Controlling the Greenhouse Environment HGA-00336

by Thomas R. Jahns, Extension Faculty, Agriculture and Horticulture, and Jeff Smeenk, Extension Horticulture Specialist

nce you have picked the right location, built a greenhouse structure that fits your needs, developed your growing medium and picked appropriate plant varieties that respond successfully to long day lengths, it is now essential to focus your attention on the control of the greenhouse environment. This is especially important if you are to be successful in getting the most out of your construction investment and efforts. By optimizing light, temperature and humidity, in conjunction with the proper fertilization, watering and selection of adapted varieties, an endless array of growing opportunities await the Alaska greenhouse gardener and commercial producer.

Incandescent The incandescent light bulb type of light source may be useful in controlling day length, but it offers little help as a grow light. Since the major portion of energy going into incandescent bulbs is released as heat rather than as light, conventional light bulbs are primarily used to manipulate photoperiod rather than as supplemental lighting to enhance growth. Quartz-Halogen (Spotlights) The quartz-halogen spotlight type bulbs produce a whiter light and are more electricity-efficient than the incandescent bulb, but because they, too, deliver a point-source type of illumination they are far less efficient than other available bulbs. Fluorescent Fluorescent bulbs are the most commonly used light source for the home gardener. Fluorescent bulbs produce a linear light that gives off more efficient and uniform lighting than incandescent types. Fluorescent bulbs are available in 28225 watt configurations and can be stacked in banks to enhance coverage areas. In late winter/early spring, most gardeners who start plants from seed utilize some type of inexpensive fluorescent shop light system as their light source.

Light

Operating a greenhouse during the typical Alaska outdoor growing season (May through September) requires no light supplementation. The two main reasons to use supplemental lighting are to increase plant growth during low-light levels and to manipulate the photoperiod (ratio of day length to night length) to either initiate or delay flowering. Comparisons between several light supplementation sources are offered below (Table 1). All components of the lamp should be UL/ CSA approved.

The 2840 watt bulbs work great for germinating seeds and growing seedlings, which do not require the more expensive, higher intensity, full spectrum grow lights. The key in the use of these low-output lights is that you must orient them to within an inch of the top of the plants to capture all the light intensity (lumens) they have to offer. If they are not placed close to the plants, internodal elongation will occur, producing weak, spindly plants that will generally not perform well. While houseplants, seedlings and low-light flowering plants can flourish under fluorescent lights, they fall far short of the light requirements needed to produce most mature flowering and fruiting plants. White reflectors or reflectors made from aluminum foil may aid in maximizing what little light is available from these lowintensity bulbs (Table 2).

these conditions the lamps are hung very close to the seedlings. Because seedlings require much lower light levels than mature plants, several fluorescent lamps alone are capable of meeting their light requirements. As the seedlings enter their vegetative growth stage, their light requirements rapidly outpace the fluorescent lamps capability of providing enough light intensity and quality to meet their demands. To sustain this rapid growth past the seedling stage, plants need to be moved into a greenhouse where direct sunlight or high-output artificial lighting is available.

High-Intensity Discharge (HID) High-intensity discharge bulbs are the most costly to purchase and operate but offer the highest quality light output of all grow-light bulbs. Where plant appearance is critical and natural sunlight limited, metal halide Fluorescent lighting is rarely used in commercial bulbs should be used. Due to their energy efficiency greenhouses for producing mature flowering or fruiting and the general quality of the light spectrum emitted plants because of their low-intensity output and the (yellowish light), high-pressure sodium (HP sodium) sunlight-shading effects that their fixtures and reflectors lights are the most commonly used types found in create. Their primary use in commercial operations commercial greenhouses. is in providing light for germination benches. Under Table 1. Light Source Comparisons Light Source Incandescent Lamp Wattage 40 100 150 200 75 250 40 75 110 215 40 40 250 400 1,000 250 400 1,000 Total Wattage 40 100 150 200 75 250 48 84 138 262 47 47 295 425 1,080 300 440 1,145 Initial Lumens* 460 1,620 2,850 3,350 1,000 5,000 3,150 6,300 9,200 15,500 925 1,700 20,500 31,500 110,000 27,500 48,000 140,000 Avg. Life (hrs.) 1,500 1,000 1,000 1,000 2,000 4,000 7,500 12,000 12,000 9,000 12,000 12,000 10,000 20,000 11,000 24,000 24,000 24,000

Halogen Fluorescent Cool White (CW) CWhigh output CW Very High output Gro-lux Wide Spectrum Metal Halide High-Pressure Sodium

*Lumens: Units of measurement of light. One lumen = one foot-candle falling on 1 square foot of area. Source: Adapted from Greenhouse Engineering (NRAES-33); Poot, J. 1984. Application of Growlight in Greenhouses; and Horticultural Lighting by Philips Lighting Company, Somerset, N.J.

Table 2. Illumination at Various Distances from Either Cool White or Warm White Fluorescent Lamps (fc)* Standard 40W T12 Fixtures Distance from Lamp (ft.) Without Reflectors With Reflectors 0.5 500 700 1.0 260 400 2.0 110 180 3.0 60 100 4.0 40 60
*fc= foot candles. Source: Cathey, H.M. and L.E. Campbell. 1978. Indoor Gardening Artificial Lighting, Terrariums, Hanging Baskets and Plant Selection. U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Depending on the crop needs, natural light availability and greenhouse design, there are several wattages of HID lamps available. These range from 1501000 watts. While the crop light requirements are normally documented and the natural lighting duration measurable, how the greenhouse design impacts the choice of lamp wattage is not readily apparent. An efficient greenhouse operation will maximize its lighting by assuring a uniform level of light across all of its growing benches. If there are sections that receive less light, the plants in these areas will become etiolated (leggy) and the crop will not develop the uniform height that the market desires. In a greenhouse with a low roof it may be challenging to achieve uniform light with 1000-watt fixtures since the distance that they can be moved above the crop is limited. Although it is more costly to purchase several smaller lights than one large one, multiple lights allow additional flexibility in achieving uniform light dispersal.

blocks a certain amount of sunlight from reaching the crop. Another important reflector design criteria is to stop any light from reflecting back into the bulb, which increases heat and can lead to premature bulb failure. Plant growth and photoperiod manipulation have different supplemental lighting requirements to accomplish their desired goals. Photoperiod can be easily manipulated using ordinary incandescent light bulbs. The photoperiod, or day length, affects many plants, and in Alaska may limit the survival of even the most temperature-hardy outdoor perennials. Daylength requirements vary, depending upon species (Table 3).

