Chapter 14 The Human Eye Sense organs receive stimuli from the environment and inform your body

y of any changes in the environment. Each eyeball lies in a hollow in the skull called the orbit and is attached to the skull by rectus muscles. They control eye movement. Cornea is a dome-shaped transparent layer continuous with the sclera which is responsible for of the refraction of light that occurs in the eye. It is a specialized form of the conjunctiva. Conjunctiva is a thin transparent membrane covering the sclera. It is a mucous membrane, secreting mucus to help keep the front of the eyeball moist. Iris is a circular sheet of muscles with contains a pigment which gives the eye its color. The amount of light entering the eye is controlled by two sets of involuntary muscles, the circular and radial muscles. Pupil is a hole in the center of the iris, allowing light to enter the eye. Eyelids protect the cornea from mechanical damage. It can be partly closed (squinting) so as to prevent excessive light from entering and damaging the eye. Blinking spreads tears over the cornea and conjunctiva and wipes dust particles off the cornea. Eyelashes help shield the eye from dust particles. Tear gland, lying at the corner of the upper eyelid, secretes tears which wash away dust particles, keep the cornea moist for atmospheric oxygen to dissolve which diffuses into the cornea, and to lubricate the conjunctiva, helping to reduce friction when eyelids move. Sclera is a tough white out covering of the eyeball continuous with the eyeball. It protects the eyeball from mechanical damage. Choroid is the middle layer of the eyeball (between sclera and retina). It is pigmented black to prevent internal reflection of light. It also contains blood vessels that bring oxygen and nutrients to the eyeball and remove metabolic wastes. Ciliary body is a thickened region at the front end of the choroid. It contains ciliary muscles which control the curvature or thickness of the lens. 1

Lens is a transparent, circular, biconvex structure. It is elastic and changes its shape or thickness in order to refract light onto the retina. Suspensory ligament is a tissue that attaches the edge of the lens to the ciliary body. Aqueous chamber is the space between the lens and the cornea. It is filled with aqueous humour, a transparent watery fluid which keeps the front of the eyeball firm and helps to refract light into the pupil. Vitreous chamber is the space behind the lens. It is filled with vitreous humour, a transparent jelly-like substance which keeps the eyeball firm and helps to refract light onto the retina. Retina, the innermost layer of the eyeball, is a light sensitive layer on which images are formed. It contains light sensitive cells or photoreceptors. They consist of rods and cones. Cones enable us to see colours in bright light while rods enable us to see in black and white in dim light. They are connected to the nerve endings from the optic nerve. Fovea or yellow spot is a small yellow depression in the retina situated directly behind the lens. This is where the images are normally focused and contains the greatest concentration of cones. The fovea enables a person to have detailed colour vision in bright light. Optic nerve transmits nerve impulses to the brain when the photoreceptors in the retina are stimulated. Blind spot is the region where the optic nerve never leaves the eye. It contains no rods or cones and is not sensitive to light. Cones enable us to see colors in bright light. There are red, blue, and green cones. They do not work well in dim light. Rods are more sensitive to light. They enable us to see in dim light, but only in black and white. They are sensitive to light of low intensity because they contain visual purple. When the eye is exposed to bright light, all the visual purple is bleached. Visual purple must be reformed for a person to see in the dark. This requires vitamin A. A person deficient of vitamin A may suffer from night-blindness. 2

In order for a person to see clearly, only the right amount of light should enter the eye. The size of the pupil determines how much light enters the eye. The size of the pupil is controlled by the circular and radial muscles. They are called antagonistic muscles because when one set contracts, the other set relaxes. In bright light, the circular m. contract while the radial m. relax. The pupil constricts. In dim light, the radial m. contract while the circular m. relax. The pupil dilates. Pupil reflex the pupil changes size as a result of changes in light intensity. The pupil dilates in dim light and constricts in bright light. If the light is too bright, the eyelids have to come closer together. The receptor is the retina and the effector is the iris. How do we see? The light rays are refracted through the cornea and the aqueous humor onto the lens, which causes further refraction and the rays converge to a focus on the retina. The image formed is upside down, laterally inverted, and diminished. Through nerve impulses and the optic nerve, the brain lets us see the object properly. Focusing or accommodation is the adjustment of the lens of the eye so that clear images of objects at different distances are formed on the retina. In focusing, the thickness or curvature of the lens is adjusted, allowing light rays to be focused on the retina. When a person is looking at a distant object (7m+), the ciliary muscles relax, pulling on the suspensory ligaments. They become taut, pulling on the edge of the lens. Lens become thinner and less convex, increasing its focal length. (distance between middle of lens and point of focus on the retina) Light rays from the distant object are sharply focused on the retina. When focusing on a near object, ciliary muscle contract, relaxing their pull on the SL, which relaxes the pull on the lens. The lens become thicker and more convex, decreasing its focal length. Chapter 15 Hormones 3

