Chapter 11: WAVE OPTICS

11.1 Interference
Physical (wave) optics treats light as a wave in the study of the some light
phenomena, such as interference, diffraction and polarization.
Two waves (of the same wavelength) are said to be in phase if the crests (and
troughs) of one wave coincide with the crests (and troughs) of the other.
In this case the resultant wave would have twice the amplitude of the individual
waves - one says that constructive interference has occurred.
If the crest of one wave coincides with the trough of the second wave, they are
said to be completely out of phase.
In this case the two waves would cancel each other out - one says that
destructive interference has occurred.

Conditions for interference between two sources of light:
1. The sources must be coherent, that is they must maintain a constant
phase with respect to each other.
2. The sources must have identical wavelengths, amplitudes and
frequencies.
3. The superposition principle must apply.
To produce coherent light sources, use a single wavelength source to illuminate a
screen containing two small slits.
The light emerging from the two slits is coherent because a single source
produces the original light beam and the slits serve only to separate the original
beam into two parts.











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11.2 Young's Double Slit Experiment
Youngs double slit experiment provides evidence of the wave nature of light and
a way to measure a wavelength of light ( ~10
-7
m).
This is a classic example of interference effects in light waves.
Two light rays pass through two slits, separated by a distance d and strike a
screen a distance, L , from the slits, as in Fig.


Figure 11.1 A schematic diagram of Youngs double-slit experiment.

The points of constructive interference will appear as bright bands on the
screen and the points of destructive interference will appear as dark bands.
Interference pattern consist of equally spaced bright fringes separated by
equally spaced dark fringes.
The condition for interference is determined by the path length difference (
L A ) of the two waves or the difference of the distance travel.
If d < < L then the difference in path length r
1
- r
2
travelled by the two rays is
approximately:
L A = r
1
- r
2
= d sin Path difference (11.1)
where is approximately equal to the angle that the rays make relative to a
perpendicular line joining the slits to the screen.
The condition for constructive interference at the screen is:
d sin = m , m = 0, +1, +2,... (11.2)


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The condition for destructive interference at the screen is:
d sin = (m +1/2) , m = 0, +1, +2,... (11.3)

Figure 11.2 Constructive and destructive interference.

m = 0 The zeroth order fringe or central maximum.
m = 1 The first order fringe is the first bright/dark fringe on either
side of the central maximum (there are two first order fringes), and
so on.



Figure 11.3 A geometric construction to describe Young double-slit experiment.


4

- In the case that y , the distance from the interference fringe to the point of
the screen opposite the center of the slits is much less than L ( y < < L ), one can
use the approximate formula.

For small angle
u
,
sinu ~
tan
u

~
L
y
(11.4)
where :
y is the distance from the central maximum on the screen
L is the distance from the slits to the screen.
The distance of the m
th
bright fringe (y
m
) from the central maximum on either
side is
d
mL
y
bright m

= ) (
For bright fringes (11.5)
The wavelength of the light

mL
d y
m
~
for m = 1,2,3
The separation between adjacent bright fringes

d
L
y y y
m m

= = A
+1
(11.6)
For dark fringes :
d
L m
y
dark m
) 2 / 1 (
) (
+
=
For dark fringes (11.7)

If d < < L then the spacing between the interference can be large even when the
wavelength of the light is very small (as in the case of visible light). This give a
method for (indirectly) measuring the wavelength of light.
The above formulas assume that the slit width is very small compared to the
wavelength of light, so that the slits behave essentially like point sources of
light.

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Example 1:
Light of wavelength 632.8 nm falls on a double slit and the third order bright
fringe is seen at an angle of 6.5
0
. Find the separation between the double slits.

Solution:
Given

=632.8nm=632.8 x 10
-9
m, n=3,
3
u
=6.5
0
Find d?
From equation : u n d = sin ,
we have
u

sin
n
d =

3
sin
3
u

= d
5 . 6 sin
) 10 8 . 632 ( 3
9
=
x


m m x 17 10 7 . 1
5
= =


Example 2:
In a youngs double slit experiment, if the separation between two slits is 0.10mm
and the distance from the slits to a screen is 2.5 m, find the spacing between the
first order and the second order bright fringes for light with the wavelength of
550 nm.