In the greenhouse environment, day length is easily extended with lights and an adjustable 24-hour timer. By stringing 60-watt incandescent bulbs (with reflectors) four feet apart down a four-foot-wide bed and supported no higher than five feet above the plants, In addition to the wattage choices (lamp intensity) the day length can successfully be lengthened (please see lamp layout design necessary to achieve uniform light local building codes for safe application) (Bartok, levels also depends on the fixture type, the reflector 2000). Reducing day length in Alaska is more difficult shape and the distance from the bottom of the reflector to the top of the crop at each stage. These criteria will determine the distance needed between lamp fixtures, which will, in turn, determine how many lamps will be necessary to provide the desired amount of supplemental light. HID lights have a lamp, reflector, ballast and capacitor (Picture 1). They operate at high temperatures, which can be managed with proper ventilation to avoid premature failure. The design and placement of the lamp reflector is also a critical factor. The reflector controls the uniformity of the light pattern and the amount of light reflected onto the crop. Unfortunately, the reflector also 3

Picture 1. HID lamp with bulb, reflector and ballast/ capacitor

Table 3. Recommendations for Supplemental Greenhouse Plant Lighting Plant Species Alstromeria Anthirrhinum Azalea Bedding Plants Begonia Bromeliads Cacteae Calceolaria Camellia Chrysanthemum Cyclamen Gesneria Kalanchoe Ferns Foliage Geranium Gerbera Gladiolus Nursery Stock Orchids Rose Sinningia (gloxinia) Stephanotis Succulents Cucumbers Lettuce Strawberries Tomatoes Crop Stage Cultivation Propagation Cultivation Propagation Forcing Seedlings Stock/Prop. Propagation Forcing Propagation Forcing Cultivation Stock Rooting Cut Flowers Propagation Propagation Cultivation Stock Rooting/Prop. Propagation Cuttings/Prop. Stock Cuttings Stock/Prop. Cut Flowers Rooting/Prop. Production Cultivation Propagation Cultivation Seedlings Propagation Seedlings (growth room) Crop Production (GH) Fruit Prod. Seedlings Minimum Light Levels Watts/sq. m Foot-candles* 3,000 120 9,000 370 4,500 180 6,000 240 3,000 120 6,000 240 6,000 240 6,000 240 4,500 180 9,000 370 3,000 120 4,500 180 9,000 370 6,000 240 4,500 180 6,000 240 6,000 240 4,500 180 6,000 240 6,000 240 6,000 240 6,000 240 7,000 650 9,000 370 6,000 240 8,000 740 7,500 700 9,000 370 6,000 240 6,000 4,500 9,000 4,500 25,000 7,000 350 6,000 240 485 370 485 2,300 650 30 240 Day length Hours 13 16 24 18 16 16 14 18 24 18 24 14 20 20 18 18 18 18 18 16 18 16 16 16 16 16 24 16 24 18 18 16 18 24 16 8 16

*Foot-candles: a foot-candle is how bright the light is one foot away from the source. Source: Energy Conservation for Commercial Greenhouses (NRAES-3). Adapted from Application of Growlight in Greenhouses, PL Light Systems, St. Catherines, Ont., and Philips Lighting Application Guide, Philips Lighting Co., Somerset, N.J.

but can be accomplished by covering plants (to keep N= light level x surface area them in total darkness) for the required period of time. effective flux Warning: only 12 foot candles of light will cause a light response in plants, so total darkness is required If you were going to grow lettuce seedlings in a 1.5 m throughout the entire light-reduction period to avoid x 3 m bed under lights, you would need the following reduced day-length manipulation failures. light system (or equivalent) to accomplish this goal: light level 25,000 mW/sq. m (Table 3) x 4.5 sq. m (1.5m x When the main purpose of supplemental lighting is to 3m) = 112,500 mW total. Divide that by effective flux enhance plant growth, several other factors must be of the lamps to be used (if we use 400W high-pressure considered. These include sodium bulbs we would need 112,500/38,400 (Table Crop light requirements 4) = 2.93 (or three 400W sodium lamps). Desired light intensity and quality Uniformity of light pattern (number of fixtures Light unit PAR comparisons and conversions between HP required) sodium, metal halide and sunlight are offered in Table 5. Operating costs Financial return on investment The cost of supplemental lighting should be considered prior to the purchase of a light supplementation Light selection will depend upon the plant application system. The HID bulbs in particular, may be extremely to be utilized. First, the minimum light supplementation expensive to operate if multiday, long-hour applications requirements to grow a given plant species must be are needed. The following formula will help to calculate determined (Table 3). Next, energy values should be operating costs: operating costs = fixture wattage x obtained for the light fixtures being considered (Table electricity cost x hours. 4). Fixture wattage = number of bulbs x (bulb wattage + The number of fixtures required equals the required light fixture wattage). For electricity costs refer to a recent level multiplied by the surface area to be illuminated electric bill and divide total costs by number of kilowattdivided by the effective flux. Effective flux is assumed hours of electricity used. (For example, if your monthly to be approximately 80 percent of the lamp flux for electric bill is $125 and you averaged 650 KWhr per high-intensity discharge lamps. It may vary from a low month, then your average cost per kilowatt hour is 20 of 50 percent to a high of 70 percent for incandescent cents ($125/650=$0.20 / KWhr), which was the 2009 and fluorescent lamps, depending upon reflectors. Homer Electric Company consumer rate for Kenai, Alaska.

Table 4. Energy Values for Four Illumination Sources Light Source Total Input (W) Lamp Flux (lm) Effective Flux (lm)* Lamp Flux (mW) Conversion Factor (mW/lm) Effective Flux (mW)* Incandescent I150W 150 2,850 ___ 11,970 4.2 ___ Flourescent HP sodium F40CW/40W 400W 48 440 3,150 48,000 ___ 38,400 9,135 2.9 ___ 110,400 2.3 88,300 Metal halide 400W 425 31,500 25,200 88,200 2.8 70,600

*The effective flux is assumed to be approximately 80% of the lamp flux for the two HID lamps. It can vary from a low of less than 50% to a high of 70% for incandescent and fluorescent lamps, depending on reflectors. Source: Adapted with permission from Poot, J. 1984. Application of Growlights in Greenhouses and Horticultural Lighting, Philips Lighting Co., Somerset, N.J.

