Resource Assessment of Potential NTFPs in Langtang National Park and Buffer Zone

Resource Assessment of Potential Non Timber Forest
Products (NTFPs) for Commercialization in Langtang
National Park and Buffer Zone (LNPBZ)

A Report

Submitted to
WWF Nepal‐Langtang National Park and Buffer Zone Support
Project (LNPBZSP)

Submitted by
Khilendra Gurung
June, 2007
Resource Assessment of NTFPs in LNPBZ 1
Acknowledgement

I am deeply indebted to WWF Nepal Program‐Langtang National Park and Buffer Zone
Support Project (LNPBZSP) for the financial and technical support to conduct this study. I
would like to express special thanks to a number of individuals for their support and kind
cooperation during the study period.

Firstly, I would like to express my sincere thanks to Mr. Ashok Baniya, Project Manager and
Mr. Hira B. Gurung; Administration and Finance Officer; Langtang National Park and
Buffer Zone Support Project for their encouragement, support, cooperation and suggestions
during the entire study period.

I am grateful to Ms. Rudriksha R. Parajuli; Senior Program Officer and Ms. Santoshi Thapa;
Program Officer‐ Mountain, WWF Nepal for their kind cooperation, support and
coordination during the study period.

My special thanks go to Mr. Gopal Ghimire; Ranger, Mr. Ramesh Basnet; Senior game scout,
Langtang National Park (LNP), Dhunche and Mr. Bhagirath Ghimire; Nepal Agro‐forestry
Foundation (NAF) for their guidance during the field work and sharing their valuable ideas
and experiences.

My heartfelt thanks go to Mr. Karmajit Tamang and Mr. Bhim B. Tamang: Indreni Buffer
Zone User Committee, Ghyangphedi VDC; Mr. Dawa Lopsang Lama; Shyaphru VDC
Buffer Zone User Committee, Shyaphru VDC; Mr. Tashi Tamang, Mr. Mingmar Gyalbu and
Mr. Ngawang Tamang, Bridim VDC Buffer Zone User Committee, Bridim VDC; Mr. Nima
Tamang, Langtang VDC, Mr. Bhim B. Tamang; Ramche VDC Buffer Zone User Committee,
Ramche VDC and Mr. Pasang Lama, Mr. Sonam Sherpa and Mr. Kami Lama; Aama Yangri
Buffer Zone User Committee, Helambu VDC for their assistance and support in the field
trip in Langtang National Park and Buffer Zone.

At last but not least, I would like to thank local communities of Ghyangphedi, Kigaun,
Lampate, Hopgel, Sisipu and Ghyangdanda villages of Ghyangphedi VDC; Bridim and
Benzam villages of Bridim VDC; Grang, Ramche and Goreshe villages of Ramche VDC and
hotel and restaurant owners of the trekking route of Shyaphru, Bridim, Langtang and
Helambu VDCs for their warm hospitality, assistance in accommodation and for providing
information of the locality.
Khilendra Gurung
June, 2007

Table of content
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Objectives 2
1.3 Limitations of the study 2
1.4 Study area 2
1.5 Previous scientific research conducted in Langtang National Park 3
CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Methodology 5
2.1.1 Primary data collection 5
2.1.1.1 Key informant survey and resource mapping 5
2.1.1.2 Identification of NTFPs 5
2.1.1.3 Inventory of NTFPs 5
2.1.1.3a Habitat identification 5
2.1.1.3b Sampling 5
2.2.1 Secondary data collection 6
2.3.1 Data processing and analysis 6
2.3.1.1 Frequency and relative frequency 6
2.3.1.2 Density and relative density 6
2.3.1.3 Population distribution parameters 7
2.3.1.4 Determination of forest types 7
2.3.1.5 Prioritization of NTFPs 7
2.3.1.6 Rapid vulnerability assessment (RVA) 8
2.3.1.7 Focus group discussion 8
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Assessment of NTFPs in LNPBZ 9
3.1.1 Assessment of NTFPs in Ghyangphedi VDC 9
3.1.1b Assessment of NTFPs in Shyaphru VDC 9
3.1.1c Assessment of NTFPs in Bridim VDC 10
3.1.1d Assessment of NTFPs in Langtang VDC 10
3.1.1e Assessment of NTFPs in Ramche VDC 11
3.1.1f Assessment of NTFPs in Helambu VDC 12
3.2 Population distribution parameters of NTFPs 12
3.2.1 Ghyangphedi VDC 12
3.2.2 Shyaphru VDC 13
3.2.3 Bridim VDC 13
3.2.4 Langtang VDC 14
3.2.5 Ramche VDC 14
3.2.6 Helambu VDC 15
3.3 Forest and vegetation types in LNPBZ 15
3.4.1 Prioritization of NTFPs in Ghyangphedi VDC

18
3.4.2 Prioritization of NTFPs in Shyaphru VDC 19
3.4.3 Prioritization of NTFPs in Bridim VDC 20
3.4.4 Prioritization of NTFPs in Langtang VDC 21
3.4.5 Prioritization of NTFPs in Ramche VDC 21
3.4.6 Prioritization of NTFPs in Helambu VDC 22
3.5 Threat analysis 23
3.5.1 RVA of NTFPs in Ghyangphedi VDC 23
3.5.2 RVA of NTFPs in Shyaphru VDC 24
3.5.3 RVA of NTFPs in Bridim VDC

25
3.5.4 RVA of NTFPs in Langtang VDC

25
3.5.5 RVA of NTFPs in Ramche VDC 26
3.5.6 RVA of NTFPs in Helambu VDC

27
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Trade and trading pattern of NTFPs in LNPBZ 28
4.1.1 Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Ghyangphedi VDC 28
4.1.2 Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Shyaphru VDC 29
4.1.3 Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Bridim VDC 29
4.1.4 Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Langtang VDC 30
4.1.5 Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Ramche VDC 30
4.1.6 Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Helambu VDC 31
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Potentiality for enterprise development in LNPBZ 32
5.1.1 Potentiality for enterprise development in Ghyangphedi VDC 32
5.1.2 Potentiality for enterprise development in Shyaphru VDC 33
5.1.3 Potentiality for enterprise development in Bridim VDC 33
5.1.4 Potentiality for enterprise development in Langtang VDC 33
5.1.5 Potentiality for enterprise development in Ramche VDC 34
5.1.6 Potentiality for enterprise development in Helambu VDC 34
5.2 Potential markets of the value added NTFP products 34
5.3 Value addition techniques of NTFPs 35
5.4 Processing technology 36
CHAPTER SIX
6.1 Biological sustainable harvesting 37
6.2 Harvesting impact on population dynamics 37
6.3 Establishing sampling areas 38
6.4 Developing a raw material sourcing plan 39
CHAPTER SEVEN
7.1 Conclusion 41
7.2 Recommendations 41
References 43
Annexes
Lists of tables
Table 1: Class distribution of NTFPs in different sites 7
Table 2: Matrix preference ranking 8
Table 3: Criteria for RVA 8
Table 4: Assessment of NTFPs in Ghyangphedi VDC 9
Table 5: Assessment of NTFPs in Shyaphru VDC 9
Table 6: Assessment of NTFPs in Bridim VDC 10
Table 7: Assessment of NTFPs in Langtang VDC 11
Table 8: Assessment of NTFPs in Ramche VDC 11
Table 9: Assessment of NTFPs in Helambu VDC 12
Table 10: Class distribution of NTFPs in Ghyangphedi VDC 12
Table 11: Class distribution of NTFPs in Shyaphru VDC 13
Table 12: Class distribution of NTFPs in Bridim VDC 13
Table 13: Class distribution of NTFPs in Langtang VDC 14
Table 14: Class distribution of NTFPs in Ramche VDC 14
Table 15: Class distribution of NTFPs in Helambu VDC 15
Table 16: Matrix preference ranking of NTFPs in Ghyangphedi VDC 18
Table 17: Matrix preference ranking of NTFPs in Shyaphru VDC 19
Table 18: Matrix preference ranking of NTFPs in Bridim VDC 20
Table 19: Matrix preference ranking of NTFPs in Langtang VDC 21
Table 20: Matrix preference ranking of NTFPs in Ramche VDC 22
Table 21: Matrix preference ranking of NTFPs in Helambu VDC 22
Table 22: RVA analysis of NTFPs in Ghyangphedi VDC 23
Table 23: RVA analysis of NTFPs in Shyaphru VDC 24
Table 24: RVA analysis of NTFPs in Bridim VDC 25
Table 25: RVA analysis of NTFPs in Langtang VDC 26
Table 26: RVA analysis of NTFPs in Ramche VDC 26
Table 27: RVA analysis of NTFPs in Helambu VDC 27
Table 28: Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Ghyangphedi VDC 28
Table 29: Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Shyaphru VDC 29
Table 30: Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Bridim VDC 29
Table 31: Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Langtang VDC 30
Table 32: Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Ramche VDC 30
Table 33: Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Helambu VDC 31
Table 34: Potentiality for enterprise development in Ghyangphedi VDC 32
Table 35: Potentiality for enterprise development in Shyaphru VDC 33
Table 36: Potentiality for enterprise development in Bridim VDC 33
Table 37: Potentiality for enterprise development in Langtang VDC 34
Table 38: Potentiality for enterprise development in Ramche VDC 34
Table 39: Potentiality for enterprise development in Helambu VDC 34
Table 40: Potential markets for NTFPs products 35
Table 41: Value addition techniques of NTFPs 35
Table 42: Processing technology and application 36
Table 43: Rapid assessment of harvesting effects on population dynamics 38
Table 44: Recommended optimal harvesting practices for sustainable
NTFPs product use 39

Lists of boxes
Box 1: Checklist to assess harvesting sustainability of forest products 37
Box 2: Check list for raw materials sourcing plan 40

Lists of maps
Map 1: Map of study area 4

Abbreviations and Acronyms

ANSAB: Asia Network for Sustainable Agriculture and Bio‐resources

BDS‐MaPS: Business Development Services‐Marketing Production and Services

BZCFUGs: Buffer Zone Community Forest User Groups

BZUCs: Buffer Zone User Committees

BZUGs: Buffer Zone User Groups

DPR: Department of Plant Resources

FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization

HMG: His Majestyʹs Government

IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

kg: Kilogram

LNP: Langtang National Park

LNPBZ: Langtang National Park and its Buffer Zone

LNPBZSP: Langtang National Park and Buffer Zone Support Project

m.: Meter

MAPs: Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

MIS: Marketing Information System

MPR: Matrix Preference Ranking

NAF: Nepal Agro‐forestry Foundation
NARMSAP: Natural Resource management Sector Assistance Program

NRs.: Nepali Rupees

NSCFP: Nepal Swiss Community Forestry Project

NTFPs: Non Timber Forest Products

Pc: Piece
pl: Plant

Rel.: Relative

RVA: Rapid Vulnerability Assessment

SNV: The Netherlands Development Organization

TISC: Tree Improvement and Silviculture Component

VDCs: Village Development Committees

WAGs: Women Awareness Groups

WWF: World Wildlife Fund

Executive Summary

Langtang National Park and Buffer Zone (LNPBZ) harbors rich source of Non Timber
Forest Products (NTFPs) diversity due to its diverse geography and climatic variations.
Local communities have been using NTFPs as food supplements, medicines, dyes, fiber,
clothing, construction, energy and support to farm nutrients and livestock feed. However,
they are not benefited from the resources due to the lack of knowledge on the resources,
their market value and their potentiality for cultivation and value addition.

In this aspect, resource assessment of potential NTFPs for commercialization in LNPBZ was
carried out in four VDCs of Rasuwa, lying in the core area of LNP viz. Ramche, Shyaphru,
Bridim and Langtang VDCs; one VDC of Nuwakot viz. Ghyangphedi VDC and one VDC of
Sindhupalchok viz. Helambu VDC; both lying at the buffer zone of LNP.