Solution:
Given =550nm=550 x 10
-9
m, L=2.5, d= 0.1mm=0.10x10
-3
m, Find y
2
- y
1

From
d
nL
y

=
y
2
- y
1
=
d
L ) 2 (
-
d
L ) 1 (
=
d
L
=
cm
x
x
4 . 1
10 10 . 0
) 10 550 )( 5 . 2 (
3
9
=

Example
Light of wavelength 460nm falls on two slits spaced 0.300 mm apart. What is the
required distance from the slits to a screen if the spacing between the first and
second dark fringes is to be 4.00mm?
Solution:
L = (y) d / = (4.00 x 10
-3
m)(3.00 x 10
-4
m) / (460 x 10
-9
m) = 2.61 m


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11.3 Change of phase due to reflection
- Another simple arrangement for producing an interference pattern with a single
light source is known as Llyods mirror as shown in figure 8.4.

Figure 11.4: Llyods mirror
An interference pattern is produced on a screen at P as a result of the
combination of the direct ray (SP) and the reflected ray. The reflected ray
undergoes a phase change of 180
0
.
A ray reflecting from a medium of higher refractive index undergoes a 180
0

phase change.
A ray reflecting from a medium of lower refractive index undergoes no phase
change.


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Fig. 11.5
11.4 Interference in thin films
Interference observed in light reflected from a thin film is due to a
combination of rays reflected from the upper and lower surfaces. Refer figure
below.
Interference effects are commonly observed in thin films.
Eg: soap bubbles, thin layers of oil in water.

Figure 11.6 Interference observed in light reflected from a thin film is due to a combination of
rays reflected from the upper and lower surfaces.


8

Consider a film of thickness t and index of refraction n as in the Figure 9.5.
To determine whether the reflected rays interfere constructively or
destructively, note these following facts:

1. An electromagnetic wave traveling from a medium of index of refraction n
1

toward a medium of index of refraction n
2
undergoes a 180
0
phase of change
on reflection when n
2
> n
1
. There is no phase change in the reflected wave if
n
2
< n
1
.
n
1
> n
2
0 phase shift
n
1
< n
2
180
0
phase shift

2. The wavelength of light
n
in a medium with index of refraction n is given by

n
n

= where is the wavelength of light in vacuum. (11.8)

The condition for constructive interference is
2t = (m + )
n
m = 0,1,2,. (11.9)

Because
n
= / n , the equation will become
2nt = (m + ) m = 0,1,2, (11.10)
The condition for destructive interference is
2nt = m m= 0,1,2.. (11.11)

Two factors influence interference:
1. phase reversals on reflection
2. differences in travel distance
11.5 Diffraction
Diffraction is the spreading of light or any other wave as it passes through
openings or around obstacles.
When the wavelength is small compared with the size of obstacles/openings
then diffraction effects are small, and diffraction effects increase as the size
of the obstacles/openings decreases
Similarly, obstacles only generate strong echoes if they are larger than the
wavelength of the waves.
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Figure 11.7 The light from two slits overlaps as it spreads out and producing interference fringes
/ Diffraction of waves through one slit
This bending is due to Huygen's principle, which states that all points along a
wave front act as if they were point sources. Thus, when a wave comes against a
barrier with a small opening, all but one of the effective point sources are
blocked, and the light coming through the opening behaves as a single point
source, so that the light emerges in all directions, instead of just passing
straight through the slit.

The diffraction pattern from a single slit of width w consist of a broader
central maximum and some narrower side maxima (the width of the central
maxima is twice that of the side maxima).

-In diffraction, the dark fringes rather than the bright fringes are analyzed.


Figure The Fraunhofer diffraction pattern o a single slit.