Table 5. Conversion Between Different Light Units Unit Foot-candles Lux mol.m-2 s-1 of PAR (400-700 nm) Moles/day (PAR) Watts/m2 (PAR) Watts/m2 (total energy) Type of Measurement Main use Visible (human eye) Visible (human eye) Quanta of light in PAR range daily light integral: accumulated PAR light during an entire day Energy in PAR range Total energy Compared with 1 foot-candle Sunlight HP Sodium Metal Halide Industry (U.S.) 1 1 1 Industry 10.76 10.76 10.76 (Europe) Horticulture research Horticulture research Engineers, research Engineers, research 0.20 Footcandles x 0.00071 x hours of light 0.043 0.101 0.13 Footcandles x 0.00047 x hours of light 0.026 0.074 0.15 Footcandles x 0.00054 x hours of light 0.033 0.089

Source: Fisher, P., Donnelly, C. and J. Faust. 2001. Evaluating Supplemental Light for Your Greenhouse. Ohio Florists Assn. Bulletin.

If we return to our lettuce-seedling growing example above, we needed three 400W HP sodium bulbs to cover our 4.5 sq. m growing area. Each bulb fixture requires an additional 40 ballast watts (Table 1), so we would use a total of 400 + 40 x 3 = 1,320 watts per KWhr. Lettuce seedlings require 24 hours of daylight (Table 3), so we would need to supplement approximately 12 hours per day (Table 6) of supplemental daylight (if we were to start these seedlings in mid-March). Operating costs = 1,320 watts x $0.15/kilowatt-hour x 12 hours = $2.38/day (1000 watts/kilowatt).

are directly applied to the outer glazing material; in the other category shade fabrics are draped over or under the glazing material. There are many inside and outside installation options, so check with a greenhouse equipment supplier for a system tailored to your needs. Glazing materials offer some inherent shading characteristics that should not be ignored. Table 8 offers some examples of different glazing materials. Table 6. Average Monthly Day-length Hours for Fairbanks and Kenai, Alaska Month Fairbanks Kenai January 5.3 6.7 February 8.5 9.1 March 11.7 11.8 April 15.2 14.7 May 18.8 16.8 June 21.4 18.3 July 19.9 18.1 August 16.5 15.6 September 13.0 12.9 October 9.6 10.1 November 6.3 7.4 December 4.0 5.9
Adapted from 2004 Astronomical Applications Department, U.S. Naval Observatory, Washington, D.C.

Shading
With Alaskas intense summer sunshine and extreme day lengths, greenhouse shading may be required to maximize plant performance and control temperature. Table 7 offers shading suggestions for an assortment of common ornamental plants grown under northeast United States environmental conditions. While the degree of required shading may be higher in the Northeast, compared to Alaska, shading is important in controlling greenhouse temperatures in Alaska, especially during our clear, sunny days in summer. The addition of shade cloth to the outside of the greenhouse would help cool the greenhouse during the heat of the day. There are two distinct categories of shading materials for the greenhouse: in one category shading compounds 6

Table 7. Shading Requirements of Select Plants Grown in N.E. United States Suggested degree of shade Type of plants 2535% Geraniums, chrysanthemums, snapdragons 4550% Bedding plants, lilies, caladiums 5055% Azaleas, begonias, gloxinias, African violets, poinsettias 5560% Orchids, pachysandra, ivy, bromeliads, ficus 6065% Rhododendron, dieffenbachia 7075% Fern, philodendron, dracaena 7580% Palms
Source: Greenhouses for Homeowners and Gardeners (NRAES-137)

Heating and Heat Loss

Greenhouse heating is required in Alaska when extending the growing season (both early and late), and will often enhance summer plant growth by keeping nighttime temperatures above ambient levels, depending upon the plant species grown. Nationally, the cost of heating comprises 7080 percent of the annual energy dollars spent in a commercial greenhouse operation (Natural Resource, Agriculture and Engineering Service, 2001). In Alaska, it may even be greater, and a major reason why most commercial greenhouses are seasonally run.

thermal radiation to escape. Polyethylene, treated with infrared radiation (IR) absorbing materials, improves thermal radiation retention by approximately 20 percent (Natural Resource, Agriculture and Engineering Service, 2001). For the minimal cost difference, the IRPolyethylene glazing should be considered, although it may be limited in availability (check with your local commercial greenhouse operators). Double-layer polyethylene glazing is commonly used commercially in Alaska. It offers thermal radiation retention that is 67 percent more efficient than single-layer polyethylene.

Table 8. Greenhouse Glazing Light Transmittance Values Glazing Percent Light Transmittance Glass-single 8595 Glass-Factory sealed double 7075 Polyethylene-single 8090 (new) Polyethylene-double 6080 Polyethylene-corrugated high density 7075 Laminated acrylic/poly film-double 87 Impact modified acrylic-double 85 Fiber reinforced plastic 8590 (new) Polycarbonate-double wall rigid 83
Source: Adapted from: Bellows, B. 2003. Solar Greenhouses Horticulture Resource List. ATTRA National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service.

Glazings or greenhouse coverings, cloud cover and the ambient temperature determine the amount of radiant heat loss. Radiant heat is the amount of solar radiation, infrared radiation and light that enters and is absorbed by objects in the greenhouse (which warm up) and then is reradiated back into the greenhouse or beyond. Glass or rigid plastic glazing is the best at trapping thermal radiation (greater than 96 percent, "Greenhouse Effect"), while single-layer polyethylene is one of the least efficient, allowing more than 50 percent of the 7

In either case, polyethylene glazings should have a UV inhibitor built into them if more than one season of use is required. If on a tight budget, check with your local Alaska greenhouse operators who utilize UVinhibited polyethylene glazings. Used glazing can often be purchased for a fraction of the new cost and will generally give several years of excellent service to the greenhouse gardener.

Condensation forming on the underside of polyethylene glazing can help to reduce thermal radiation escape 50 75 percent (light to heavy condensation, respectively). Unfortunately, this thermal radiation reduction comes at the expense of light and solar radiation reception. In Alaska, glazing should be kept clear. Normally, condensation is not an issue, since most Alaska greenhouses use at least a 6/12 roof pitch for snow shedding, which also helps to promote condensation runoff.