Key informant survey and ecological inventory tools were used during the assessment in
the field. Data obtained from the field were analyzed to find out frequency, relative
frequency, density, relative density, population distribution parameters, matrix preference
ranking, rapid vulnerability assessment, potentiality for value addition and market linkage,
etc.

Assessment of NTFPs in LNPBZ revealed that altogether 269 species were recorded from
the studied VDCs. Among them 157 NTFP species were recorded from Ghyangphedi VDC,
170 species from Shyaphru VDC, 129 species from Bridim VDC, 127 species from Langtang
VDC, 93 from Ramche VDC and 168 from Helambu VDC

Prioritization of NTFP species were based on 8 principal criteria viz. (i) highly demanded
commercial species (ii) species having high market price (iii) having potential for domestic
value addition (iv) species available over wide geographical range (v) species harvestable in
short rotation period (vi) land fertility requirement for species (vii) species importance in
ethnobotany and (viii) species conservation status.

Current study showed that prioritized NTFPs of LNPBZ for value addition and marketing
linkage and further assessment are Allo (Girardinia diversifolia), Argeli (Edgeworthia gardneri),
Ban lasun (Fritillaria cirrhosa), Banmara (Eupatorium adenophorum), Bhuichuk (Hippophae
tibetana), Chirayito (Swertia chirayita), Chutro (Berberis asiatica), Dalechuk (Hippophae
salicifolia), Dhasingre (Gaultheria fragrantissima), Dhupi (Juniperus recurva), Gurans
(Rhododendron arboreum), Jatamansi (Nardostachys grandiflora), Jhyau (Parmelia sp), Lek timur
(Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum), Lokta (Daphne bholua and D. papyracea), Majitho (Rubia manjith),
Sano malingo (Arundinaria racemosa), Satuwa (Paris polyphylla), Sugandhawal (Valeriana
jatamansii), Sunpati (Rhododendron anthopogon), Timur (Zanthoxylum armatum) and Titepati
(Artemisia dubia and A. indica).

Rapid vulnerability assessment (RVA) analysis was carried out for the prioritized NTFP
species of respective VDCs of the study area within LNPBZ. RVA was conducted on the
basis of the following criteria: i) ecology, ii) life form, iii) parts used and iv) harvesting
method.

The most vulnerable NTFPs of LNPBZ are Allo (Girardinia diversifolia), Bhale sunpati
(Rhododendron setosum), Bhramsi (Viburnum mullaha), Bhulna (Persea clarkeana), Dalechuk
(Hippophae salicifolia), Dhasingre (Gaultheria fragrantissima), Dhupi (Juniperus recurva), Gurans
(Rhododendron arboreum), Lek timur (Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum), Lokta (Daphne bholua),
Malingo (Thamnocalamus spathiflorus and Yushania microphylla), Sano malingo (Arundinaria
racemosa), Sunpati (Rhododendron anthopogon) and Tite nigalo (Drepanostachyum intermedium).

Few villagers are engaged in the cultivation, collection and trade of NTFPs as seasonal and
additional source of income in LNPBZ. Despite the provision of restriction on collection,
processing and trade of forest products by National Parkʹs regulation, illegal collection and
trade of forest products are still prominent in forests of core areas and also from the buffer
zone community forests.

The traded NTFPs or NTFP products in LNPBZ are basketry made of Malingo and Nigalo,
and cultivated crude NTFPs as Sugandhawal, Chirayito and Argeli white skin. While, Lokta
bark, Lichens and Seabuckthorn fruits are collected unsustainably and traded illegally in
different locations of the enterprise sites of the district and Kathmandu markets.
Also, Sunpati, Dhupi, Timur, Ban lasun and Yarsha gumba are collected for local level
consumption.

Enterprise development potentialities assessment in LNPBZ revealed that, there are
immense potentialities of enterprise set up for the product lines as herbal incense, bio‐
briquette, edible oil expelling, herbal drinks/juice making, handicrafts and basketry, organic
insecticide/pesticide, cultivation of NTFPs, collective marketing centre for crude herbs and
NTFPs and essential oils extraction (Artemisia oil and Wintergreen oil) in various locations
of LNPBZ.

For genesis, operation and growth of forest based enterprise in LNPBZ; a biologically
sustainable harvesting mechanism should be prepared for each buffer zone community
forest and forests within National Park. Moreover, some factors that contribute to or hinder
the genesis, operation and growth of enterprises should be taken into account. These
include: awareness raising, technical assistance, financial support, marketing support,
marketing outlets, community characteristics, natural resource base, technology, policy
factors, enterprise consequences and natural resource conservation.

The communities’ motivation towards entrepreneurship, institutionalization of user groups
and regulatory mechanisms for sustainable harvesting of NTFPs would definitely create the
income generating opportunities and would assist in the conservation of biodiversity in
LNPBZ.

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Introduction
The diverse geography and climate of Nepal has rendered it a unique land of Non Timber
Forest Products (NTFPs) along with other natural resources. NTFPs have been welfare,
subsistence or livelihood commodity for the people residing in rural mountainous areas of
Nepal since long. The high mountain NTFPs are highly praised for high potency and
organic nature, hence they fetch higher prices.

The importance of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) has increased progressively over
the last two decades. Herbal remedies are increasingly becoming mainstream consumer
products manufactured by multi‐national companies amongst other, and sold in super
market chains and in a variety of other outlets, globally. Food supplements, cosmetics,
fragrances, traditional cuisine, dyeing and coloring agents are just a few of the application
where NTFPs are finding increasing use by the day. As a result there is growing demand of
Nepalese MAPs and other NTFPs for these purposes.

In spite of all advantages, the government is still not able to harness the full potential of
NTFPs for the welfare of rural communities. The major constraints for such situation are
considered to be low capital investments both by the government and private sectors for the
overall promotion of NTFPs including commercial cultivation, enterprise development and
the perpetual marketing of quality products; government’s unclear investment policy, lack
of proper documentation on species availability (or bio‐prospecting) and uses and poor
awareness among public on its values.

Langtang National Park and its Buffer Zone (LNPBZ) harbors rich source of NTFPs
diversity. Local communities have been using NTFPs as food supplements, medicines, dyes,
fiber, clothing, construction, energy and support to farm nutrients and livestock feed.
However, they are not benefited from the resources due to the lack of knowledge on the
resources, their market value and their potentiality for cultivation and value addition.

After the declaration of Langtang National Park in 1976 and Buffer Zone in 1998, the
concept of conservation of the plant resources have been introduced and institutionalized.
But the proper resource assessment for their commercialization using ecological parameters
has not been carried out.

Conservation initiatives through sustainable use of NTFPs would uplift livelihood of local
communities if: a) communities take on increased responsibility for management of forest
resources; b) ecological monitoring and biologically sustainable harvesting practices are
developed; c) communities have greater access to market linkage; d) communities sustain
forest based enterprise with equal benefit sharing mechanism and e) communities adopt
both indigenous and scientific knowledge for appropriate management systems.


To address the current needs, one way would be the initiation for the commercial
cultivation of valuable NTFPs, their processing at local level and market linkage of raw or
processed products via community initiatives. It is essential that women awareness groups
(WAGs), underprivileged groups and buffer zone user committees (BZUCs) and buffer
zone community forest user groups (BZCFUGs) are included in such a model. The women
and underprivileged groups should be transformed to skillful entrepreneur and BZCFUGs
and BZUGs, a commercial entity taking the responsibility of resource conservation and
management. The semi processed and processed NTFPs products produced from such
enterprises should be market linked after the value addition at the local level thereby
benefiting the local communities.

In this aspect, the proposed study would be justifiable in terms of linking local livelihood
with resource conservation and management, initiating community based forest enterprise
and its linkage to market through product promotion. It would certainly assist in
conserving the biodiversity of the LNPBZ and assist in livelihood of the local communities,
which is the ultimate goal set up by WWF Nepal‐Langtang National Park and Buffer Zone
Support Project (LNPBZSP).

1.2 Objectives
The overall objective is to explore the prospects of NTFPs in LNPBZ having potentiality for
commercialization and seek possibility of market linkage.
The specific objectives are as follows:
1. To conduct the resource assessment of NTFPs in LNPBZ
2. To prioritize NTFPs on the basis of trade value and threat
3. To identify NTFPs products that can be value added locally
4. To assess the current market status and trading pattern of NTFPs at local level
5. To recommend steps to be followed by community for sustainable harvesting of NTFPs

1.3 Limitations of the study
The field work was conducted during April‐May, 2007 for 30 days only in six VDCs within
LNPBZ. During the study period several high valued NTFPs like Bikh/Bikhma (Aconitum
spp), Nirmasi (Delphinium himalayi), Kutki (Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora), Padam chaal
(Rheum australe), Yarsa gumba (Cordyceps sinensis) etc. were not regenerated and therefore
not documented in the report. Regeneration studies were not carried out due to limited time
frame for the field study and dry conditions in high altitude areas. Apparently the area
harbors much more species than listed in the report. Field study during June ‐July will be
more comprehensive in terms of species richness in high altitude areas.

1.4 Study area
Altogether 6 Village Development Committees (VDCs) within Langtang National Park and
its Buffer Zone viz. 4 VDCs of Rasuwa district (Ramche, Shyaphru, Bridim and Langtang), 1

VDC of Nuwakot district (Ghyangphedi) and 1 VDC of Sindhupalchok district (Helambu)
were chosen for the study.

The forests of Thade, Grang, Ramche and Goreshe villages were studied in Ramche VDC.
Scrublands around Gosain kunda, Lauribinayak, Phorpang danda, Sukpa kharka and
forests around Cholangpati, Sing gompa, Dhimsa, Deurali, Ghatte khola, Thulo bharkhu,
Sano bharkhu, Shyaphru besi, Thulo shyaphru, Dhursagong village, Pahiro, Bamboo and
Brabal villages were studied in Shyaphru VDC. Similarly, forests around Wangel, Bridim,
Dazaar, Khanjim, Benzam villages and scrubland around Godegong, Jharo kharka and
Pansang pass were studied in Bridim VDC. Likewise, forests around Rimche, Chengdong,
Gumnachong, Chhunama, Ghoda tabela villages and forests and scrublands of Thangshyap,
Chyamki, Langtang, Mundu, Kyangjing villages and scrublands around Bhrakyang pass,
Menchhyamsa pass and Langsisa were studied in Langtang VDC.

Whereas, forests around Negi, Bolung, Katunje, Neglini, Ghyangphedi, Kigaun,
Chyamdung, Hopgel, Singache, Sisipu, Gongong, Ghyawar chaur, Chetang, Talu and
Kaseri villages and scrublands around Suryakunda phedi, Suryakunda high camp and
Suryakunda were studied in Ghyangphedi VDC. While, forests of Timbu, Yamba lamba,
Kakani, Ghangul, Tashithang, Tarkeghyang, Chirighyang, Nakote, Melamchighyang and
forests and scrublands around Thade pati, Mongen goth, Deurali danda, Aama yangri peak
were studied in Helambu VDC.
The study area is inhabited by a variety of indigenous communities, which to some extent
have become intermingled. The communities of Langtang, Bridim and Shyaphru VDCs are
believed to be Bhotiyas, probably originating from the Kyirong area in Tibet two or three
centuries ago. People living in Ramche and Ghyangphedi VDCs are predominantly
Tamangs. Majority of the inhabitants of Helambu VDC who call themselves ʹSherpasʹ but
there is historical evidence that they also originated from the Kyirong area and are
ʹHyalmosʹ who were subsequently influenced by Tamangs. However, few Sherpas are
residing in Bridim, Ghyangphedi and Helambu VDCs, along with Tamangs and Bhotiyas.
1.5 Previous scientific research conducted in Langtang National Park
A botanical survey of Langtang valley was carried out by His Majestyʹs Government of
Nepal in 1966 and vegetation surveys have been undertaken by Stainton (1972), Dobremez
et al. (1972, 1975) and Tokyo University Museum in conjunction with the Department of
Medicinal Plants (1976). The flora and fauna (mammals and birds) of the park are
documented (Green, 1981; Department of Medicinal Plants, 1986; Inskipp, 1989).

