can be used on pumps. very stringent
requirement of AP! code have forced seal designers and manufactures to innovate newer
quality products to enhance the seal efficiencies.
The conventional stuffing box design with gland packing rings is impractical for many service
conditions. !n the ordinary stuffing box the sealing between the rotating shaft and the
stationary gland casing (where the shaft penetrates the casing) is accomplished by means of
gland packing ring elements held tightly in the stuffing box around the shaft sleeve and gland
follower. After certain time of operation, the gland packing leakages starts due to nominal
wearing. Gland follower is further tightened to stop the leakages. !n this way the shaftfsleeve
and gland packings get worn out and the renewal of the parts has to be done for further
service. !n gland packing, as the sealing is achieved by tightening of the packing rings directly
between the rotating and stationary parts, lot of energy or power is lost.
To eliminate this problem and where minimum leakages is required due to expensive or
hazardous chemicals, Nechanical seal is required to be installed. !n big cooling water pumps,
the replacement of gland packing with mechanical seals gives benefit of power up to 7.
The mechanical seal is a device where two mating surfaces (one is rotating with the shaft and
another is stationary) are located in a plane perpendicular to the shaft axis. The two mating
surfaces are highly polished and of dissimilar material of which one is keyed to the shaft f shaft
sleeve to rotate with the shaft and another one is fixed in the seal chamberfhousing which seal
the liquid. The basic objective of the mechanical seal assembly is to prevent leakages of fluid.
Other than these two main parts there are number of elastomers to prevent path of leakages
through sleeve, sealing faces, etc., springs and spring retainer to exert axial force, gaskets,
gland plates, sleeve etc. The fundamental principle of mechanical seal operation is the
development and maintain of liquid film between the two mating surfaces. This microscopic film
of liquids acts as a cushion for the seal faces, preventing and minimizing wear and dissipation
of heat generated due to rubbing action. The rotating face may be of carbon graphite, tungsten
carbide, silicon carbide and the stationery face may be of one of the above but, if the stationary
face is carbon graphite then the rotating face should be of dissimilar material of silicon
carbideftungsten carbide and vice versa i.e. if the stationary face is soft then the rotating face
should be hard or vice versa. This selection of material varies from manufacturer to
manufacturer and both have some advantage and disadvantages.
A single spring dual direction seal
Some important maintenance tips during installation of mechanical seal and for its better life
are as below:
a) Stuffing box face:
The stuffing box face should be square or perpendicular to the shaft axis otherwise resulting in
wrong fixing of stationary element of the seal in gland plate. This will results in seal wobble and
not having full face contact in running and rotary head may get elliptical movement against
stationary.
b) Concentricity of the stuffing box: The stuffing box should be concentric to the shaft axis
within 0.08mm.
c) Lateral or axial movement of shaft (end play):The mechanical seal cannot function
satisfactorily with great amount of end play. !f the hydraulic condition changes, which happens
frequently and if the hydraulic axial balance is not effective, the shaft may float and leading to
seal troubles. The total amount of shaftfrotor end play should be within 0.08mm ~ 0.2mm
d) Radial movement of shaft(whip or deflection): Excessive whip or deflection can lead to seal
failure and poor sealing performance. The radial movement of shaft should be 0.05mm ~
0.08mm.
e) Alignment of driver: Driver alignment is by far the most frequent encountered pump
problem. The poor alignment causes axial and radial vibrations resulting in failure of seal.
Above general points shall be taken into consideration before doining any maintenance job on
mechanical seals. These points are also of importance during erection 8 commissioning of
mechanical seals in any equipment.
Type of Mechanical seal:
There are many ways in which seals can be classified. !n general seal type and seal
arrangements are named as below.Under each type and arrangement of seal there are different
designs depending upon the service conditions. Even different manufacturer make different seal
under same category but the basic function is achieved in same way
There are two basic seal arrangement:
(!) The internal assembly type, in which the rotating element is located inside the pump casing
and remains in contact with the liquid being pumped.
(!!) The external seal assembly type, in which the rotating element is located outside the box
and does not comes in contact with the pumped fluid.
!n both type of seals, internal and external seal assemblies, there are three primary points
where sealing must be accomplished for successful sealing. These three locations are:
i) Between the stationary element and the casing
ii) Between the rotating element and shaft sleeve and shaft
iii) Finally between the two mating surfaces.