also be used and in some cases offer a dual purpose, to produce hot water for both heating the air and heating accessible tap water that can be tempered for plant watering. This type of system must be protected from freezing until it is winterized by draining water and blowing air through all lines. While not as responsive to rapid temperature adjustments as hot-air heaters, hot water baseboard and radiant floor heaters provide a more uniform temperature, offer multiple temperature zone capabilities within a greenhouse and can be run at lower, uniform temperatures in spring and fall, than Convection and infiltration also influence heat loss their hot-air counterparts. in Alaska greenhouses. Convection is the heat lost by cooler wind blowing over the warmer surface of the Electric heaters, while more costly to run, are glazing. Infiltration is the air exchanged between the generally inexpensive to purchase and may be just inside and outside of the greenhouse through holes, right for supplementing heat for a few pre- and postcracks and crevices. The heat requirement doubles growing season nights, or when evening temperatures when wind speed increases from 0 to 15 mph. drop below a safe margin during the growing season. Whether you choose utility heaters, baseboard heaters or infrared heaters, electric heaters work well in a Heater Selection Gas hot-air heaters come in a wide variety of greenhouse. Research at the University of Connecticut configurations and fuel options. Natural and bottled found an electrical cost savings of 25 percent when gas hot-air heaters are some of the more economical heating an 8 x 12 greenhouse with infrared vs. utility and efficient heater types available for Alaska hot-air heaters (Bartok, 2000). greenhouses. Unit heaters, whether hanging, on-thewall or freestanding, have proven to be fast heating, Wood heating makes both a good main and supplemental economically priced and low-maintenance heating heat source. Although safety is an issue, if the greenhouse to be heated is large enough, a wood stove installation sources for Alaska greenhouses. makes an excellent heat source. Remember, a burning Hot water heaters and boilers that provide radiator, wood stove should always be attended. At nighttime, a radiant floor and bench heat continue to gain acceptance gas or electric back-up system should be utilized. Heat in the greenhouse, as well as the home and garage. regulation is a drawback when using a wood stove, even Both gas and electrically fired, these heating sources a thermostatically controlled one. Pellet stoves, while provide even heating. The boiler units should use a expensive, are also worth considering. closed system. Standard home hot water heaters may Table 9. Estimated Heat Requirements in BTUs/Square Foot of Surface Area Zone* A B C D E F -40F -30F -20F -10F -0F 15F Lean-to Greenhouse Single glazing 370 330 290 250 210 175 Double glazing 250 220 190 160 130 100 Freestanding Greenhouse Single glazing 400 360 320 280 240 180 Double glazing 250 225 200 175 150 110

G 30F 140 70 120 85

*Zone. The table assumes a 60F inside night temperature and the following minimum temperatures for your given area; individual locations may have temperatures lower than this. In borderline locations, select the colder zone. Source: Adapted from Greenhouses for Homeowners and Gardeners (NRAES-137).

Fuel heaters (oil, kerosene, white gas and diesel) without ventilation are not recommended for greenhouse use. 1-K grade portable kerosene heaters have been successfully used in greenhouses, if kept well maintained. These are especially useful in emergency situations. Oil-fired furnaces are usually too large to fit into a greenhouse structure, but may be advantageous in a situation where both the house and greenhouse share a common heat source. By utilizing the information found in Table 9 and determining the square footage of your greenhouse (rectangle or square layout: length x width) a quick estimate of heater requirements can be obtained. For example, if your freestanding greenhouse floor dimensions measure 12 ft. x 16 ft., you have 192 sq. ft. of floor space. If you are supplementing heat all winter (Zone B: -30F minimum temperature) and have a single glazing on your greenhouse, it will require a heater capable of (192 x 360 Btu/sq. ft.) 69,120 Btu/hr. If you are supplying heat only from April through October in Southcentral Alaska, it will require a heater capable of Table 10. Heat Transfer Coefficients Greenhouse glazing or wall materials Glass - single Plastic film - single Fiberglass reinforced plastic - single Polycarbonate - single Glass single w/ thermal blanket Plastic film - double Acrylic or polycarbonate - double Plastic film double w/ thermal blanket Standard concrete blocks, 8 inches Poured concrete, 6 feet Softwood lumber, 1-inch thick Concrete block, 8 inches + 2 inches foamed urethane board Concrete block, 8 inches + 2 inches foamed polystyrene board Poured concrete, 6 inches + 2 inches foamed urethane board Wood-framed wall with 1.5-inch thick urethane board Perimeter, uninsulated Perimeter, insulated: 2-inch foam board, 24 inches deep

approximately (192 x 120 Btu/sq. ft.) 23,040 Btu/hr. (with the 120 Btu/sq. ft. value coming from Zone G. A more accurate and complicated method for calculating heat loss from a greenhouse utilizes the following formula: HL = SA x U x TD, where HL is heat loss; SA is surface area of greenhouse; U is the heat loss factor for the roof and wall material; and TD represents the difference between desired night temperature and winter design temperature for your area. Heat loss is a measure of the amount of heat needed to maintain the desired temperature for one hour. The heat loss factor depends on the glazing insulation properties. The less insulative the glazing material is, the higher the value. Table 10 lists the U-value for some of the more popular glazing and wall materials used. By matching Btu/hr. greenhouse heating requirements (heat loss) with Btu/hr. heater output, a correctly sized heater can be obtained (when shopping for heaters make sure you compare heater output values not heater input values). By comparing the quick (Table 9) versus comprehensive (examples 1 and 2 below) heater requirement formulas, we find that the quick method overestimated the freestanding 12 ft. x 16 ft. greenhouse heater requirements by approximately 6,000 Btu/hr., which is certainly ballpark. Working through the lean-to examples for both the quick and the comprehensive methods, you will find a similar overestimation from the quick method, although again within acceptable levels. Planning for the occasional, abnormally low temperature heating requirement can make the difference between saving and losing a crop. An oversized heater is always better than an undersized heater in Alaska. The importance of a heater backup system is crucial to commercial, year-round greenhouse heating in Alaska, but is rarely an issue for the seasonal greenhouse gardener. Commercially, more than one heating system is commonly used. These

U-value: (Btu/(hours x F x square feet) 1.2 1.25 1.2 1.2 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.75 1.10 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.12 0.8 0.4

Source: Greenhouses for Homeowners and Gardeners (NRAES-137)

multiple heater systems are often set up to efficiently utilize one heater as the primary heat source, with a backup system available for extremely low outside temperature drops or primary heater failures. Compartmentalization of plant germination and grow areas can reduce the need for heating the entire greenhouse early season, but again is more of a commercial greenhouse issue. Alaska home greenhouse gardeners often start their seedlings under grow lights in the garage or basement, making the transition to the greenhouse much later and less energy demanding

than for a commercial greenhouse operator. Heater convection tubing and orientation also may play an important role in heat distribution within a large, commercial greenhouse, but are generally not issues for the home greenhouse. Solar heating is an alternative heat source derived from the sun in the form of solar radiation. This radiation is captured in storage structures, purposely built into a solar greenhouse, that have the potential to reradiate this energy back into the greenhouse at night. In a properly built and oriented solar greenhouse, as much