A hormone is a chemical substance produced in minute quantities by an endocrine gland. It is transported in the bloodstream to target organs where it exerts its effects. They influence the growth, development, and activity of an organism. Thyroxine ensures that the body grows and develops normally. Adrenaline helps the body to respond to stressful situations. It prepares the body, through increasing the heart rate and breathing rate, and metabolic rate. Hormone production must be carefully controlled to prevent disastrous results. Exocrine glands pour their secretions out of the body. Endocrine/ ductless glands secrete the hormones directly into the bloodstream. Islets of Langerhans secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon into the blodsream. Some hormone production is controlled by the nervous system while others are regulated by certain chemical substances. Hormones are produced by endocrine glands, are transported by the blood to target organs, alter the activity of one or more target organs, and are then destroyed by the liver and excreted by the kidneys. Pituitary gland secretes a number of hormones, which control the functions of several other endocrine glands. It is referred to as the master gland. It also secretes the ADH (antidiurectic hormone). Hypothalamus regulates the secretion of some pituitary hormones. Thyroid gland secretes thyroxine which controls the rate of metabolism and influences physical development. Adrenal gland (medulla) secretes adrenaline. Pancreas secrete insulin and glucagon. Ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone. Testes secrete testosterone. Regular secretion of insulin decreases blood glucose concentration by: -increasing the permeability of cell membranes to glucose, thereby increasing the rate of glucose uptake by the cells

- stimulating the liver and muscle cells to convert glucose into glycogen for storage -increasing oxidation of glucose during tissue respiration Lack of secretion of insulin makes blood glucose concentration rise. Some glucose is lost in the urine, giving rise to diabetes mellitus. The body grows weak and continuously loses weight since the muscle cells have no reserves of glycogen. The body oxidizes fats instead of glucose, producing the poison ketones. Over-secretion of insulin leads to abnormal decrease in shock. Coma and death may follow. Diabetes mellitus is a disease in which the body is unable to control its blood glucose concentration. The blood glucose concentration can reach a level that exceeds the kidneys ability to completely reabsorb all the glucose. They are at risk of developing infections of the feet, face, and eyes. Type 1 Diabetes/juvenile/early-onset diabetes develops early in a persons life. The islets of Langerhans are unable to produce sufficient insulin. These people have to inject insulin into their bodies daily. They must also have a supply of sugary food just in case. Type 2 diabetes/late-onset diabetes occurs more in overweight people. It develops when the target cells do not respond well to insulin. Lifestyle change may do, but if not, they may have to take metoformin tablets and insulin injections. Signs of diabetes are a persistently high blood glucose level, the presence of glucose in urine after a meal, and slow and difficult healing of wounds. Glucagon is produced when the concentration of blood glucose decreases below normal levels. The main target of glucagon is the liver. Glucagon increases blood glucose concentration by stimulating the conversion of glycogen, fats and amino acids, and lactic acid into glucose. Adrenaline prepares your body for fight or flight or for states of emergency. blood glucose concentration which could result into a condition called