Balanced and Unbalanced seal:
The pressure in the seal chamber (box pressure) is just ahead of the mechanical seal tends to
keep the mating faces of the internal seal together. This design is known as unbalanced seal
and it is used generally for 7~8 kgfcm2 gauge pressure. When the pressure is high, for
reducing the loading on the mating surfaces balanced mechanical seals are used.
Double Seal: Two mechanical seal are mounted inside a stuffing box to make a double seal
assembly on a single sleeve. Double seal are generally used in case of high toxic, highly
inflammable or hazardous liquid in which the first mechanical seal seals the liquid being
pumped and the second seal is used to seal a buffer fluid at pressure higher than the stuffing
box pressure of liquid being pumped.
For dissipating the heat generated in the mechanical seals, and to reduce the temperature of
the sealing fluids, Nechanical seal require cooling, flushing, quenching etc and generally these
arrangements are done according to AP!-610 8 682 standard. Cooling, flushing and quenching
can be done with the same liquid being pumped or with separate fluid depending upon the
design, application of the seal and process requirement. For different services, AP! has
recommended different flushing and cooling plans. For getting the satisfactory seal
performance it is mandatory to follow these plans in toto. Pump manufacturer in consultation
with Seal manufacturer implement the recommended seal flush plan. Some of the plans are
listed as below:
O-Ring material details: Performance of mechanical seal depend largely on performance of O-
Rings used in the seal. A wrong O-Ring can lead to premature seal failure and equipment may
required to be shut downed leading to production loss.General properties of some of the most
used O-Ring materials are illustrated below:
Nitrile>!s recommended for temperature ranging from -25 deg cen to 100 degree cen
continious and is compatible with most mineral based lubricant oil.Nitrile load rings offer the
maximum resistence to abrasion and commonly used in standard axle,final drive etc.
Silicone>Silicone is recommended for temperature ranging from -60 degree cen to 165 degree
cen.!t is compatible with fuels and certain types of gear lubricants.Silicone is inferior abrasion
resistance to nitrile.
viton>viton is fluoroelastomer.!t is suitable for temperature range from -10 degree cen to 190
degree cen.viton has very poor low temperature capability and will harden at freezing
temperature.
Cyclone Separator:
!n dirty water services, if the water contain small microscopic solids then it shorten the life of
the sealing system. Foreign particles can be removed by installing filters or strainers but, these
filters or strainers require to be cleaned periodically as they get clogged. This disadvantage can
be overcome by using cyclone separator. The operating principle of a cyclone separator is that
liquid under pressure is introduced tangentially into a conical chamber and centrifugal force will
make the liquid rotate in the chamber. Particles heavier than the liquid will tend to stick to the
outside wall of the chamber and the clean liquid in the center of the chamber. Generally liquid
from the pump discharge or from the intermediate stage is fed tangentially into the chamber
and clean liquid is used for stuffing box flushing or quenching. The liquid containing solids is
drained from the bottom.
Characteristic of Centrifugal pumps:
The key performance parameters of centrifugal pumps are capacity, head ,BEP (Best Efficiency
Point) and specific speed. The pump curves provide the operating window within which these
parameters can be varied for satisfactorily pump operation.
End user supplies the data of the requirements and manufacturer makes the pump to full fill
the requirement of the end user. Basic requirements and manufactured product performances
are plotted on the graph and the intersecting points are known as rated capacity. This graph of
plots of performance of pump is known as performance curves or characteristic curves of the
pump.
!nability to deliver the desired flow and head is one of the most common condition for making a
pump out of service. Nany times when the pumps are opened with low or no delivery
conditions but on opening no fault is observed.
!n such conditions, there are three type of problem which mostly encountered are:
-Design error
-Poor process operation
-Poor maintenance practices.
These problems can be identified when the current performance of the pump is judged against
the characteristics of the pump. The deteriorated parameter shall be further analyzed and then
the problem shall be settled.
The performance of any pumping system can be marked in terms of its capacity or flow (Q) and
pressure (head).The variation curves of capacity versus pressure of a particular pump are
known as pump performance curve.