Example 1. Lean-to 12 ft. x 16 ft. Greenhouse (adapted from Greenhouses for Homeowners and Gardeners, NRAES-137). Surface area: End walls: 2 x 6 ft. x 12 ft. = 144 sq. ft. Sidewall: 6 ft. x 16 ft. = 96 sq. ft. Peaks (endwalls) = 2 x 0.5 x 12 ft. x 6 ft. = 72 sq. ft. Roof: 13.4 ft. (a2 + b2 = c2) x 16 ft. = 214.4 sq. ft. Total: 526.4 sq. ft. Heat Loss (HL) = Surface Area (sq. ft.) of greenhouse (SA) x U factor (U) x Temperature difference between minimum outside and 60F inside (standard) (TD) Given: SA = 526.4 sq. ft. U-value (single layer polycarbonate Table 10) = 1.2 TD= 60F [desired inside temperature] + 30 (-30F) = 90 Heat Loss = 526.4 x 1.2 x 90 = 56,851 Btu/hr. Example 2. Freestanding 12 ft. x 16 ft. Greenhouse (adapted with permission from Greenhouses for Homeowners and Gardeners, NRAES-137). Surface area: Ends: 2 x 6 ft. x 12 ft. = 144 sq. ft. Sides: 2 x 6 ft. x 16 ft. = 192 sq. ft. Peaks (end walls): 2 x 0.5 x 12 ft. x 3 ft. = 36 sq. ft. Roof: 2 ft. x 6.7 ft. (a2 + b2 = c2) x 16 ft. = 214.4 sq. ft. Total: 586.4 sq. ft. Heat Loss (HL) = Surface area (sq. ft.) of greenhouse (SA) x U factor (U) x Temperature difference between minimum outside and 60F inside (standard) (TD) Given: SA=586.4 sq. ft. U-value (single layer polycarbonate Table 10) = 1.2 TD= 60F [desired inside temperature] + 30 (-30F) = 90 Heat Loss = 586.4 x 1.2 x 90 = 63,331 Btu/hr. 10

as two days of heat can be captured from a March sun. Cooling Table 11 summarizes several of the radiation storage Need for air movement in the greenhouse structure options in common use. There are two primary greenhouse needs that airflow must address. When the temperature rises in the The design of a solar greenhouse differs from a normal greenhouse, there must be a way to get rid of the excess greenhouse design. One of the major differences is in its heat and replace the leaving hot air with cooler air. There orientation to the sun. To maximize the suns available is also the need to move air within the plant canopy energy, a solar greenhouse should be oriented to within for proper gas and relative humidity control. In small 20 of true south, with the ridge of the greenhouse eastgreenhouses, a single system can service both needs. In west and a long southern exposure for optimal light and larger greenhouses, there is usually an exhaust system solar radiation reception. The slope of the greenhouse and a circulation system. It is most important to get roof glazing is also critical in a solar greenhouse. A these systems to work together. Air movement systems rule of thumb for estimating the desired slope when range from do-it-yourself systems with parts salvaged targeting the capture of a winter suns energy is to use from many sources to computer controlled integrated your latitude angle plus 15. In Alaska, the desired systems that need to be professionally designed and winter roof glazing angle falls somewhere between 75 installed. and 80. A shallower slope of 5060 is appropriate for capturing a spring or fall sun.

Temperature Control Systems (Ventilation)

Except for the south-facing glazing, most of the roof and walls of a solar greenhouse are insulated. At night, an insulation blanket or other insulative-type materials are unrolled or somehow attached to the inside of the glazing area to retain heat. Also, in a solar greenhouse supplemental heat may be required, especially when the weather is cloudy and solar-radiation limiting.

As the sun warms the greenhouse, the temperature inside can rise rapidly. Without a method of ridding the excess heat the temperature can rise to a level that is fatal to the crops within. It is the primary function of the ventilation system to prevent that drastic buildup of heat by replacing the hot air with cooler outside air.

Table 11. Solar Heat Storage Assuming a 50F Minimum Greenhouse Temperature Water/Air Temperature BTUs Stored 1-Gallon Jug 5-Gallon Jug 60F 83 417 70 167 834 80 250 1,251 90 334 1,668 30-Gallon Barrel 55-Gallon Barrel 60F 2,500 4,590 70 5,000 9,170 80 7,500 13,760 90 10,000 18,340 Concrete/Concrete Block Brick 60F 224/cubic foot 271 70 448 542 80 672 813 90 896 1,084 Rocks in Crate Under Stone in Floor Bench 0 60 F 240/cubic foot 220/cubic foot 70 480 440 80 720 660 90 960 880

Adapted from Greenhouses for Homeowners and Gardeners (NRAES-137). Orignially published in Bartok, John W., D.S. Ross, J. White, W.J. Roberts, C.A. Aldrich, and R.A. Parsons. 1982. Solar Greenhouses for the Home (NRAES-2). Ithaca, N.Y.: Natural Resource, Agriculture and Engineering Service (out of print).

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In some small greenhouses adequate ventilation can be achieved by simply leaving a door or window open or by removing a section of the covering (Picture 2). Orient the structure to capture the normal summer winds along the side and into the vent(s). Minimize obstructions such as trees and buildings that can reduce or redirect the wind. For most medium- and largesized greenhouses, air movement needs are met with a combination of active and passive ventilation systems. Passive ventilation systems operate on a combination of two principles. First, as air heats up, it expands and increases the pressure within the greenhouse. This pressure is released through openings in the structure. Second, wind pressure pushes or pulls air through an opening in the greenhouse. On sunny days in Alaska, the air in the greenhouse heats up rapidly, the result of our intense spring and summer solar radiation. Air flows out of vents placed on the ridge or end-walls of the greenhouse. The lost hot air is replaced by cooler air coming in through side vents (or other uncontrolled leaks in the structure), thus cooling the interior of the structure (Figure 1). Wind action through an open door or window also causes significant mixing of the hot air within a house with the cooler outside air. We all have experienced a wind blowing in through a door, but significant air exchange also takes place when the wind is blowing in the same direction as an open, out-facing door. The massive movement of the air in the wind can draw air out of the house. The hot air pulled out will be replaced by cooler, outside air. This wind induced cooling can be significant. One of the most efficient greenhouse ventilation systems is derived from the use of roof-ridge vents that follow part of or the total length of the roof ridge (Picture 3). This passive system offers outstanding ventilation when combined with adequate intake vents. This type of ventilation is often found in commercial greenhouses. As greenhouse size increases, the need for roof- and/or fan- assisted ventilation also increases. One of the least expensive greenhouse ventilation systems is the roll-up or drop-down wall design. This system utilizes plastic sheeting for wall (and in many cases roofing) material. While temporary greenhouses may utilize Visqueentype materials, their longevity is often seasonal at 12

Picture 2. Door vents and high ceilings in small greenhouses can provide adequate ventilation.

best. UV-inhibited, commercial greenhouse-grade film plastics have a much greater usable lifespan. This type of system is regularly incorporated in low-budget greenhouses utilizing a wooden frame, over which the plastic glazing is placed. The nice thing about this type of design is that the walls can be rolled up or down (design dependent) to achieve desirable ventilation (Picture 4). Mechanical ventilation systems are primarily a fan, or series of fans, a control system and a vent, or series of vents, to allow air movement. Fans used in conjunction with adequate air-intake systems may enhance temperature control over natural ventilation systems.