Multi‐disciplinary studies were conducted in the park and adjacent areas under the Trisuli
Watershed Development Project and by the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique,
Paris. A survey of the area was carried out in 1970‐1971 by FAO Wildlife Management
Advisor and Forest Department officers.


Subsequently, Fox (1974) completed a six‐month ecological survey of the park under the
National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Project. This was followed by the Durham
University Himalayan Expeditionʹs 18‐month socio‐ecological study (Borradaile et al., 1977).

The use of forest resources by villagers of Shyaphru and the effects of tourism on their
livelihood was examined by Joshi (1987). In 1986, over 16,000 plant specimens were
collected from the Langtang/Helambu region (Ohba and Malla, 1988).

Large mammal research includes ecological studies of Red Panda (Yonzon and Hunter,
1991a, 1991b) and Himalayan Tahr (Green, 1979), and preliminary behavioral studies of
Muntjac (Oli, 1986).

While, many academic theses and researches based on vegetation ecology, natural resource
and wildlife conservation and management and other livelihood or socio‐economic issues
were carried out in Langtang National Park and Buffer Zone, then onwards.

Map 1: Map of study area


CHAPTER TWO

2.1 Methodology
The current work was completed in four phase viz. primary data collection, secondary data
collection, data analysis and report writing. Primary data was collected from the field while
secondary data was compiled from various other related documents.

2.1.1 Primary data collection
Primary data collection was done by following methods:

2.1.1.1 Key informant survey and resource mapping
Information about the availability, current status and use of NTFPs were collected from
BZUCs and BZUGs members. Discussions were held with key informants for identification
and listing of available NTFPs, their priority ranking and for suitable site selection for the
study.

2.1.1.2 Identification of NTFPs
NTFPs were identified visually on the basis of researcherʹs knowledge and with the help of
local key informants. Unidentified species were identified consulting with the reference
literatures as HMG/Department of Medicinal Plants, 1976; Stainton and Polunin, 1984;
Stainton, 1988; Yoshida, 1994; Shrestha, 1998; Lama et al. 2001; Manandhar, 2002; IUCN,
2004 and Bista and Bista, 2005. Documentation of all available NTFPs was carried out
according toPress et al., 2000.

2.1.1.3 Inventory of NTFPs
Inventory methods include two different steps; habitat identification and sampling.

2.1.1.3a Habitat identification
The sampling was conducted in defined habitats. The identification of NTFPs habitats was
done systematically by observing at each of the following characteristics.
• Altitude
• Forest type
• Aspect
• Slope
• Plant abundance

2.1.1.3b Sampling
Following procedures were applied for the inventory of NTFPs by sampling techniques:
• At least one vertical elevation line was taken from bottom to top of the habitat. The
number of elevation line depends on the habitat width, plant density, aspect and
topography.
• For every elevation line, horizontal sampling lines were set up at 100 m elevation
intervals.
• The sampling plots were set up along the horizontal line.
• The sampling plots were determined as 1m × 1m for herbs, 5m × 5m for shrubs and 10m
× 10m for trees (Raunkiaer, 1934).
• Inventory forms were filled for every sampling plot.

2.2.1 Secondary data collection
Secondary data were collected from all the possible documents as reports, articles, maps,
official records, and other published and unpublished materials from ANSAB, HMG/DPR,
and WWF Nepal etc.

2.3.1 Data processing and analysis
Data obtained from the field were analyzed to find out frequency, relative frequency,
density, relative density, population distribution parameters, matrix preference ranking
(MPR), rapid vulnerability assessment (RVA), potentiality for value addition and market
linkage, etc.

2.3.1.1 Frequency and relative frequency
Frequency is the number of sampling units in which the particular species occur, thus
express the dispersion of various species in a community. It refers to the degree of
dispersion in terms of percentage occurrence (Raunkiaer, 1934; Zobel et al. 1987).
No. of quadrats in which species occured
Frequency = × 100
Total Number of quadrats studied
Relative frequency is frequency of a species in relation to other species.
Frequency of a species
Relative Frequency % = × 100
Total frequency of all species

2.3.1.2 Density and relative density
Density expresses the numerical strength of the presence of species in a community. It is the
number of individuals per unit area and is expressed as number per hectare (Raunkiaer,
1934; Zobel et al. 1987).
Total number of plant of any spcies

Density Pl/ha = × 10000
Total number of quadrat studied × area of quadrat
Relative density is the density of a species with respect to the total density of all species.

Density of individual species
Relative Density % = × 100
Total density of all species

2.3.1.3 Population distribution parameters
Distribution of NTFPs parameters were categorized in following ways:
Frequency Relative Frequency
High Medium Low High Medium Low
>75 31-74 <30 >15 5‐15 <5
Population density/ha Relative density
>800 300-800 <300 >15 5‐15 <5

Table 1: Class distribution of NTFPs in different sites
Source: Pyakurel (2005)

2.3.1.4 Determination of forest types
Forest types of respective VDCs under the study areas were determined by visual
observation and consulting with Stainton (1972) and HMG/TISC (2002).

2.3.1.5 Prioritization of NTFPs
Matrix preference ranking (MPR) was used to find out most preferred NTFPs. By using this
tool, the most preferred NTFP species were identified from forests of each VDC for the
detail study. The criteria of preference were made by the users, availability of the resources
and potential for value addition.
Moreover, the prioritization criteria of other development organizations like NSCFP, SNV,
ANSAB, BDS‐MaPS and matrix ranking criteria have been thoroughly examined to attain
the set objectives with proper justification.
SN Criteria Scale and value
1 Market demand High (3), moderate (2), low (1)
2 Margin/profit High (3), moderate (2), low (1)
3 Availability (in time ) Almost always (3), occasional (2), seasonal rare (1)
4 Geographical distribution Widespread (3), moderate (2), low (1)
5 Conservation status High (3), moderate (2), low (1)
6 Potential for cultivation High (3), moderate (2), low (1)
7 Regenerative potential High (3), moderate (2), low (1)
8 Contribution to income High (3), moderate (2), low (1)
9 Gender impact Only women (3), both men and women (2), only men

(1)
10 Potential for value addition High (3), moderate (2), low (1)
11 Processing technology Manual/local technology (3), mechanical/expertise
required (2), sophisticated/foreign technology (1)
12 Ethnobotanical value Diverse uses (3), medium use (2), single use (1)

Table 2: Matrix preference ranking

Source: Gurung and Pyakurel (2006) and Gurung (2007)

2.3.1.6 Rapid vulnerability assessment (RVA)
Rapid vulnerability assessment (RVA) method was used to collect information to identify
species, resources or sites that may be at risk of over exploitation. It was developed as a
quick way of collecting both scientific and indigenous information about species and has
been used to recommend whether or not that resource species is suitable for harvest.

Potential for sustainable use
Criteria
Low High
Low abundance (1) High abundance (2)
Slow growth (1) Fast growth (2)
Slow reproduction (1) Fast reproduction (2)
Both sexual and vegetative reproduction
Ecology Sexual reproduction only (1)
(2)
Habitat ‐ specific (1) Habitat ‐ non specific (2)
High habitat diversity (1) Low habitat diversity (2)
High life form diversity (1) Low life form diversity (2)
Life forms Tree and shrub (1); herb (2)
Parts used Roots, rhizomes and bulbs (1); leaves, flowers, barks, fruits (2)
Harvesting Size/age classes not selected for harvesting (2); particular size/age
methods classes selected for harvesting (1)

Table 3: Criteria for RVA

Source: Watts et al., 1996; Cunningham, 1994, 1996a, 2001; Wong and Jenifer, 2001; Gurung
and Pyakurel (2006) and Gurung (2007)

2.3.1.7 Focus group discussion
Discussion program was held at Dhunche with WWF‐LNPBZSP and Nepal Agro‐forestry
Foundation (NAF) regarding the exchange of NTFPs based activities conducted so far and
their prospects for the future collaboration and coordination. Also, the interaction was held
with NTFPs cultivators, collectors and traders to discuss about NTFPs farming, trading
pattern, and trade value at local level.


CHAPTER THREE

3.1 Assessment of NTFPs in LNPBZ
Frequency, relative frequency, density and relative density of each NTFP species were
calculated and analyzed in respective forests of the studied VDCs.

3.1.1 Assessment of NTFPs in Ghyangphedi VDC
Altogether 157 NTFP species were recorded from Ghyangphedi VDC. Among them 15
NTFP species were sorted on the basis of their potentiality for value addition, their
abundance and quantification. The details are presented in annex 1.

Table 4: Assessment of NTFPs in Ghyangphedi VDC
SN Botanical name Common name Frequency R. Frequency Density R. Density
1 Artemisia dubia Titepati 12 0.491 4340.000 1.142
2 Artemisia indica Titepati 12 0.491 7256.000 1.909
3 Arundinaria racemosa Sano malingo 12 0.491 4256.000 1.120
4 Daphne bholua Lokta (Kalo) 32 1.309 14953.600 3.935
5 Daphne papyracea Lokta (Seto) 20 0.818 8290.400 2.181
6 Drepanostachyum intermedium Tite nigalo 20 0.818 8260.000 2.173
7 Edgeworthia gardneri Argeli 20 0.818 3140.800 0.826
8 Eupatorium adenophorum Banmara 36 1.473 17999.200 4.736
9 Gaultheria fragrantissima Dhasingre/Pretete 28 1.146 7071.200 1.861
10 Girardinia diversifolia Allo 24 0.982 6852.000 1.803
11 Juniperus recurva Dhupi 20 0.818 4448.000 1.170
12 Rhododendron anthopogon Sunpati 16 0.655 8964.000 2.359
13 Swertia chirayita Chirayito 36 1.473 8667.200 2.280
14 Thamnocalamus spathiflorus Malingo (Jarbuto) 12 0.491 5892.800 1.550
15 Yushania microphylla Malingo 12 0.491 7664.800 2.017

3.1.1b Assessment of NTFPs in Shyaphru VDC
Altogether 170 NTFP species were recorded from Shyaphru VDC. Among them 15 NTFP
species were sorted on the basis of their potentiality for value addition, their abundance and
quantification. The details are presented in annex 2.

Table 5: Assessment of NTFPs in Shyaphru VDC
SN Botanical name Local name Frequency R. Frequency Density R. Density
1 Artemisia dubia Titepati 34.38 1.348 14843.750 3.054
2 Daphne bholua Lokta (Kalo) 37.5 1.471 16435.000 3.382
3 Daphne papyracea Lokta (Seto) 25 0.980 9703.125 1.996
4 Eupatorium adenophorum Banmara 21.88 0.858 11968.750 2.463
5 Girardinia diversifolia Allo 15.63 0.613 5021.875 1.033
6 Hippophae salicifolia Dalechuk 15.63 0.613 843.125 0.173
7 Juniperus recurva Dhupi 34.38 1.348 5896.875 1.213
8 Parmelia sp Jhyau 71.88 2.819 5791.875 1.192
9 Prinsepia utilis Dhatelo/ 46.88 1.838 3651.875 0.751
Melong
10 Rhododendron anthopogon Sunpati 15.63 0.613 25868.750 5.323
11 Rhododendron setosum Bhale Sunpati 28.13 1.103 21696.250 4.464
12 Swertia chirayita Chirayito 15.63 0.613 6646.875 1.368
13 Valeriana jatamansii Sugandhawal/ 18.75 0.735 5053.125 1.040
Lunpai
14 Viburnum mullaha Bhramsi 28.13 1.103 3776.250 0.777
15 Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Lek Timur 12.5 0.490 1828.125 0.376
3.1.1c Assessment of NTFPs in Bridim VDC
Altogether 129 NTFPs were enlisted from Bridim VDC. Among them 15 NTFP species were
sorted on the basis of their potentiality for value addition, their abundance and
quantification. The details are given in annex 3.