The plot starts at zero flow and the head at this point corresponds to the shut off head of the
specific pump. The curve then decreases to a point where the flow is maximum and the head is
minimum. This point is called run-out point. The pump curve is relatively flat and the head
decreases gradually as the flow increases. Beyond the run-out point, the pump cannot operate.
The pump's range of operation is from the shut-off head point to the run-out point.
Capacity:
Capacity means flow rate i.e. flow in mass per unit time (m3fhour or literfsec).The capacity
depends upon the number of factors like
-Process liquid characteristic (density, viscosity)
-Size of impeller
-RPN of the pumpfimpeller
-Size and shape of vanes, volute
-Pressure conditions
!f the impeller and RPN of a pump are unchanged then only the pressure at the inlet (suction
pressure) can change the flow. As liquids are incompressible, the capacity is directly related
with the velocity of flow in the suction of a pump.
Some important terms and formulas of Centrifugal pump:
Q = ++9 * v * A
Where Q=Capacity or flow
v=velocity
A=Area of pipe
++9 is constant
H = v
2
f2g
Where
H=Head
v=velocity
g=Acceleration due to gravity
Head:
The pressure at any point in a liquid column can be caused by vertical column of the liquid due
to its weight. The height of the liquid column at any point is called the static head and is
expressed in height of liquid. The same head term is used to measure the kinetic energy
created by the pump. The static head corresponding to any specific pressure is dependent upon
the weight of the liquid.
Head (H) ft= Pressure (PS!) X 2.31fspecific gravity Or Head (Net)= Pressure (bar) x
10.2fspecific gravity
!n case of water specific gravity is 1 and so
Head (ft) = Pressure(PS!) x 2.31
Static Suction Head (hs): Static suction head is the liquid head between the liquid level
relative to the pump suction centerline. !f the liquid level is above pump centerline, h
s
is
positive and if it is below pump centerline it is negative h
s
. Negative suction head h
s
is also
called suction lift.
Static Discharge Head (hd):!t is the head in term of liquid column between the pump
centerline and the point of free discharge or the surface of the liquid in the discharge tank.
Friction Head (hf): The head required to overcome the resistance to flow in the pipe and
fittings. !t is dependent upon size, surface condition, number and type of pipe fittings, flow rate
and nature of the liquid.
Vapour pressure Head (hvp): vapour pressure of a liquid can be obtained from vapour
pressure tables and when it is converted into equivalent head it is called vapour pressure head.
!t increases with temperature and opposes the pressure on the liquid surface and reduce the
suction pressure head.
Pressure Head (hp): Pressure head must be considered when a pumping system either begins
or terminates in a tank which is under some pressure other than atmosphere. The pressure in
such a tank must be converted into height of liquid column supplying to the pump suction. !f
the system is open to atmosphere, then hp is equals to atmospheric pressure head hps or hpd.
Velocity head (hv): !t is the energy of the liquid due to its motion at some velocity v. !t is the
equivalent head through which the water would have to fall to acquire the same velocity.
Total Suction Head(Hs): !t is the summation of the suction reservoir pressure head (hps) plus
the static suction head(hs) plus the velocity head at the pump suction flange (hvs) minus the
friction head (hfs)
Hs =(hps+hs+hvs)-hfs
The total suction head is the reading of the gauge on the suction flange converted into head.
Total Discharge Head (Hd): !t is the summation of the discharge reservoir pressure head
(hpd) plus static discharge head(hd) plus the velocity head(hvd) plus the total friction head in
the discharge line(hfd)
Hd = hpd + hd + hvd + hfd
Total Differential Head(Ht):!t is the total discharge head minus the total suction head
Ht = Hd + Hs (With suction lift)
Ht = Hd - Hs (With a suction head)
NPSH:
The two most important head terms in case of centrifugal pumps are NPSHr (Net positive
suction head required) and NPSHa (Net positive suction head available).
Centrifugal pumps can pump liquid only, not vapours. So satisfactory operation of a pump
requires that vapourization of the liquid being pumped does not occur at any condition of pump
operation. The vapour formation begins when the vapour pressure of the liquid at the operating
temperature become equal to the external pressure, which in an open system always will be
atmospheric pressure. Any decrease in external pressure or rise in operating temperature can
induce vapourization of the liquid being pumped. Thus the pump always needs to have a
sufficient suction head to prevent this vapourization at the lowest pressure point within the
pump.