Fans
Fans can either push fresh air into a greenhouse or they can exhaust the greenhouse air to the outside, which

Figure 1. Adapted with permission from Greenhouses for Homeowners and Gardeners (NRAES-137).

opposite the fan encourages airflow through the greenhouse. An open door near the fan encourages air to vent through the easiest method possible and not travel the length of the house to exit through the vent as desired. The fan capacity must match the louver or vent-flow capability. Fan capacity the volume of air a fan can move in one minute is measured in cubic feet per minute (cfm). For Alaska, the movement of 12 cubic feet of air volume per minute, per square foot of floor area, gives an acceptable standard from which to measure fan output. As an example, Picture 5 shows a greenhouse measuring 16 feet x 24 feet or 384 square feet of floor space. Multiplying 384 square feet by 12 (standard for measuring fan output) gives the required cfm (4,608) to adequately ventilate the greenhouse (if a fan and louvered ventilation system are used). A cooling fan system, while effective in most situations, is limited to a greenhouse length of 150 feet. Fans are rated at different cfm outputs under no air drag (free air) as well as at one or more static pressure (sp) values, which take into account air friction created from air movement restrictions such as air passing through inlet louver vents. When using these vents, Alaska greenhouse fan capacity ratings of 1/8 (0.125 sp) inch water static pressure should be used, rather than those listed under free air values. If more restrictive insect screening or evaporative cooling pads are used, fan capacities of (0.250 sp) inch water static pressure values (or greater) should be used. Static pressure values should be readily found in the manufacturers technical data. Table 12 summarize typical fan performance under two static pressure values. Since ventilation needs change throughout the season, consider two-speed fans or variable speed fans (Picture 6). A slow speed is adequate to circulate air and CO2 through out the house while a much higher capacity of airflow will be necessary to vent the heat on a bright, sunny day.

Picture 3: Roof ridge vents are shown at Trinity Greenhouse in Kenai. Picture 4: The drop-down wall design provides inexpensive but effective ventilation.

will pull fresh air in through the vents. Although there is no special preference, most commercial operations use exhausting fans and inletting vents to allow replacement air to come in from outside. In a freestanding greenhouse, it is customary to put the fans on one end of the house and the vents on the other end (Picture 5). This arrangement gives a good airflow across the greenhouse crop. Locate the fans so they exhaust with the direction of the prevailing winds. This will cause the normal wind patterns to help the fan. The fans would have to work much harder to force the exhaust air against the wind pressure. Winds oriented into vents and out of exhaust fans will yield greater than a 10-percent increase in efficiency compared to the opposite wind orientation. A strategically placed door opening can enhance or hinder the fans operation. An open door in the side

Vents
Whenever you have a fan, you need a vent. If you attempt to exhaust air without providing an adequate source of replacement air, either the fan will wear out faster (since it is working harder), or air pressure will create new air sources (also known as leaks). 13

Fan speed: Increasing the revolutions per minute (RPM) of the fan blades increases the amount of air here are numerous types of fans available to the movement. Unfortunately, higher fan speed often greenhouse operator. Fans are rated by their requires larger fan motors. capacity to move volumes of air, measured in cubic feet per minute (cfm), against a certain amount of In addition to decisions on the fan design, many fans pressure. Fan capacity is greatest when there is no have motor options for 110 or 220 electrical systems resistance to moving the air. As the fan blows air into or for the amount of protection given to the motor. a closed greenhouse, the air pressure inside increases and a static pressure (sometimes called back pressure) For the more detailed information needed to properly against the fan develops. As the static pressure in size large greenhouse fans, please consult your local the house increases, the amount of air moved by the Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) fan decreases. Companies often list the air-moving professional. capacities of their fans at various static pressures. Table 12: Fan Performance at Two Static Pressures The cfm value at a static pressure of 0.125 inch (1/8 Prop diameter Air Flow (cfm) inch) of water may be the most appropriate value for Variable Speed 0 in. SP 0.125 in. SP greenhouse operations. 10 in. 585 285

The World of Industrial Fans

There are many fans to choose from and the proper choice depends on a number of factors. Type of fan: Propeller (axial) fans are best used with high volumes of air to move against a minimum static pressure. They are good for circulating air and exhausting the greenhouse. Duct fans (tube axial) have the fan mounted in a cylindrical tube or duct. This design allows the fan to operate at much higher static pressures. Duct fans are often used to distribute heated air from a furnace through an air tube to the remainder of the greenhouse.

12 in. 16 in. 18 in. 20 in. 24 in. Single Speed 18 in. 20 in. 20 in. high speed 24 in 24 in. high speed 30 in. 36 in. Two Speed 24 in.

800 1095 1880 2830 3240 2590 2955 3635 3270 3970 6075 8225 3985/3760

470 720 850 2255 2485 2190 2450 3113 2515 3240 4195 6480 3255/2995

Fan blades: As the length of the fan blade increases, Source: Adapted from Grainger, Inc. 2009. Catalog No. 400, p. 3701. the amount of air moved also increases.

Regardless of the choice of intake or exhaust fans, the vent(s) on the opposing side of the greenhouse must work in conjunction with the fan. Many small units are pushed open by the air pressure generated by the fan. Larger vents may require motors that are synchronized with the fans control system. These systems allow easier airflow since the moving air does not have to hold the vents open.

It is important that the surface area of the vent opening be at least 1.25 times the area of the fan (Table 13) or 1.5 square feet of air inlet opening per 1000 cfm of fan capacity (Bartok, 2000) to provide adequate air flow and ventilation.