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11.6 Single slit diffraction


Figure 11.9 Fraunhofer Single Slit
The diffraction pattern at the right is taken with a helium-neon laser and a
narrow single slit.
Figure 8.9 shows the position of the minima in a diffraction pattern of a single
slit of width a.
According to Huygens Principle, each portion of the slit acts as a source of
waves. Hence, light from one portion of the slit can interfere with light from
another portion and the resultant intensity on the screen depends on the
direction .
The condition for the dark fringes is given by
a
m
u = sin
for m = +1,+2,+3,. (11.12)
where
u
is the angle for particular minimum designated by m =1,2,3 on
either side of the central bright fringe.
(there is no dark fringe correspond to n=0)
For a small angle approximation, the position if the dark fringes from the center
of the central bright fringe on a screen can be calculated from
w
mL
y
m

=
(11.13)
where L the distance from the single slit to the screen.

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The width of the m side maximum is the distance between the m
th
dark and the
(m+1)
th
dark or Y
m+1
y
m
.
It is evident from this equation that
For a given slit width (
w
), the greater the wavelength (

), the wider the

diffraction pattern (
m
y
).
For a given wavelength (

), the narrower the slit width (

w
), the wider the
diffraction pattern(
m
y
)
The width of the central maximum is twice the width of the side maxima.

Example
Light of wavelength 632.8 nm is incident on a slit of width 0.200mm. An observing
screen is placed 2.5 m from the slit. Find the width of the central maximum and the
position of the third order dark fringe.

Solution:
Given

=632.8 nm=632.8 x 10
-9
m,
w
=0.200 mm=0.200 x 10
-3
m, L=2.50m
Find: 2y
1
and y
3


The central maximum is the region between the first order dark fringes on either
side of this maximum, so its width is simply 2y
1
.
From
w
mL
y
m

=
,
3
9
1
10 200 . 0
) 10 8 . 632 )( 5 . 2 )( 1 ( 1

= =
x
x
w
L
y


= 7.91x10
-3
m.
So the width of the central maximum is
2y
1
=2(7.91mm) = 15.8 mm.

3
9
3
10 200 . 0
) 10 8 . 632 )( 5 . 2 )( 3 ( 3

= =
x
x
w
L
y

= 23.7 mm.

Example
Light of wavelength 550nm is incident on a single slit 0.75mm wide. At what
distance from the slit should a screen be placed if the second dark fringe in the
diffraction pattern is to be 1.7 mm from the center of the screen?
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Solution :
From
w
mL
y
m

=

We have
m
x
x x
m
w y
L
m
2 . 1
) 10 550 )( 2 (
) 10 75 . 0 )( 10 7 . 1 (
9
3 3
= = =

Example
Light of wavelength 587.5 nm illuminates a single 0.75 mm wide slit.
a) At what distance from the slit should a screen be placed if the first
minimum in the diffraction pattern is to be 0.85 mm from the central
maximum?
b) Calculate the width of the central maximum.
Solution :
a) At the first dark band: sin = /a = 5.875 x 10
-7
m / 7.5 x 10
-4
m = 7.83 x 10
-4

But also, sin = y/ L , so L = y / sin , Thus L = 8.5 x 10
-4
/ 7.83 x 10
-4
= 1.09m
b) The width of central maximum = 2y = 2(0.85mm) 1.70 mm

Example
A screen is placed 50.0 cm from a single slit which is illuminated with light of
wavelength 680 nm. If the distance between the first and the third minima in the
diffraction pattern is 3.00mm, what is the width of the slit?

Solution:

The angles at which a dark fringe can occur are given by
sin = m/a ,
The screen positions of these dark fringes are:
y
m
= L tan .
Making approximation sin = tan , gives y
m
= m L (/ a) as the location of the m
th

order dark fringe.
The distance from the first to the third dark fringes is then
y = y
3
y
1
= 2L (/a).
With L = 50.0 cm, = 680 nm and y = 3.00mm, this gives:
3.00 x 10
-3
= 2(5.00 x 10
-1
m) (6.80 x 10
-7
m / a ) or a = 0.227 mm.