Table 6: Assessment of NTFPs in Bridim VDC
2 Daphne papyracea Seto Lokta 41.67 1.244 9635.000 1.558
3 Elaeagnus parvifolia Rallu 50 1.493 6070.000 0.982
6 Nardostachys grandiflora Jatamansi/Pangpai 8.333 0.249 7725.000 1.249
7 Parmelia sp Jhyau 100 2.985 11030.000 1.784
8 Persea clarkeana Bhulna 50 1.493 4401.667 0.712
9 Prinsepia utilis Dhatelo/Melong 41.67 1.244 4698.333 0.760
10 Rhododendron anthopogon Sunpati 8.333 0.249 8166.667 1.321
12 Valeriana jatamansii Sugandhawal/ 25 0.746 6116.667 0.989
Lungpai
13 Viburnum mullaha Bhramsi 33.33 0.995 2728.333 0.441
14 Yushania microphylla Malingo 25 0.746 7435.000 1.202
15 Zanthoxylum armatum Timur 25 0.746 3951.667 0.639

3.1.1d Assessment of NTFPs in Langtang VDC
Altogether 127 NTFPs were enlisted from Langtang VDC. Among them 15 NTFP species
were sorted on the basis of their potentiality for value addition, their abundance and
quantification. The details are given in annex 4.

Table 7: Assessment of NTFPs in Langtang VDC
SN Botanical name Common Frequency R. Frequency Density R. Density
name
2 Arundinaria racemosa Sano malingo 19.05 0.755 11361.905 1.797
3 Cotoneaster frigidus Ruis 33.33 1.321 3247.619 0.514
5 Daphne papyracea Lokta (Seto) 9.524 0.377 2352.381 0.372
6 Drepanostachyum intermedium Tite nigalo 9.524 0.377 4300.000 0.680
7 Ephedra gerardiana Somlata 38.1 1.509 39138.095 6.192
8 Fritillaria cirrhosa Ban Lasun 14.29 0.566 5128.571 0.811
10 Hippophae salicifolia Dalechuk 61.9 2.453 7853.333 1.242
11 Hippophae tibetana Bhuichuk 19.05 0.755 11271.429 1.783
12 Rhododendron anthopogon Sunpati/Barlu 28.57 1.132 27042.857 4.278
13 Rhododendron setosum Bhale Sunpati 42.86 1.698 73352.381 11.605
14 Yushania microphylla Malingo 33.33 1.321 15271.429 2.416

3.1.1e Assessment of NTFPs in Ramche VDC
Altogether 93 NTFPs were enlisted from Ramche VDC. Among them 15 NTFP species were
sorted on the basis of their potentiality for value addition, their abundance and

Table 8: Assessment of NTFPs in Ramche VDC
2 Berberis asiatica Chutro 75 2.507 14143.333 2.179
3 Daphne bholua Lokta (Kalo) 25 0.836 17050.000 2.626
5 Edgeworthia gardneri Argeli 33.33 1.114 8025.000 1.236
Dhasingre/
6 Gaultheria fragrantissima Chenjoa 33.33 1.114 23121.667 3.562
7 Lycopodium clavatum Nagbeli 58.33 1.950 18575.000 2.861
8 Paris polyphylla Satuwa 33.33 1.114 1263.333 0.195
10 Potentilla fructicosa Bajradanti 100 3.342 52760.000 8.127
11 Rhododendron arboreum Lali Gurans 58.33 1.950 2483.333 0.383
12 Rhododendron lepidotum Nakkali Sunpati 33.33 1.114 8108.333 1.249
13 Swertia chirayita Chirayito 50 1.671 13533.333 2.085
14 Wikstroemia canescens Kagaj Pate 50 1.671 11350.000 1.748

3.1.1f Assessment of NTFPs in Helambu VDC
Altogether 168 NTFPs were recorded from Helambu VDC. Among them 15 NTFP species
were sorted on the basis of their potentiality for value addition, their abundance and
Table 9: Assessment of NTFPs in Helambu VDC
1 Artemisia dubia Tite Pati 18.182 0.562 11327.273 1.909
5 Drepanostachyum intermedium Tite Nigalo 22.727 0.702 2310.000 0.389
6 Edgeworthia gardneri Argeli 4.5455 0.140 601.818 0.101
8 Gaultheria fragrantissima Dhasingre/Chenjoa 50 1.545 18766.364 3.162
12 Rubia manjith Majitho 36.364 1.124 15207.273 2.562
14 Wikstroemia canescens Kagaj Pate 4.5455 0.140 818.182 0.138
15 Yushania microphylla Malingo 9.0909 0.281 763.636 0.129

3.2 Population distribution parameters of NTFPs
3.2.1 Ghyangphedi VDC
Table 10: Class distribution of NTFPs in Ghyangphedi VDC
SN Botanical name Frequency R. Frequency Density R. Density
1 Artemisia dubia Low Low High Low
2 Artemisia indica Low Low High Low
3 Arundinaria racemosa Low Low High Low
4 Daphne bholua Medium Low High Low
5 Daphne papyracea Low Low High Low
6 Drepanostachyum intermedium Low Low High Low
7 Edgeworthia gardneri Low Low High Low
8 Eupatorium adenophorum Medium Low High Low
9 Gaultheria fragrantissima Low Low High Low
10 Girardinia diversifolia Low Low High Low
11 Juniperus recurva Low Low High Low
12 Rhododendron anthopogon Low Low High Low
13 Swertia chirayita Medium Low High Low
14 Thamnocalamus spathiflorus Low Low High Low
15 Yushania microphylla Low Low High Low


3.2.2 Shyaphru VDC
Table 11: Class distribution of NTFPs in Shyaphru VDC
1 Artemisia dubia Medium Low High Low
2 Daphne bholua Medium Low High Low
4 Eupatorium adenophorum Low Low High Low
6 Hippophae salicifolia Low Low High Low
7 Juniperus recurva Medium Low High Low
8 Parmelia sp Medium Low High Low
9 Prinsepia utilis Medium Low High Low
10 Rhododendron anthopogon Low Low High Medium
11 Rhododendron setosum Low Low High Low
12 Swertia chirayita Low Low High Low
13 Valeriana jatamansii Low Low High Low
14 Viburnum mullaha Low Low High Low
15 Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Low Low High Low

3.2.3 Bridim VDC
Table 12: Class distribution of NTFPs in Bridim VDC
1 Artemisia dubia Medium Low High Low
2 Daphne papyracea Medium Low High Low
3 Elaeagnus parvifolia Medium Low High Low
4 Eupatorium adenophorum Medium Low High Low
6 Nardostachys grandiflora Low Low High Low
7 Parmelia sp High Low High Low
8 Persea clarkeana Medium Low High Low
9 Prinsepia utilis Medium Low High Low
12 Valeriana jatamansii Low Low High Low
13 Viburnum mullaha Medium Low High Low
14 Yushania microphylla Low Low High Low
15 Zanthoxylum armatum Low Low High Low


3.2.4 Langtang VDC
Table 13: Class distribution of NTFPs in Langtang VDC
3 Cotoneaster frigidus Medium Low High Low
4 Daphne bholua Low Low High Low
7 Ephedra gerardiana Medium Low High Medium
8 Fritillaria cirrhosa Low Low High Low
10 Hippophae salicifolia Medium Low High Low
11 Hippophae tibetana Low Low High Low
13 Rhododendron setosum Medium Low High Medium
14 Yushania microphylla Medium Low High Low
15 Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Medium Low High Low

3.2.5 Ramche VDC
Table 14: Class distribution of NTFPs in Ramche VDC
2 Berberis asiatica High Low High Low
3 Daphne bholua Low Low High Low
5 Edgeworthia gardneri Medium Low High Low
6 Gaultheria fragrantissima Medium Low High Low
7 Lycopodium clavatum Medium Low High Low
8 Paris polyphylla Medium Low High Low
9 Parmelia sp Medium Low High Low
10 Potentilla fructicosa High Low High Medium
11 Rhododendron arboreum Medium Low High Low
12 Rhododendron lepidotum Medium Low High Low
13 Swertia chirayita Medium Low High Low
14 Wikstroemia canescens Medium Low High Low
15 Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Low Low Low Low


3.2.6 Helambu VDC
Table 15: Class distribution of NTFPs in Helambu VDC
3 Daphne bholua Medium Low High Medium
6 Edgeworthia gardneri Low Low Medium Low
7 Eupatorium adenophorum Low Low High Low
8 Gaultheria fragrantissima Medium Low High Low
11 Parmelia sp High Low High Low
12 Rubia manjith Medium Low High Low
14 Wikstroemia canescens Low Low High Low
15 Yushania microphylla Low Low Medium Low

3.3 Forest and vegetation types in LNPBZ
Langtang National Park is representative of the Central Nepal Himalaya, which supports a
high diversity of flora due to its location at the junction of Eastern and Western extremities
of speciesʹ distributions. A great variety of vegetation types is present, ranging from sub‐
tropical forest to alpine meadows in the studied areas.
The ecological zones of the study areas of the concerned VDCs encompass the following
forest and vegetation types:

a. Chir Pine Forest
The chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) forest, also known as sub‐tropical pine forest occurs
between 1000‐2000m on south facing slopes. Chir pine forest generally does not have a
second storey of small trees. It is mixed with oaks at its upper limit and does not have
climbers and epiphytes and the ground vegetation is also poor. The forest floor is generally
covered with a brown carpet of dried needles.

b. Chir Pine‐Broadleaved Forest
The chir pine‐broadleaved forest occurs between 1000‐2000m. It is generally composed of
Pinus roxburghii, Quercus spp, Rhododendron arboreum, Lyonia ovalifolia, Erythrina stricta and
Schima wallichii. This forest type represents the hygrophilic (humid) form of the chir pine
forest.


c. Schima‐Castanopsis Forest
True representation of Schima‐Castanopsis forest type in natural state is scarce. Studies on the
remaining vegetation have revealed that this zone may be identified as Schima‐Castanopsis
zone. Schima wallichii is associated with Castanopsis indica at lower elevations (1000‐1500m)
and with Castanopsis tribuloides at higher elevations (1500‐2000m). However, in some areas
both the species of Castanopsis is found associated of Schima wallichii because their range of
altitudinal distribution is not sharply differentiated. Other common associates of this forest
are Rhododendron arboreum, Lyonia ovalifoila, Eurya acuminata, Quercus sp, Juglans regia,
Duabanga sp etc.

d. Alder Forest
Alder (Alnus nepalensis) forms a dense forest in the sub‐tropical region (1000‐27000m) along
moist sites such as ravines, river banks and fresh landslides with excessive moisture. Alder
trees have proved to be useful for restoring fresh landslides and also for providing green
cover of abandoned terraces. The role of Alnus nepalensis supported closely by Eupatorium
adenophorum as a pioneer species has been significant in the restoration ecology of Nepal.

e. Himalayan Oak‐Laurel forest
This forest type occurs between 2000‐2500m on the south of the main Himalayan range.
This forest is characterized by the occurrence of oak (Quercus lanata) and a number of
evergreen lauraceous trees as Litsea sp, Dodecadenia sp, Neolitsea sp, Lindera pulcherrima,
Persea sp, Symplocos sp and Lyonia ovalifolia.