For optimum efficiency, roof vents should be 1520 percent of the floor area and open downwind (Figure 1) (Aldrich and Bartok, 1994). While downwind venting offers optimum Orientation to the prevailing summer winds will make a ventilation, in Alaska it is more important to orient the position of the greenhouse east to west to maximize sun sizeable difference in cooling efficiency. and solar radiation reception. 14

Table 13. Minimum Vent Area Required in Relationship to Fan Size Fan Size Minimum Vent Area 16 in. 251 sq. in. 18 in. 318 sq. in. 20 in. 393 sq. in. 24 in. 566 sq. in. 30 in. 884 sq. in. Some mechanisms use the heat expansion of certain liquids to open vents without motors and thermostats. These openers work with vents that are less than 1015 pounds. Ventilation Placement Most ventilation systems are typically designed so that the hot air is released high in the greenhouse and the cool replacement air drawn into the lower part of the greenhouse. If this strategy is used in Alaska to extend the early or late growing seasons, the incoming replacement air may be cold enough to freeze the plants. In our extended growing conditions, it is advisable to have the cold air intake well above the crop height in the greenhouse. This allows the cold fresh air to mix with the warmer greenhouse air before coming in contact with the plants. Traditional ventilation placement should be used during the warmer parts of the growing season to maximize cooling. For best results during our summer months, windward wall and door vents should be located at approximately plant canopy level and be larger than the area of one roof vent.

Picture 6: A multi-speed fan helps regulate greenhouse temperature throughout the season.

Air Circulation As the plant grows, it takes up carbon dioxide and gives off oxygen through tiny pores in the leaves called stomates. This builds up a high concentration of oxygen and a deficit of carbon dioxide in the boundary layer between the leaf surface and the air. On the open landscape there is always enough air movement to stir the air in this boundary layer. In the greenhouse a lack of air movement can cause the plants to slow their growth rate because they cant get enough carbon dioxide to thrive. In Alaska the outside air may be frigid, so often we will circulate air within the greenhouse without exchanging it with outside air. Continuously moving air keeps the temperature more uniform, decreases relative humidity in the canopy and on the leaf surfaces and maintains the carbon dioxide level in the canopy. Locate the fan and vents to get the airflow across and through the canopy rather than under the benches or across the ridgeline. In very small (less than 300 sq. ft.) greenhouses, a furnace fan can be left on to provide circulation even when the heat is turned off. In larger houses, dedicated 8- to 16-inch circulation fans are recommended. Research at the University of Connecticut found that horizontal airflow (HAF) is best for plant health, algae management, condensation control and cost efficiency (Pundt and Smith, 2001; Bartok, 2000). Greenhouse airflow research at the University of Kentucky found that air circulation rates of 40100 cfm are ideal (Bartok, 2000). 15

Picture 5 Freestanding greenhouses usually have fans at one end of the house and vents on the other.

Fans should be installed approximately 78 feet above the floor and placed in a location about a quarter of the way along the length of the greenhouse. For every 50 feet of greenhouse length, add another circulating fan. Since these fans are rather exposed make sure that there are good grills around the blades for worker safety. The total circulation fan capacity in cfm should be about a quarter of the house volume. For example, a 20 ft. x 50 ft. x 8 ft. greenhouse would have approximately 8,000 cu. ft. of volume (20 ft. x 50 ft. x 8 ft. = 8000 cu. ft.); divide this by 0.25 ( house volume) and you get 2000 cfm of needed air movement. At lower rates of air movement, humidity and carbon dioxide related problems may develop and at higher rates (greater than 150 cfm), plant damage may occur. Table 14 offers fan size suggestions for circulating inside greenhouse air. Circulation fans are not needed when exhaust fans are running, so they should be either manually controlled or wired to turn on or off depending on exhaust fan activity (Bartok, 2000).

structure itself. Greenhouse humidity levels can be reduced by removing the moist air around the plants and replacing it with the cooler and drier outside air. Cultural Practices High relative humidity is undesirable for growing most greenhouse plants. It is one of the major contributing factors to a variety of plant diseases, including a trio of damping-off diseases and Botrytis blight, a common fungal disease of bedding plants. Adequate plant nutrition, proper plant spacing, the morning-watering of plants (so leaf areas dry during the heat of the day rather than go into the cool evening wet), proper planting dates and plant growth management are all cultural practices that go a long way toward reducing humidity and subsequent foliar disease. Ventilation and Airflow Proper ventilation and adequate internal greenhouse airflow are critical to the success of managing relative humidity in a greenhouse. Warm air holds more moisture

Table 14. Air Circulation Fan Recommendations Floor Area (sq. ft.) Fan Diameter (in.) 100 6 200 8 300 10 400 12 500 14

Air Movement (cfm) 400 600 800 1,200 1,600

Adapted from Greenhouses for Homeowners and Gardeners (NRAES-137). Above recommendations provide approximately 50-100 cfm circulation rates for greenhouses up to 50 feet in length.

Ceiling fans can be effective air circulators in greenhouses ranging from 400800 square feet that have a ceiling height of at least 10 feet. Make sure installed fan-blade height is 8 feet or more above the floor (Bartok, 2000). Also, the use of oscillating fans capable of moving air through the plant canopy can improve air circulation within small greenhouses.

than cool air. During a warm summer day the internal greenhouse air accumulates moisture; as the evening outside temperatures cool, internal air temperatures drop, reducing the water-holding capacity of this internal air until the dew point is reached, at which time water condenses on greenhouse and plant surfaces. To minimize this problem, air exchanges must take place to remove the moisture-laden internal greenhouse air and replace it with the drier, cooler outside air. If cool, this Humidity Control fresh air must next be heated (which promotes moisture A secondary role of the ventilation system is to collection), which reduces internal humidity levels. This eliminate excess humidity. If not properly vented, process should be repeated several times per hour at excess humidity condenses on the leaf surface where both sundown and sunup to effectively reduce internal it can enhance disease problems. It can also condense relative humidity levels. Care should be exercised in on the greenhouse structure where it can reduce light keeping heater flue gases from being drawn into the transmission and encourage rust and/or rot of the 16