-increases blood glucose levels by speeding up the breakdown of glycogen -increases metabolic rate, more energy -increases rate of heartbeat so that oxygen and glucose are carried faster to muscles -increases rate and depth of ventilation -constrict arterioles in skin causing paleness, channeling more blood to muscles -increases the rate of blood coagulation -causes pupils to dilate to enhance vision -contracts hair muscles, producing goose pimples Nervous Sytem involves nerve impules; impulses are transmitted by neurons; usually quick responses; responses are shortlived; may be voluntary or involuntary; usually localized Hormonal System involves hormones; hormones are transported by the blood; usually slow responses; responses may be shortlived or long lived; always involuntary; tend to affect more than one target organ Chapter 16 Reproduction in Plants To ensure the continuity of species, organism must reproduce. Asexual reproduction is the process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parents, without the fusion of gametes. Gametes are reproductive cells containing half the number of chromosomes as the normal body cell. In mitosis, a cell divides to produce 2 identical daughter cells, having the same number of chromosomes as that of the parent. Genes are hereditary materials. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of special reproductive cells called gametes. Gametes are produced in meiosis. New plants are produced from seeds which are found in fruits which are produced by flowers. Flowers may occur singly in plants or in clusters called inflorescences. Sepal are modified leaves which enclose and protect the other parts of the flower in the bud stage. All the sepals together make up the calyx. Some flowers like the Hibiscus have an epicalyx. 6

Petals are modified leaves forming the conspicuous part of the flower. All the petals together make up the corolla. In insectpollinated flowers, petals are brightly colored to attract insects and provide a platform for insects to land. Receptacle is the enlarged end of the flower stalk which bears the other parts of the flower. Pedicel is the flower stalk. Flowers that have no pedicels and are attached to the plant directly at the base are called sessile flowers. The calyx and corolla together form the perianth of the flower. Stamen is the male part of the flower. It consists of an anther and filament. A group of stamens make up the androecium. Filament is the stalk that holds the anther in a suitable position to disperse the pollen. The anther contains a vascular bundle which contains the phloem which transports sucrose (provides energy for cell division) and amino acids(synthesis of protein and protoplasm) to the anther and a xylem which transports water and mineral salts to the anther. The anther consists of 2 lobes. Each lobe contains 2 pollen sacs which contain pollen grains. The anther produces the pollen grains. When it matures, it splits open to release the grains. Pollen grains contain the male gametes. The nuclei in pollen grains contain the haploid number of chromosomes. Each pollen grain has 2 nuclei, the generative nucleus and the pollen tube nucleus or vegetative nucleus. The carpel is the female part of the flower. It consists of an ovary, a style above the ovary, and one or more stigmas. All the carpels together make up the pistil or gynoecium. The stigma is a swollen structure at the end of the style. It receives pollen grains. The mature stigma secrets a sugary fluid that stimulates the pollen grains to germinate. The style is a stalk that connects the stigma to the ovary. It holds the stigma in a suitable position to trap pollen grains. The ovary contains one or more ovules. Within each mature ovule is a female gamete called the ovum and the definitive nucleus. The ovules are attached to the placenta through a stalk called funicle. 7

Superior vs inferior ovary Bisexual vs Unisexual Monoecious vs dioecious Radially symmetrical vs bilaterally symmetrical Pollination occurs when the pollen grains are transferred from the anthers to the stigmas. It is usually brought about by wind or insects. Self-pollination vs cross-pollination Self-pollination is more favourable when the flowers are bisexual, the stigma is situated directly below the anthers, and the flower is closed. (cleistogamous) Advantages: only one parent plant is required; beneficial qualities are more likely to be passed down to the offspring; does not depend on external factors; more likely to take place; less pollen and energy wasted Disadvantages: less variety; species is less adapted to changes in the environment; offspring may become weaker, smaller, and less resistant to disease if this continues; Cross-pollination is more favorable when self-pollination is impossible; the anthers Advantages: offspring may inherit beneficial qualities from both parents; more variety; increased chance of the species surviving changes in the environment; more viable seeds are produced Disadvantages: two parents plant required; depends on external factors; lower probability of pollination occurring; more energy and pollen wasted Clitoria is an insect-pollinated flower. It is complete and bisexual. The calyx contains of 5 green sepals. It has an epicalyx with 2 green leaves. The corolla consists of 5 brightly colored petals. The large, deep blue standard petal has lines called nectar guides on it that guide insects to where the nectar is located. The androecium consists of 10 stamens with long filaments. The filaments of 9 of these are fused to form a hollow tube or trough. This trough encloses the pistil. Nectar, secreted by the flower, collects at the the anthers and stigmas in bisexual flowers mature at different times; stigmas of bisexual flowers are situated far from

bottom of the stamen trough. Thus, only an insect with a long tubular mouth or proboscis can reach the nectar. Ischaemum muticum is a wind-pollinated flower.