f. Mixed Rhododendron‐Maple forest
This forest is also known as mixed broadleaved forest lying between elevations of 2600‐
3000m. Rhododendron arboreum and species of maple (Acer campbelli and A. pectinatum)
remain prominent in this forest type. A number of laurels and other evergreen shrubs as
Symplocos spp. and Ilex spp. form the second storey; in some areas, Tsuga dumosa are found
in this forest type.

g. Temperate Mountain Oak forest
The oak forest (Quercus semecarpifolia) occupies montane level at altitude of 2500‐3000m. On
humid slopes, oak is associated with hemlock (Tsuga dumosa), rhododendrons and maples.
Some understorey layers of laurels (Neolitsea sp, Lindera pulcherrima and Dodecadenia
grandiflora) occur in this forest.

h. Fir‐Hemlock‐Oak forest
It occurs in lower sub‐alpine and upper temperate zones at 2800‐3400m, characterized by
the dominance of silver fir (Abies spectabilis) mixed with hemlock (Tsuga dumosa) on the
northern aspects and with oak (Quercus semecarpifolia) on southern aspects.

i. Rhododendron forest
Rhododendron arboreum forest is widely found in coniferous forest zone with scattered Abies
spectabilis layer above it. In some areas, Arundinaria sp. occurs as a shrub layer and herb
layer is hardly developed. This forest ranged from 2900‐3300m.
While R. campanulatum forest is found frequently as a second layer of Abies spectabilis forest
near its upper limits, but generally this formed dense thicket above the timber line. The
second and shrub layers are lacking. In the herb layer, mosses dominate in most cases. This
forest occurs between 3000m to 3700m.
R. barbatum is localized forest to stream‐side or concave slope in Abies spectabilis forest.

j. Silver Fir forest
Pure fir forests are generally found at 3000‐3600m. Fir forest is associated with a number of
rhododendrons as Rhododendron arboreum, R. barbatum, R. hodgsonii, R. campanulatum as the
second layer of the canopy. A small stature bamboos Arundinaria spp. Occur at the forest
destruction sites. Herbs such as Meconopsis sp, Rosa sp, Primula sp, Anemone sp, Androsace
sp, Geum sp cover the grassy floor.

k. Juniper forest
Juniperus recurva is mixed in Abies spectabilis forest. However, in Thade Pati region, Surya
Kunda and Gosain Kunda region, it forms pure forest attaining about 30m high with
Rhododendron spp. as a second layer. Second and shrub layers are lacking and herb layer is
dense.

l. Birch‐Rhododendron forest
Birch‐rhododendron association is regarded as the tree line vegetation in Nepal Himalaya.
Massive stands of birch (Betula utilis) are formed on north facing, shady slopes and ravines
with an understorey of rhododendrons, Sorbus sp and maples (Acer sp). Birch forest is often
mixed with fir trees rising above the birch canopy.
The associated rhododendron species include, Rhododendron campanulatum, R.
campylocarpum, R. hodgsonii. Small stature bamboos as Arundinaria maling form an important
component of ground cover with herbs as Primula sp, Rheum sp, Aconitum sp and Swertia sp.

m. Dry alpine scrub
This forest type occurs from elevations 4000‐4500m. The forest is dominated by dwarf and
prostrate junipers (Juniperus recurva and Juniperus indica) along with other xerophyllous
plants as Ephedra gerardiana, Cassiope fastigiata, Potentilla fruticosa, Lonicera sp and Berberis
spp (Berberis erythroclada, B. insignis and B. wallichiana).

n. Moist alpine scrub
The vegetation is dominated by dwarf rhododendrons (Rhododendron anthopogon, R. setosum)
at higher altitude and by shrubby rhododendrons (Rhododendron campanulatum, R.
campylocarpum) at slightly lower elevations.
Alpine meadows are rich in species of Primula and Meconopsis. Drier sites are occupied by
sedges, grasses and Ephedra sp. While, moist sites are occupied by some commercially
important medicinal herbs as Nardostachys grandiflora, Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora,
Aconitum sp, Selinum tenuifolium, Swertia sp, Potentilla sp, Fritillaria cirrhosa etc.

o. Upper alpine meadows
Alpine meadows are occupied by herbaceous vegetation, basically with sedges and grasses
at an altitude between 4500‐5000m. This region is dominated by grass species as Carex sp,
Calamogrostis sp, Agrotis sp and Festuca sp along with Primula sp, Ranunculus sp, Cotoneaster
sp, Potentilla sp, Gentiana sp, Bistorta sp, Saxifraga sp, Arenaria sp and so on. Some high value
medicinal plants as Aconitum sp, Nardostachys grandiflora, Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora,
Sedum sp occur in this region.

3.4 Prioritization of NTFPs
The species were prioritized based on 8 principal criteria viz. (i) highly demanded
commercial species (ii) species having high market price (iii) having potential for domestic
value addition (iv) species available over wide geographical range (v) species harvestable in
short rotation period (vi) land fertility requirement for species (vii) species importance in
ethnobotany and (viii) species conservation status.

3.4.1 Prioritization of NTFPs in Ghyangphedi VDC
Prioritized NTFP species of Ghyangphedi VDC for value addition and marketing linkage
and further assessment are Titepati (Artemisia dubia and A. indica), Chirayito (Swertia
chirayita), Allo (Girardinia diversifolia), Argeli (Edgeworthia gardneri), Lokta (Daphne bholua
and D. papyracea), Dhasingre (Gaultheria fragrantissima) and Sunpati (Rhododendron
anthopogon). The details are given in table below:

Table 16: Matrix preference ranking of NTFPs in Ghyangphedi VDC
S Criteria⇒
Potential for cultivation
Contribution to income
Regenerative potential
Processing technology
Availability ( in time )
N
Ethnobotanical value
Conservation status

Potential for value

Market demand
Margin / Profit
Gender impact
Geographical

distribution

addition

Total
NTFP species
⇓
1 Artemisia dubia 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 33
2 Artemisia indica 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 33
3 Arundinaria racemosa 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 3 26
4 Daphne bholua 3 3 3 3 1 1 2 3 2 3 3 2 29
5 Daphne papyracea 3 3 3 3 1 1 2 3 2 3 3 2 29
6 Drepanostachyum 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 3 26
intermedium
7 Edgeworthia gardneri 3 2 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 30
8 Eupatorium adenophorum 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 2 2 2 27
9 Gaultheria fragrantissima 3 2 3 3 3 1 2 3 2 3 2 2 29
10 Girardinia diversifolia 3 3 2 3 3 1 3 3 2 3 3 3 32
11 Juniperus recurva 3 3 3 1 3 1 1 3 1 3 2 3 27
12 Rhododendron anthopogon 3 3 3 1 3 1 2 3 2 3 2 3 29
13 Swertia chirayita 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 33
14 Thamnocalamus spathiflorus 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 3 26
15 Yushania microphylla 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 3 26

3.4.2 Prioritization of NTFPs in Shyaphru VDC
Prioritized NTFP species of Shyaphru VDC for value addition and marketing linkage and
further study are Titepati (Artemisia dubia), Chirayito (Swertia chirayita), Lek Timur
(Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum), Allo (Girardinia diversifolia), Sugandhawal (Valeriana jatamansii),
Lokta (Daphne bholua and D. papyracea), Dalechuk (Hippophae salicifolia), Sunpati
(Rhododendron anthopogon) and Jhyau (Parmelia sp). The details are given in table below:

Table 17: Matrix preference ranking of NTFPs in Shyaphru VDC
S Criteria⇒
N
Conservation status

Potential for value

Market demand
Margin / Profit
Gender impact
Geographical

distribution

addition

NTFP species Total
⇓
1 Artemisia dubia 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 33
2 Daphne bholua 3 3 3 3 1 1 2 3 2 3 3 2 29
6 Hippophae salicifolia 3 3 3 1 2 1 2 3 2 3 3 3 29
8 Parmelia sp 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 3 2 1 1 3 28

9 Prinsepia utilis 1 1 2 2 3 3 2 1 3 3 2 1 24
11 Rhododendron setosum 1 1 3 1 3 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 21
13 Valeriana jatamansii 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 1 3 30
14 Viburnum mullaha 1 1 3 2 3 3 2 1 2 3 2 2 25
15 Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 32

3.4.3 Prioritization of NTFPs in Bridim VDC
Prioritized NTFP species of Bridim VDC for value addition and marketing linkage and
further assessment are Titepati (Artemisia dubia), Chirayito (Swertia chirayita), Timur
(Zanthoxylum armatum), Sugandhawal (Valeriana jatamansii), Lokta (Daphne papyracea),
Sunpati (Rhododendron anthopogon), Jhyau (Parmelia sp), Jatamansi (Nardostachys grandiflora),
Banmara (Eupatorium adenophorum) and Dhupi (Juniperus recurva). The details are given in
table below:

Table 18: Matrix preference ranking of NTFPs in Bridim VDC
S Criteria⇒
N
Conservation status

Potential for value

Market demand
Gender impact
Margin / Profit
Geographical

distribution
addition

Total
NTFP species
⇓
1 Artemisia dubia 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 33
3 Elaeagnus parvifolia 1 1 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 3 2 2 23
6 Nardostachys grandiflora 3 3 1 2 3 3 3 3 1 2 1 3 28
7 Parmelia sp 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 3 2 1 1 3 28
8 Persea clarkeana 1 1 2 2 3 2 2 1 1 3 2 2 22
9 Prinsepia utilis 1 1 2 2 3 3 2 1 3 3 2 1 24
12 Valeriana jatamansii 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 1 3 30
13 Viburnum mullaha 1 1 3 2 3 3 2 1 2 3 2 2 25
15 Zanthoxylum armatum 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 32

3.4.4 Prioritization of NTFPs in Langtang VDC
Prioritized NTFP species of Langtang VDC for value addition and marketing linkage and
further assessment are Titepati (Artemisia dubia), Allo (Girardinia diversifolia), Lek Timur
(Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum), Lokta (Daphne bholua and D. papyracea), Sunpati (Rhododendron
anthopogon), Dalechuk (Hippophae salicifolia), Bhuichuk (Hippophae tibetana), Ban Lasun
(Fritillaria cirrhosa) and Sano Malingo (Arundinaria racemosa). The details are given in table
below:

Table 19: Matrix preference ranking of NTFPs in Langtang VDC
S Criteria⇒
N
Conservation status

Potential for value

Market demand
Gender impact
Margin / Profit
Geographical

distribution

addition

Total
NTFP species
⇓
1 Artemisia dubia 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 33
3 Cotoneaster frigidus 1 1 3 2 3 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 22
4 Daphne bholua 3 3 3 3 1 1 2 3 2 3 3 2 29
6 Drepanostachyum 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 3 26
intermedium
7 Ephedra gerardiana 1 1 3 2 3 2 2 1 2 3 2 2 24
8 Fritillaria cirrhosa 3 3 2 1 3 1 3 2 2 3 1 3 27
10 Hippophae salicifolia 3 3 3 1 2 1 2 3 2 3 3 3 29
11 Hippophae tibetana 3 3 3 1 2 1 2 3 2 3 3 3 29
13 Rhododendron setosum 1 1 3 1 3 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 21

3.4.5 Prioritization of NTFPs in Ramche VDC
Prioritized NTFP species of Ramche VDC for value addition, marketing linkage and further
study are Chirayito (Swertia chirayita), Lek Timur (Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum), Argeli
(Edgworthia gardneri), Chutro (Berberis asiatica), Lokta (Daphne bholua and D. papyracea),
Dhasingre (Gaultheria fragrantissima), Satuwa (Paris polyphylla), Jhyau (Parmelia sp) and
Gurans (Rhododendron arboreum). The details are given in table below:

Table 20: Matrix preference ranking of NTFPs in Ramche VDC
S Criteria⇒
N
Conservation status

Potential for value

Market demand
Margin / Profit
Gender impact
Geographical

distribution

addition

Total
NTFP species
⇓
2 Berberis asiatica 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 29
3 Daphne bholua 3 3 3 3 1 1 2 3 2 3 3 2 29
7 Lycopodium clavatum 3 3 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 3 2 27
8 Paris polyphylla 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 3 29
9 Parmelia sp 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 3 2 1 1 3 28
10 Potentilla fructicosa 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 2 1 2 25
11 Rhododendron arboreum 3 3 2 3 3 1 1 3 2 3 2 2 28
12 Rhododendron lepidotum 1 1 3 3 3 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 22
14 Wikstroemia canescens 1 1 3 2 3 2 2 1 2 2 3 2 24

3.4.6 Prioritization of NTFPs in Helambu VDC
Prioritized NTFP species of Helambu VDC for value addition, marketing linkage and
further study are Titepati (Artemisia dubia), Chirayito (Swertia chirayita), Allo (Girardinia
diversifolia), Argeli (Edgworthia gardneri), Lokta (Daphne bholua and D. papyracea), Dhasingre
(Gaultheria fragrantissima), Majitho (Rubia manjith), Jhyau (Parmelia sp) and Dhupi (Juniperus
recurva). The details are given in table below:
Table 21: Matrix preference ranking of NTFPs in Helambu VDC
S Criteria⇒
N
Conservation status

Potential for value

Market demand
Margin / Profit
Gender impact
Geographical

distribution

addition

Total
NTFP species
⇓
1 Artemisia dubia 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 33
3 Daphne bholua 3 3 3 3 1 1 2 3 2 3 3 2 29
Drepanostachyum 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 3 26
5 intermedium
11 Parmelia sp 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 3 2 1 1 3 28
12 Rubia manjith 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 3 29
14 Wikstroemia canescens 1 1 3 2 3 2 2 1 2 2 3 2 24

3.5 Threat analysis
Rapid vulnerability assessment (RVA) analysis was carried out for the prioritized NTFP
species of respective VDCs of the study area within LNPBZ. RVA was conducted on the
basis of the following criteria: 1) ecology, 2) life form, 3) parts used and 4) harvesting
method.

3.5.1 RVA of NTFPs in Ghyangphedi VDC
The most vulnerable NTFP species of Ghyangphedi VDC are Dhupi (Juniperus recurva),
Sunpati (Rhododendron anthopogon), Malingo (Thamnocalamus spathiflorus), Allo (Girardinia
diversifolia) and Dhasingre (Gaultheria fragrantissima). The details are shown in table below:

Table 22: RVA analysis of NTFPs in Ghyangphedi VDC
Criteria⇒
Mode of reproduction
Rate of reproduction
Harvesting method

Life form diversity
Habitat diversity

SN
Abundance

Parts used
Life form
Growth
Habitat

Score
NTFPs
⇓
1 Artemisia dubia 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 17
2 Artemisia indica 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 17
3 Arundinaria racemosa 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 16
4 Daphne bholua 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 16
5 Daphne papyracea 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 16
6 Drepanostachyum intermedium 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 16
7 Edgeworthia gardneri 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 18
8 Eupatorium adenophorum 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 18
9 Gaultheria fragrantissima 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 16
10 Girardinia diversifolia 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 16
11 Juniperus recurva 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 12
12 Rhododendron anthopogon 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 13
13 Swertia chirayita 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 17
14 Thamnocalamus spathiflorus 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 15
15 Yushania microphylla 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 16

3.5.2 RVA of NTFPs in Shyaphru VDC
The most vulnerable NTFP species of Shyaphru VDC are Dhupi (Juniperus recurva), Bhramsi
(Viburnum mullaha), Dalechuk (Hippophae salicifolia), Sunpati (Rhododendron anthopogon) and
Bhale Sunpati (Rhododendron setosum). The details are shown in table below:

Table 23: RVA analysis of NTFPs in Shyaphru VDC
Criteria⇒
Harvesting method

Life form diversity
Habitat diversity

SN
Abundance
Parts used
Life form
Growth
Habitat

Score
NTFPs
⇓
1 Artemisia dubia 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 17
2 Daphne bholua 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 16
6 Hippophae salicifolia 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 14
8 Parmelia sp 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 16
9 Prinsepia utilis 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 17
11 Rhododendron setosum 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 15
13 Valeriana jatamansii 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 17
14 Viburnum mullaha 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 14
15 Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 16


3.5.3 RVA of NTFPs in Bridim VDC
The most vulnerable NTFP species of Bridim VDC are Dhupi (Juniperus recurva), Bhulna
(Persea clarkeana), Sunpati (Rhododendron anthopogon), Bhramsi (Viburnum mullaha) and
Malingo (Yushania microphylla). The details are shown in table below:

Table 24: RVA analysis of NTFPs in Bridim VDC
Criteria⇒
Harvesting method

Life form diversity
Habitat diversity

SN
Abundance

Parts used
Life form
Growth
Habitat

Score
NTFPs
⇓
1 Artemisia dubia 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 17
3 Elaeagnus parvifolia 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 16
6 Nardostachys grandiflora 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 16
7 Parmelia sp 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 16
8 Persea clarkeana 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 15
9 Prinsepia utilis 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 17
12 Valeriana jatamansii 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 17
13 Viburnum mullaha 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 15
15 Zanthoxylum armatum 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 16

3.5.4 RVA of NTFPs in Langtang VDC
The most vulnerable NTFP species of Langtang VDC are Sano Malingo (Arundinaria
racemosa), Lokta (Daphne bholua), Allo (Girardinia diversifolia), Sunpati (Rhododendron
anthopogon) and Malingo (Yushania microphylla). The details are shown in table below:


Table 25: RVA analysis of NTFPs in Langtang VDC
Criteria⇒
Harvesting method

Life form diversity
Habitat diversity

SN
Abundance

Parts used
Life form
Growth
Habitat

Score
NTFPs
⇓
1 Artemisia dubia 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 17
3 Cotoneaster frigidus 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 17
4 Daphne bholua 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 15
7 Ephedra gerardiana 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 17
8 Fritillaria cirrhosa 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 18
10 Hippophae salicifolia 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 17
11 Hippophae tibetana 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 16
13 Rhododendron setosum 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 15

3.5.5 RVA of NTFPs in Ramche VDC
The most vulnerable NTFP species of Ramche VDC are Gurans (Rhododendron arboreum),
Dhasingre (Gaultheria fragrantissima), Lek Timur (Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum), Lokta (Daphne
bholua) and Sano Malingo (Arundinaria racemosa). The details are shown in table below:

Table 26: RVA analysis of NTFPs in Ramche VDC
Criteria⇒
Harvesting method

Life form diversity
Habitat diversity

SN
Abundance

Parts used
Life form
Growth
Habitat

Score
NTFPs
⇓
2 Berberis asiatica 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 18
3 Daphne bholua 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 16

7 Lycopodium clavatum 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 18
8 Paris polyphylla 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 16
9 Parmelia sp 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 16
10 Potentilla fructicosa 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 18
11 Rhododendron arboreum 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 14
12 Rhododendron lepidotum 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 18
14 Wikstroemia canescens 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 16

3.5.6 RVA of NTFPs in Helambu VDC
The most vulnerable NTFP species of Helambu VDC are Dhupi (Juniperus recurva), Sano
Malingo (Arundinaria racemosa), Tite Nigalo (Drepanostachyum intermedium), Malingo
(Yushania microphylla) and Lokta (Daphne bholua). The details are shown in table below:

Table 27: RVA analysis of NTFPs in Helambu VDC
Criteria⇒ Mode of reproduction
Harvesting method

Life form diversity
Habitat diversity

SN
Abundance
Parts used
Life form
Growth
Habitat
Score
NTFPs
⇓
1 Artemisia dubia 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 17
3 Daphne bholua 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 16
11 Parmelia sp 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 16
12 Rubia manjith 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 17
14 Wikstroemia canescens 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 16
CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 Trade and trading pattern of NTFPs in LNPBZ
The local communities of the study areas depend on subsistence agriculture, animal
husbandry, trade labor, and foreign employment and to some extent hotel and restaurants
business and tourism for their livelihood support. However, few villagers are engaged in
the cultivation, collection and trade of NTFPs as seasonal and additional source of income.

Despite the provision of restriction on collection, processing and trade of forest products by
National Parkʹs regulation, illegal collection and trade of forest products are still prominent
in forests of core areas and also from the buffer zone community forests.

The traded NTFPs/products and their trading pattern in the study areas are as follows:

4.1.1 Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Ghyangphedi VDC
Mostly the elder members of villages of Ghyangphedi VDC collect nigalo and malingo
culms from the nearby buffer zone community forests. They process the culms using
traditional methods for making products like chitra, bhakari, dala and doko. These products
are either sold or barter with rice to the villagers of Shikhar besi VDC, Nuwakot.

According to the village key informants, collectors and traders from Yarsha VDC, Rasuwa
would come to the forests of Ghyangphedi VDC each year (during July‐August) in groups
of 20‐30 persons and collect Lokta bark (D. bholua and D. papyracea) unsustainably without
the collection permit from buffer zone community forest user groups and Langtang
National Park (LNP). Usually they obtain the release letter for the transportation and trade
of Lokta bark from District Forest Office/Range Post outside the National Park or directly
sell the Lokta bark to the handmade paper enterprise at Karu marang (Danda gaun VDC),
Rasuwa.

Table 28: Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Ghyangphedi VDC
SN NTFPs Products Trade value
1 Culm of Tite nigalo (Drepanostachyum Chitra NRs. 150‐160 per piece or barter
intermedium) with rice in Shikhar besi VDC
2 Culm of Sano malingo (Arundinaria Bhakari NRs. 100‐110 per piece or barter
racemosa) with rice in Shikhar besi VDC
3 Culm of Malingo (Thamnocalamus Dala NRs. 40‐50 per piece or barter
spathiflorus and Yushania microphylla) with rice in Shikhar besi VDC
4 Culm of Sano malingo (Arundinaria Doko NRs. 25‐30 per piece or barter
racemosa) with rice in Shikhar besi VDC

Trading pattern of NTFPs
1. Trading pattern of Malingo/Nigalo products
Collectors Value addition/processing or basketry in villages Trade or barter
to Shikhar besi VDC
2. Trading pattern of Lokta bark
Collectors from Yarsha VDC (illegal collection) Sell to handmade paper enterprise
at Karu marang (Danda gaun VDC), Rasuwa or Handmade paper enterprises at
Kathmandu

4.1.2 Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Shyaphru VDC
Few farmers of Thulo shyaphru and Brabal villages are engaged in the commercial
cultivation of NTFPs as Sugandhawal, Chirayito, Satuwa, Padamchaal etc. in their private
lands with the permit from LNP. The farmers harvest the NTFPs, clean, dry and package in
their particular village and trade to Kathmandu market with the release permit from LNP.

On the other hand, few collectors from Thulo bharku and Sano bharku villages illegally
collect Lichens (both Parmelia sp and Usnea sp) from nearby forests within the National
Park. They carry the collected lichens to Chilime via vehicles where the collections permit
and release letter are provided by the District Forest Office/Range Post, stating that they
were granted for collection of Lichens from either Chilime or Goljung or Gatlang VDC.