greenhouse during this moisture-reduction process. the day. Also avoid thermostat placement that receives Horizontal airflow helps to mix the warm and cool air direct heat from your heater fan. together within a greenhouse, somewhat buffering it from dropping below the dew point (Bartok, 2000). Choose thermostats that are valued in two-degree increments. Home-type thermostats (comfort zone markings) do not offer good control. Always place at Control Systems least one thermometer by your thermostats to determine Although control systems can be as simple as an onthermostat setting accuracy. Inaccuracies should be and-off switch, more sophisticated systems such as noted and thermostats adjusted accordingly to achieve thermostats or computer-controlled fans (controllers) desired temperature settings. Cooling thermostats differ free the greenhouse operator from having to constantly from heating thermostats. A good cooling thermostat set adjust the ventilation system. It is important to locate at 70F should turn on at 72 and off at approximately the control thermostat (or sensors) at the plant canopy 68. A good heating thermostat set at 70F will turn on height in the middle of the greenhouse well away from at about 68 and off at about 72. the end-walls. The sensor should be positioned in the shade so it reads the temperature of the air and is not One of the biggest challenges facing Alaska greenhouse being heated by the sunlight directly. If direct sunlight owners with heating and cooling systems is keeping your is heating the sensor the control system will think the cooling system from running when you are heating and greenhouse is warmer than it actually is and will try conversely, keeping your heating system from running to cool the airspace more than is desired. Likewise, when you are cooling. This problem, often referred to if the sensors are placed too close to the walls of the as system overlap, can be especially difficult to control greenhouse the system will think that the house is in smaller greenhouses when we try to vent with cooler than it actually is. extremely cold outside air or heat with oversize heaters that generate excessive heat. Trying to maintain a given Thermostats temperature under these two scenarios will cause your Mechanical thermostats are usually cheaper than equipment to work simultaneously if your thermostats controllers and are commonly used in greenhouses. are adjusted too close together. Unfortunately, having They operate via a temperature sensitive liquid in a thermostats adjusted too far apart will result in erratic coiled tube. As the temperature increases, the liquid high and low temperature levels. Time and setting within the tube expands, activating a switch that turns experimentation will be required to work out the bugs a fan on. As temperatures drop, the liquid within in your system and to optimize its heating and cooling the thermostat cools and retracts, shutting off the capabilities. If system overlap is a concern, the use of fan switch. In a high-low thermostat, the liquid will multiple exhaust fans controlled by separate thermostats continue to retract in the coiled tube as temperatures can offer fine-tuning options for an additional cost. drop, until it activates another low temperature switch that can be used to turn on a heating unit within the Controllers greenhouse. Most thermostats are accurate to within A more accurate solution is to purchase a controller 56F of switch activation. Transistorized thermostats in place of a thermostat. A controller is an electronic are more expensive than mechanical ones, but are more device capable of accurately monitoring the greenhouse accurate, usually within 1F . environment. It has the ability to activate different pieces of equipment (fans, heaters, etc.) independently, Thermostat placement must be out of direct sunlight theoretically eliminating system overlap problems. and thus protected by a board or some other form Simple units are available to monitor temperature of insulation from the sunlight and solar radiation and ventilation needs, while advanced models can entering the greenhouse. Protecting thermostats from handle the above plus irrigation, lighting, etc. Another late afternoon sun is especially important in Alaska, advantage is that controllers are usually compact, as a late afternoon sun can be very intense, giving waterproof units that give good service over a wide excessively high, false readings to a thermostat. Heating variety of environmental conditions. Installation may and cooling thermostats need to be located close also be simpler as controller switches, relays and together, out of direct sunlight, preferably around plant controls come wired already. height and away from back walls that heat up during 17

Controllers will help, but may not eliminate system overlaps because the venting equipment may not act as fast as the controller, especially under Alaskas cold air conditions. Also, the wind will factor into how the controller and the working equipment will cycle. Control of the greenhouse environment will make a tremendous difference in the success of greenhouses in Alaska. By following the suggestions available in this publication, it is possible to minimize the environmental problems and frustrations commonly encountered in growing plants in greenhouses.

References

Aldrich, Robert and John W. Bartok, Jr. 1994. Greenhouse Engineering, NRAES-33. Ithaca, N.Y.: Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service. Astronomical Applications Dept. 2004. U.S. Naval Observatory, Washington, D.C. 20392-5420. Bartok, John W. 2000. Greenhouses for Homeowners and Gardeners, NRAES-137. Ithaca, N.Y.: Natural Resource, Agriculture and Engineering Service. Bellows, B. 2003. Solar Greenhouses Horticulture Resource List. ATTRA National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service: 1-35.

Beytes, C. (editor). 2003. Ball Redbook, Vol. 1: Greenhouses and Equipment. Chicago: Ball Publishing: 272. Cathey, H.M. and L.E. Campbell. 1978. Indoor Gardening Artificial Lighting, Terrariums, Hanging Baskets and Plant Selection. Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Energy Conservation for Commercial Greenhouses, NRAES-3. 2001. Ithaca, N.Y.: Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service. Fisher, P. and E. Runkle. 2004. Lighting Up Profits: Understanding Greenhouse Lighting. Willoughby, Ohio: Meister Publishing Co. Fisher, P., C. Donnelly and J. Faust. 2001. Evaluating Supplemental Light for Your Greenhouse. Ohio Florists Association Bulletin (May): 6. Grainger, Inc. 2009. Catalogue No. 400: 3701. Grainger. com. Horticultural Lighting. Philips Lighting Company, 200 Franklin Square Drive, P.O. Box 6800, Somerset, N.J. 08875-6800. Poot, J. 1984. Application of Growlight in Greenhouses. Poot Lichtenegie B.V. Westlander 42, 2636 CZ Schipluiden, The Netherlands. Pundt, L. and T. Smith. 2001. Pest Management for Vegetable Bedding Plants. University of Massachusetts Extension Fact Sheet: 1-17.

The authors would like to thank John W. Bartok, Jr., Extension professor emeritus, Department of Natural Resources Management and Engineering, University of Connecticut; Ron Sexton, owner, Trinity Greenhouse, Kenai, Alaska; and Professor Meriam G. Karlsson, School of Natural Resources and Agricultural Sciences and the Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station, University of Alaska-Fairbanks for their input and review in the development of this publication. We would also like to thank Natural Resource, Agriculture and Engineering Service for allowing us to reprint selected tables and figures.

Acknowledgements

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For more information, contact your local Cooperative Extension Service office or Jeff Smeenk, Extension Horticulture Specialist, at 907-746-9470 or jeff.smeenk@alaska.edu. Wayne Vandre, Extension Horticulture Specialist, developed this publication in 1988 and it was substantially revised by Thomas R. Jahns and Jeff Smeenk in May 2009. All photos, artwork and figures UAF Extension, unless otherwise noted.

Visit the Cooperative Extension Service website at www.uaf.edu/ces or call 1-877-520-5211

5-88/WV/1000

Reprinted July 2011

America's Arctic University

The University of Alaska Fairbanks Cooperative Extension Service programs are available to all, without regard to race, color, age, sex, creed, national origin, or disability and in accordance with all applicable federal laws. Provided in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Fred Schlutt, Director of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Alaska Fairbanks. The University of Alaska Fairbanks is an affirmative action/equal opportunity employer and educational institution. 2011 University of Alaska Fairbanks. This publication may be photocopied or reprinted in its entirety for noncommercial purposes.