The manufacturers usually test the pumps with water at different capacities by throttling the
suction valve when the first sign of vapourization induced cavitation occurs and the suction
pressure is noted and this pressure is converted into head. This head is referred in the pump
curve as NPSH. Thus the net positive suction head(NPSH) is the total head at the suction flange
of the pump less the vapour pressure converted to fluid column height of the liquid. NPSH
required is a function of the pump design. As the liquid passes from the pump suction to the
eye of the impeller, the velocity increases and pressure decreases. There are also pressure loss
due to shock and turbulence as the liquid strikes the impeller. The centrifugal force of the
impeller vanes further increase the velocity and decrease the pressure of the liquid just at the
entrance of the impeller vanes. The NPSH required is the net positive head required at the
pump suction to overcome these pressure drops in the pump and maintain the majority of the
liquid within area of pump above its vapour pressure.
Net Positive Suction Head available (NPSHa) is a function of system design in which the pump
will operate. !t is the excess pressure of the fluid in terms of head over its vapour pressure
when it enters in the pump suction.
NPSHa = hps + hs - hvps-hfs
or
NPSHa =Pressure head +Static head - vapour pressure head - Friction head loss in the piping
system
Or
NPSHa = hps-hvps +-hgs + hvs
Where
Hps=Barometric pressure in head
Hvps=vapour pressure at max opert. Temp in head
Hgs =Guage reading at pump suction in head
Hvs =velocity head in the suction pipe in head
NPSH available must always be greater than NPSH required for any pump to operate properly.
LAWS OF AFFINITY:
The Affinity laws are mathematical expression that define change in pump capacity, head and
BHP when a change is made to pump speed, !mpeller diameter or both.
Capacity (Q) changes in direct proportion to impeller diameter (D) or to speed ratio(N)
Q2fQ1 = D2fD1 and Q2fQ1 = N2fN1
Head (H) changes in direct proportion to the square of the impeller diameter(D) ratio or the
square of the speed (N)
H2fH1 = (D2fD1)
2
and H2fH1= (N2fN1)
2
BHP changes in direct proportion to the cubic of impeller diameter (D) or the cube of speed(N)
BHP2fBHP1 = (D2fD1)
3
BHP2fBHP1 = (N2fN1)
3
!f changes are made both to impeller diameter (D) and speed(N) then,
Q2fQ1 = D2 X N2fD1 X N1
H2fH1 = (D2 X N2fD1 X N1)
2
BHP2fBHP1 = (D2 X N2fD1 X N1)
3
Cavitation and its affects: The phenomena of cavitation take place due to entrapped or
suction of gas or air along with liquid at the suction of the pump. Due to cavitation fluctuation
in flow and discharge pressure take place with a drastic reduction in head and pump capacity.
Other than loud noise, abnormal vibrations and pump performance may changes to a great
amount. Heavy cavitation may lead to mechanical failure also.
The entrapped gas gets divided into bubbles within the fluid bank. The formation of bubbles
causes a volume increase, decreasing the space availability of liquid to enter to the pump, and
thus diminishing the pump capacity. As the pump sucks in the fluid, the pressure in the vicinity
drops and the bubbles starts bursting causing abnormal sound and vibrations.
!f the volume of the gas bubbles are high enough at the eye of the impeller, it may cause
temporary choking of the pump i.e. loses suction. Thus fluctuant in flow is observed.
When entrapped gas bubbles are pumped to the discharge side of the pump, due to very high
pressure, bubbles start collapsing and thus high velocity liquid flow in that area to fill up the
space emptied out by bursting bubbles. This happens at the expense of pressure energy and so
head developed by the pump gets reduced drastically.
!n studies it has been noticed that during cavitation, the bursting of the bubbles occurs at sonic
speed, ejecting destructive micro-jets of extremely high velocity liquid enough to cause extreme
erosion of the pump internal parts.
Centrifugal Pump Performance Curve:
For designing a pumping system, end user gives the basic requirements and Nanufacturer
designs the system to match the requirements of the end user. The manufacturer, after design
and performance test, plots the pump performance curve and try to match the system curve as
supplied by the user. The intersection of the two curves denote the operating point of the pump
in that system.

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