Table 29: Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Shyaphru VDC


1 Jhyau (Parmelia sp and Usnea sp) Raw/Crude form NRs. 60‐70 per kg
2 Rhizomes and roots of Sugandhawal Raw/Crude form Rhizomes‐NRs.140 per kg
(Valeriana jatamansii) Roots‐NRs.105 per kg
3 Whole parts of Chirayito (Swertia chirayita) Raw/Crude form NRs. 200‐225 per kg

Trading pattern of NTFPs
1. Trading channel of other cultivated herbs
Farmers/collectors Traders of Kathmandu (Rakesh traders, Teku, Kathmandu)

2. Trading channel of Jhyau
Collectors (illegal collection) Collection depo (Shyaphru besi or Chilime)
Middleman (Road head trader) Traders of Kathmandu

4.1.3 Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Bridim VDC
Few local people of Bridim, Khanjim and Benzam villages collect Timur fruits from the
nearby forests basically for their local consumption. Some collectors collect Timur fruits to
sell in the local market (Shyaphru besi) and to provide their relatives living in Kathmandu
as a gift.

Table 30: Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Bridim VDC

SN NTFP Products Trade value

1 Fruits of Timur (Zanthoxylum Raw/crude form NRs. 40‐50 per mana
armatum)

Trading pattern of Timur fruits
Collectors Locally consumed
Collectors Sell to Shyaphru besi or Consumed in Kathmandu

4.1.4 Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Langtang VDC
Local inhabitants of Langtang and Kyanjing villages collect Sunpati and Dhupi leaves for
using as incense. Few herders of both the villages collect bulb of Ban lasun and Yarsha
gumba for the local consumption and sell within the village for using as healing purposes.

While, few collectors of Langtang village harvest Seabuckthorn fruits (both Hippophae
salicifolia and H. tibetana) in large quantities illegally from the forest and locally process
them to crude juice and sell it to the marketing centre (Souvenir Shop) at Dhunche.

Table 31: Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Langtang VDC

SN NTFP Products Trade value

1 Bulb of Ban lasun (Fritillaria cirrhosa) Raw/crude form NRs. 240‐250 per mana
2 Yarsha gumba (Cordyceps sinensis) Raw/crude form NRs. 50‐60 per piece

1. Trading pattern of Seabuckthorn juice
Collectors (illegal collection) Process crude juice Sell to marketing centre at
Dhunche

2. Trading pattern of Ban lasun and Yarsha gumba
Collectors Locally consumed or Sell at local level

4.1.5 Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Ramche VDC
Some farmers of Grang, Ramche and Goreshe villages have started cultivation of Chirayito,
Sugandhawal and Argeli in commercial scale in their private lands with the prior permit
from LNP. They harvest the NTFPs, process locally and sell them to the road head traders at
Betrawati or sometimes sell directly to Kathmandu market after the release letter from LNP.

However, collectors from Bhorle and Dhaibung VDCs illegally and unsustainably harvest
Lokta bark (both Daphne bholua and D. papyracea) from the forests lying at National Park and
sell them to the paper making enterprise at Karu marang (Danda gaun VDC), Rasuwa.

Table 32: Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Ramche VDC


1 Chirayito (Swertia chirayita) Raw/crude form NRs. 200‐250 per kg
2 Argeli white skin (Edgeworthia Raw NRs. 40‐50 per kg
gardneri)
3 Lokta bark (Daphne bholua and Raw NRs. 70‐ 80 per kg
D. papyracea)


1. Trading pattern of cultivated NTFPs
Collectors Middleman (Road head traders)/ or directly Kathmandu market

Collectors (illegal collection) Sell to handmade paper enterprise at Karu marang
(Danda gaun VDC)

4.1.6 Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Helambu VDC
Mostly the collectors from nearby Kewal and Mahakal VDCs collect Lokta bark from the
forests of Helambu and sell them to the middleman at Gyalthum for the trade to
Kathmandu market or they directly sell to the handmade paper factory at Kewal VDC.

Similarly, they collect Lichens from the nearby forests and Kutki rhizomes from high
altitude shrubberies of Helambu and sell them to the middleman at Timbu village or Timbu
Bus Park. The collection and trade of NTFPs in Helambu VDC takes place through illegal
and unsustainable process.

Table 33: Marketing status/trade value of NTFPs in Helambu VDC


1 Lokta bark (Daphne bholua and D. papyracea) Raw NRs. 70‐80 per kg
2 Jhyau (Parmelia sp and Usnea sp) Raw NRs. 70‐90 per kg
3 Kutki rhizome (Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora) Raw NRs. 150‐160 per kg

Collectors Middleman Handmade paper factory at Kewal VDC /or
collection centre at Gyalthum (Mahakal VDC) Kathmandu market

2. Jhyau and Kutki rhizome
Collectors Middleman Kathmandu market; Collection centre at Timbu
village or Timbu Bus Park


CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 Potentiality for enterprise development in LNPBZ
Forest based enterprises exist in various modalities, which can be outlined in aspects of
ownership structure, linkages to raw materials, target markets, seasonality of operation,
technological sophistication, management structure, product types and similar
characteristics.

On the ownership dimension, 5 different modalities can be set up in LNPBZ, they are as
follows:
a) Sole enterprise,
b) BZUC/WAG enterprise,
c) Consortium of BZUCs enterprise,
d) Cooperatives and
e) Private limited company

In terms of linkages of raw materials, economic and enterprise activities are based on raw
materials drawn from buffer zone community forests and forests within the National Park.

On the basis of the resource availability, processing technology, communities’ willingness
and market linkage, the following are the potentiality for enterprise development in the
studied VDCs of LNPBZ:

5.1.1 Potentiality for enterprise development in Ghyangphedi VDC
SN NTFPs/ Products Potentiality for enterprise development
1 Lokta bark (Daphne bholua and D. Collective marketing centre‐ A cooperative
papyracea), Argeli white skin (Edgeworthia model
gardneri), Allo fiber (Girardinia diversifolia)
2 Dhasingre leaves (Gaultheria fragrantissima), Processing of Wintergreen oil from Dhasingre
Titepati leaves (Artemisia dubia and A. leaves and Artemisia oil from Titepati leaves –
indica) Establishment of processing unit at
Ghyangphedi village
3 Timur (Zanthoxylum armatum), Chirayito 1. Establishment of multipurpose nursery;
(Swertia chirayita), Argeli, Mal Bans 2. Commercial cultivation enterprises in private
(Bambusa nutans) and Amriso (Thysanolaena lands of the respective villages
maxima)
4 Nigalo and Malingo culms Basketry and handicraft enterprises
(Drepanostachyum intermedium,Arundinaria
racemosa, Thamnocalamus spathiflorus and
Yushania microphylla)
5 Titepati leaves, Timur leaves and barks, Organic insecticides/pesticides making
Angeri leaves (Lyonia ovalifolia), Bulu leaves
(Pieris formosa), Ketuke (Agave americana)
Table 34: Potentiality for enterprise development in Ghyangphedi VDC


5.1.2 Potentiality for enterprise development in Shyaphru VDC
1 Sugandhawal (Valeriana jatamansii), 1. Establishment of multipurpose nursery;
Chirayito (Swertia chirayita), Lek Timur 2. Cultivation in private lands;
(Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum), Padamchaal 3. Formation of collection and marketing
(Rheum australe), Zanthoxylum armatum cooperatives
(Timur), Satuwa (Paris polyphylla), Kurilo
(Asparagus racemosus), Argeli (Edgeworthia
gardneri)
2 Flowers of Gurans (Rhododendron Juice and herbal drinks making
arboreum), fruits of Bhramsi (Viburnum
mullaha), Bhaki amilo (Rhus javanica), Rallu
(Elaegnus parvifolia) and Bhulna (Persea
clarkeana)
3 Seeds of Melong (Prinsepia utilis) Edible oil expelling
4 Ban mara (Eupatorium adenophorum) and Bio briquette making
Titepati (Artemisia spp.)
(Pieris formosa)
Table 35: Potentiality for enterprise development in Shyaphru VDC

5.1.3 Potentiality for enterprise development in Bridim VDC
1 Fruits of Bhramsi (Viburnum mullaha), Juice and herbal drinks making
Rallu (Elaegnus parvifolia) and Bhulna
(Persea clarkeana)
2 Sugandhawal (Valeriana jatamansii), Cultivation in private lands; formation of
Chirayito (Swertia chirayita), Timur collection and marketing cooperatives
(Zanthoxylum armatum), Satuwa (Paris
polyphylla)
3 Seeds of Melong (Prinsepia utilis) Edible oil expelling
(Pieris formosa)
Table 36: Potentiality for enterprise development in Bridim VDC

5.1.4 Potentiality for enterprise development in Langtang VDC
1 Fruits of Dale chuk and Bhui chuk Juice, herbal drinks and jam making
(Hippophae salicifolia and H. tibetana
respectively)
2 Lek timur (Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum) and Cultivation in private lands; formation of
Ban lasun (Fritillaria cirrhosa) collection and marketing cooperatives

3 Leaves of Sunpati (Rhododendron Incense making
anthopogon) and inflorescence of Titepati
(Artemisia sp)
Bulu leaves (Pieris formosa)
Table 37: Potentiality for enterprise development in Langtang VDC

5.1.5 Potentiality for enterprise development in Ramche VDC
1 Sugandhawal (Valeriana jatamansii), 1. Establishment of multipurpose nursery;
(Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum), Timur 3. Formation of collection and marketing
(Zanthoxylum armatum), Satuwa (Paris cooperatives
polyphylla), Kurilo (Asparagus racemosus),
Argeli (Edgeworthia gardneri)
2 Medicinal and aromatic herbs Establishment of traditional health care centre
(Pieris formosa)
Table 38: Potentiality for enterprise development in Ramche VDC

5.1.6 Potentiality for enterprise development in Helambu VDC
1 Sugandhawal (Valeriana jatamansii), 1. Multipurpose nursery management
(Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum), Timur 3. Formation of collection and marketing
(Zanthoxylum armatum), Satuwa (Paris cooperatives
polyphylla), Kurilo (Asparagus racemosus),
Argeli (Edgeworthia gardneri )
2 Lokta bark (Daphne bholua and D. papyracea) Formation of collection and marketing
cooperatives
3 Leaves of Dhasingre (Gaultheria Processing into wintergreen oil; establishment of
fragrantissima) distillation units at Nakote
(Pieris formosa)
Table 39: Potentiality for enterprise development in Helambu VDC

5.2 Potential markets of the value added NTFP products
The enterprise models and the NTFPs products to be value added are designed with the
motive of markets linkage assurance focusing basically at the local level consumption.

Table 40: Potential markets for NTFPs products
SN Specific products Potential markets
1 Allo fiber/Allo thread Clothes weaving enterprises of Kathmandu
2 Amriso broom Local markets/ Household level
3 Argeli white skin Handmade paper enterprises at Kathmandu
4 Bio briquette Hotels and restaurants of the trekking route
5 Crude herbs (Sugandhawal, Herbs and herbal products traders of Kathmandu
Chirayito, Padamchaal, Satuwa,
Ban Lasun)
6 Edible oil Local markets/ Household level
7 Essential oils (Wintergreen oil and Various essential oils traders/exporters and health care
Artemisia oil) herbal products manufacturers at Kathmandu
8 Handicrafts and basketry Basketry: Porters/ local markets/Household level
Handicrafts: Tourists souvenir shops
9 Herbal incense Local markets/ Household level
10 Juice (Seabuckthorn and Gurans Hotels and restaurants in trekking route
Juice)
11 Lokta bark Ghyangphedi VDC: Handmade paper enterprises at
Kathmandu
Helambu VDC: Handmade paper enterprise at Kewal
VDC/ Handmade paper enterprises at Kathmandu
12 Organic insecticide/pesticides Farmers/ Household level
13 Seedlings and saplings of Other VDCs or user groups for cultivation / Household
multipurpose herbs and NTFPs level
14 Timur fruits Dhunche and Shyaphru besi markets/ Hotels and
restaurants of the trekking route

5.3 Value addition techniques of NTFPs
Value addition techniques at local level includes; cleaning, drying, grading, packaging and
improved marketing.
Commonly practiced methods of value addition of NTFPs and their techniques are
presented below:

Table 41: Value addition techniques of NTFPs
SN Type of value Techniques
addition
1 Drying Sun drying: For medicinal herbs
Shade drying: For aromatic plants
2 Cleaning Cleaning with water for roots/rhizomes, using clothes and brushes
for other parts
3 Grading Grading on the basis of the quality
4 Packaging Packaging in polythene bags ensuring free of moisture
5 Improved trading Adopting collective bargaining

5.4 Processing technology
Simple and locally available technologies are more sustainable than the imported and more
sophisticated ones. Through the technological interventions there is a scope to improve the
quality, reduce the loss, increase the efficiency of operation and thereby reduce the cost.

Technological improvements can also be made building on the traditional and existing
technologies to match the current market requirement.

Few processing technology on NTFPs that can be adopted in LNPBZ are as follows:

Table 42: Processing technology and application
SN Technology Examples of application
1 Bio briquette Banmara, titepati
2 Compacting Chirayito
3 Debarking Lokta bark and argeli white skin
4 Drying (traditional sun drying, fire All medicinal and aromatic plants
drying, shade drying and improved
solar drier)
5 Extraction of juice Dale chuk, bhui chuk, bhulna, rallu, bhramsi, bhaki
amilo
6 Fiber extraction Allo and ketuke
7 Grinding and mixing Herbal incense
8 Oil expeller Fixed oil extraction from melong
9 Packaging All raw NTFPs, value added products and finished
products
10 Paper making Lokta bark and argeli white skin
11 Steam distillation Essential oils from aromatic plants (Dhasingre,
titepati, sunpati, dhupi, timur, talispatra/ gobre
salla etc.)
12 Weaving (Shuttle loom and pedal Allo clothes
operated spinning)

CHAPTER SIX

6.1 Biological sustainable harvesting
Biological diversity and sustainability occur at several levels: a) genes b) population c)
community and d) ecosystem
Harvesting can impact all of these levels. Since the effect of harvesting are superimposed on
the natural population dynamics, a comparison between natural and harvested populations
will provide enough information to assess sustainability.

To determine biologically sustainable harvesting levels start by collecting community
knowledge on particular species. It is important to know:
a) The current level of harvesting
b) The area where it is harvested
c) The amount traded
d) The various harvesting methods
e) The season, percentage and parts of plant harvested

If the species is traditionally collected, indigenous knowledge provides information on
sustainable harvesting levels. Less information on sustainability exists for products that are
not traditionally collected.
Establish sampling areas for both traditionally collected and non‐ traditionally collected
products. Sampling areas provide biological information on the collected natural products.

Box 1: Checklist to assess harvesting sustainability of forest products
9 knowledge on the natural distribution of the species
9 frequency of occurrence or abundance
9 population structure (age/size/class distribution)
9 dynamics of the species (growth and reproduction rates)
9 variation among habitats
9 role within the ecosystem

6.2 Harvesting impact on population dynamics
Forest products harvesting can have short and long term effects on the plant, ecosystem and
overall biodiversity. Harvesting impacts on one population can cause ecologically
unsustainable conditions for other species and the ecosystem structure.

Sustainability must be viewed holistically. Immediate short‐term effects of harvesting may
be seen in the growth rate or reproduction capacity of the plant, while ecosystem changes
may take longer to materialize.


To distinguish short and long term effects of harvesting on population dynamics,
monitoring is done at two stages:
• rapid assessment of the immediate short term impact of harvesting on current
population structure and
• long term change in population dynamics that can be monitored from sampling areas

Harvesting effects on population dynamics vary by the classification of plants (annual or
perennial), plant parts that are harvested and how it is harvested. For a rapid assessment,
monitoring focuses on the life stage being harvested.

Table 43: Rapid assessment of harvesting effects on population dynamics
Life stage harvested Effect of harvesting Immediate impact
Annual herb before Destruction of If harvested before fruit/seeds are produced and
fruiting or seeding reproductive adult disseminated then only those plants that escape
harvest will supply seeds for next generation
Herbaceous May result in destruction Reproductive capacity severely affected
perennial (roots or of reproductive adult or
rhizomes) underground storage
tissue
Woody perennial If too many leaves are Lack of seeds and propagation
(leaves) juvenile constantly removed, it
may not reach
reproductive maturity
Woody perennial Increased mortality due Size distribution, growth, health and
(leaves) to disease as a result of reproductive activity may be altered
reproductive adults damage

6.3 Establishing sampling areas
Sampling areas provide information on the distribution and abundance of forest products
and the impact of harvesting on the plant’s population dynamics. Sampling areas are also
an important part of biological monitoring.

To determine the long term impact of harvesting on population dynamics, permanent plots
must be established. Trials that measure the effect of different harvesting levels and
methods are also helpful.

Sampling areas must be monitored for years twice at a minimum, to learn how harvesting
effects overall biodiversity.
Sampling areas help to:
- establish rotational harvesting schedules
- identify optimal harvesting times and methods
- get community members involved in hands on biological monitoring
- devise more accurate community resource management plans


Table 44: Recommended optimal harvesting practices for sustainable NTFPs product use
Parts Optimal Optimal Optimal % of Optimal harvesting
harvested harvest rotational plants not methods
season interval harvested
Rhizomes with July‐October 3‐5 years At least 20% plants Whole plants pulled from
roots undisturbed bushy areas and dug out
carefully with the tool,
kuto, from open grasslands
Fruits July‐ 1‐2 years At least 20% fruits Fruits/fruits with stalks are
September undisturbed detached from stem using
sickles or bare hands
Leaves/needles July‐October 1 year At least 30% of leaves Leaves hand picked or cut
left on plant with scissors
Flowers May‐August 1‐2 years At least 30% of Flowers hand picked or cut
flowers left with scissors
undisturbed
Barks May‐August 3‐5 years At least 75% bark left Bark pulled from plants
undisturbed/For with the help of sickles or
debarking Lokta bark knife/khukuri
and Argeli white skin
the stem should be cut
at least 15‐18 cm
above the ground
Aerial parts July‐ October 2‐3 years At least 40% plant left Aerial parts cut with scissor
undisturbed or khukuri

6.4 Developing a raw material sourcing plan
After identifying the raw material sources, prepare a sourcing plan to estimate the raw
material flow in relation to the enterprise. The sourcing plan should ensure a reliable supply
of raw materials.

Categories the area in terms of:
• ecosystem (forest, pasture)
• raw material
• legal control (private, community or government owned)
• quality
• distance from the enterprise
• accessibility

Prepare a map illustrating the origins of raw materials. Assess potential risks associated
with each location. The final estimate should be able to account for potential risks. Consider
that labor may not always be available for collection and transportation activities. Assess

the seasonal migration situation to minimize any problems resulting from a labor shortage.
Likewise, consider the seasonal conditions of the raw material base.
It is important to have good relations and communication with respective suppliers.

Box 2: Check list for raw materials sourcing plan
9 resource supply areas
9 raw material type and quality
9 quantity by season
9 storage facility
9 legal obligations/ permits
9 transportation arrangements
9 labor supply management
9 agreements with suppliers
9 risk and strategies
9 working capital requirements


CHAPTER SEVEN

7.1 Conclusion
The study area harbors rich diversity of NTFP resources. However, most of the local
communities of the study areas are unaware about the use and benefits of NTFPs available
in the nearby forests and their farm lands except for fuel wood, fodder and incense.

Resource assessment of NTFPs in Langtang National Park and Buffer Zone using the
inventory parameters revealed that there are tremendous potentialities for the cultivation,
harvesting, value addition and marketing of prioritized NTFPs. The tourism in the region
can create the local markets of the value added NTFPs based products. The local
communities of the off trail routes are more curios for the promotion of NTFPs which
would support their livelihood.

Enterprise development potentialities assessment in Langtang National Park and Buffer
Zone revealed that, there are immense potentialities of enterprise set up for the product
lines as herbal incense, bio‐briquette, edible oil expelling, herbal drinks/juice making,
handicrafts and basketry, organic insecticide/pesticide, cultivation of NTFPs, collective
marketing centre for crude herbs and NTFPs and essential oils extraction (Artemisia oil and
Wintergreen oil) in various locations of Langtang National Park and Buffer Zone.

For genesis, operation and growth of forest based enterprise in Langtang National Park and
Buffer Zone; a biologically sustainable harvesting mechanism should be prepared for each
buffer zone community forest and forests within National Park. Moreover, some factors that
contribute to or hinder the genesis, operation and growth of enterprises should be taken
into account. These include: awareness raising, technical assistance, financial support,
marketing support, marketing outlets, community characteristics, natural resource base,
technology, policy factors, enterprise consequences and natural resource conservation.

In conclusion, the communities’ motivation towards entrepreneurship, institutionalization
of user groups (BZUGs, WAGs, and BZUCs) and regulatory mechanisms for sustainable
harvesting of NTFPs would definitely create the income generating opportunities and
would assist in the conservation of biodiversity in Langtang National Park and Buffer Zone.

7.2 Recommendations
Pressure on forest resources of Langtang National Park and Buffer Zone are becoming
increasingly severe. The fairly widespread deforestation that has occurred in response to the
local demand for pasture, arable land, timber, fuel wood and illegal trade of NTFPs has
been accelerated by the needs of local households, lodges and porters.

In this respect, the concern over conservation of the forest resources and livelihoods cannot
be separated. The local communities play a crucial role for the conservation and sustainable

utilization of forest resources including NTFPs. Conservation and sustainable management
of the forest resources are the ever raised issues, but why and how to conserve and manage
are the big questions challenging ever. Therefore, the following steps are recommended for
addressing conservation of forest resources and livelihood issues of local communities in
Langtang National Park and Buffer Zone:

1. Awareness programs (workshops, exhibitions, exposure visits, and demonstration of the
products) on the importance of NTFPs; conservation and sustainable utilization, cultivation
and harvesting at local level need to be conducted.

2. Capacity building/strengthening the concerned BZUGs / WAGs / BZUCs on institutional
development, governance/equity, fund mobilization, financial management, record
keeping, benefit sharing mechanism etc. should be initiated.

3. Field based training package on NTFPs promotion; time and technique of collection, local
processing technology, storage, quality control, packaging, labeling, and cultivation of
major NTFPs should be conducted.

4. Development of biological sustainable harvesting system; block rotation system
preferable for harvesting/ participatory monitoring system should be prepared for each user
groups.

5. Detailed assessment of the potential enterprises that can be set up in LNPBZ should be
conducted in collaboration with various user groups.

6. Feasibility study on market linkage, technology transfer, equipments and availability of
skill manpower should be conducted for each product line.

7. Micro‐credit facilities should be provided for the initiation of small scale enterprises and
financial and operational support should be provided for the medium scale consortium
enterprise/ cooperative model.

8. Initiation for the management and conduction of pilot model enterprise preferably, herbal
incense (Shyaphru or Langtang VDC); juice making (Shyaphru or Langtang VDC) and
essential oil production (Ghyangphedi or Helambu VDC).

9. Strengthening and institutionalization of traditional healing system (including amchis,
lamas/jhakris and other healers) preferably in Ramche and Thulo shyaphru villages.

10. Formation of committee/ organization for providing necessary technology,
seeds/seedlings to farmers.

11. Establishment of marketing information system (MIS) on NTFPs at Dhunche.

12. Formation of collective marketing centre/ cooperative for marketing NTFPs / NTFPs
products in Shyaphru besi or Ramche or Kalikasthan.

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Resource Assessment of Potential Non Timber Forest

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