15th ASCE Engineering Mechanics Conference June 2-5, 2002, Columbia University, New York, NY

EM
2002

A THREE-DIMENSIONAL FINITE-ELEMENT MODEL OF SEAWATER INTRUSION IN WESTERN LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK
Paul E. Misut1, Jack Monti Jr.2, and Clifford I. Voss3
ABSTRACT A three-dimensional version of the U.S. Geological Surveys SUTRA (Saturated-Unsaturated TRAnsport) ground-water-flow model was tested for its ability to simulate seawater intrusion into the ground-water system of western Long Island, N.Y. This model solves two equationsa fluid-mass balance for unsaturated and saturated ground-water flow, and a solute mass balance. The solute concentration corresponds to the mass fraction of total dissolved solids and accounts for density dynamics driven by solute concentration. An extensive geographic information system of the region is the basis for the aquifer-geometry and boundary-conditions representation. The direct-banded matrix solver that is typically used with two-dimensional SUTRA models has large computer-memory requirements and was replaced with an iterative solver. Model simulations indicate that the hydrologic system has not reached a steady-state configuration in response to pumping, changes in recharge, and postglacial sea-level rise. Keywords: SUTRA

INTRODUCTION U.S. Geological Survey computer programs have been widely used to simulate problems that entail seawater intrusion in ground-water systems. (Many of these codes with supporting documentation are available free of charge at http://water.usgs.gov/software.) The SUTRA code (Voss, 1984) can simulate variable fluid density, a critical feature in seawater intrusion problems. The majority of SUTRA applications developed to date use a cross-sectional approach; however, use of cross-sectional models to predict the possibility of seawater intrusion in response to pumping on western Long Island is not advisable because the system has three-dimensional flow patterns (Kontis, 1999). This paper describes a test of a new three-dimensional version of the SUTRA code as applied to seawater intrusion in western Long Island.

1 2 3

U.S. Geological Survey, 2045 Rt. 112 , Coram, NY 11727. E-mail: pemisut@usgs.gov U.S. Geological Survey, 2045 Rt. 112 , Coram, NY 11727. E-mail: jmonti@usgs.gov U.S. Geological Survey, 12201 Sunrise Valley Dr. , Reston, VA 20192. E-mail: cvoss@usgs.gov

APPROACH Development of the model required: (1) delineation of the extent, thickness, and hydraulic characteristics of aquifers and confining units, and (2) definition of hydrologic-boundary conditions, among which are recharge (from precipitation and lateral inflow of ground water), discharge (to streams, the shore, subsea parts of the model, and wells), and no-flow boundaries (bedrock.) The sequence of aquifers and confining units in the modeled area consists of four aquifers and two confining units. These have been described in detail by Misut and Monti (1999) and many others; they are, from the bedrock (the bottom of the model) upward, the Lloyd aquifer, the Raritan clay, the Magothy aquifer, the Jameco aquifer, the Gardiners Clay, and the upper glacial aquifer. These six hydrogeologic units vary in thickness and, in some areas, pinch out. In pinch-out areas, the model mesh was continued with a minimal thickness, and hydraulic properties were extrapolated from the overlying layer. Representation of the spatial distribution of thicknesses and hydraulic properties was facilitated through use of digital maps of land-surface elevation, bathymetry, and the bottom elevations of geologic units. The Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI, http://www.esri.com) GRID format was used to store these data at a resolution of 30 meters to match the available LANDSAT satellite imagery. (See http://edcwww.cr.usgs.gov/webglis/ for information on LANDSAT.) An interpolation of these GRID data onto finite-element mesh nodes in ESRI shapefile format was then imported into a graphical user interface to SUTRA (Voss, Boldt, and Shapiro 1998) as modified for three-dimensional simulation by Winston and Voss (written communication, 2001). This graphical user interface and the mesh-to-shapefile converter are plug-in extensions to the ArgusONE software (http://www.argusint.com). The top of the three-dimensional mesh and its boundary conditions are depicted in figures 1A and 1B, respectively. Topographic data were used to delineate the specified-flux boundary where ground-water recharge is received from precipitation. Hydrostatic-pressure boundaries with seawater concentration in offshore zones were calculated from bathymetric data. Streams and ponds where discharge occurs are represented as specified-pressure boundaries.

FIG.1. Block diagrams of western Long Island, New York showing: A. Land-surface area and offshore model area, B. Top of mesh and its boundary conditions.

The vertical sides of the mesh and the stratigraphic representation are depicted in figure 2. The thickness of the model increases dramatically from north to south. The mesh contains 30 node layers and a total of about 54,000 elements. Five node layers were used to represent each of the four aquifers, and three node layers were used to represent the two confining units to allow curvature in simulated saltwater interfaces within hydrogeologic units. Three node layers were used to represent the unsaturated zone. Outwash and moraine zones were used to represent permeability differences in the upper glacial aquifer and the unsaturated zone (total of 9 node layers); permeability is uniform throughout each of the other node layers and varies only depending on the hydrogeologic unit that is represented. Horizontal placement of nodes was facilitated by maps showing the locations of observation and pumping wells, surface-water features, deeper geometric features such as an ancestral river valley, and refined discretization for numerical purposes near the saltwater-interface locations. Hydrostatic-pressure boundaries corresponding to the seawater chloride concentration of 19,000 mg/l were used in offshore parts of the model domain. Hydrostatic-pressure boundaries with freshwater chloride concentration of 0 mg/l were used at some streams and ponds and in parts of the eastern side of the model to represent a connection to eastern Long Island.

FIG. 2. Interior and lateral boundary conditions and the 30 node layers representing aquifers and confining units.

The bottom of the mesh represents the top of the crystalline bedrock and is depicted from above in figure 3. It is considered a no-flow boundary because its permeability is negligible. Bedrock-surface elevation ranges from about sea level in the northwestern part of the model to 600 meters below sea level in the southeast corner.

FIG. 3. Bottom of mesh (bedrock surface, a no-flow boundary). CALIBRATION Calibration of simulated pressures and chloride concentrations to their observed values entailed adjusting specified pressures (along the eastern side of the model), porosity, storativity, permeability, pumpage, and dispersivity. Final values of the constants were as follows: porosity: 15 percent; storativity: 10 -8 (kg/(m s 2 )) 1 ; longitudinal dispersivity in the direction of maximum permeability, 2,000 m; longitudinal dispersivity in the direction of minimum permeability, 20 m; and transverse dispersivity, 5 m. Statistics on residuals of head and chloride concentration in relation to 1999 steady-state conditions are given by geologic unit in table 1. Negative values indicate that simulated values were greater than observed values. Heads were measured in March 2000; simulated pressure and density were converted to head at the elevation of the observation-well screen. Chloride concentrations were measured throughout the 1990s.
Table 1. Steady-state calibration residuals (head and chloride concentration) for aquifers and confining units in simulations of freshwater/saltwater interface on western Long Island, N.Y. [RMS, root mean squared] Unit Moraine aquifer (upper glacial) Outwash aquifer (upper glacial) Gardiners Clay Jameco Gravel Magothy aquifer Raritan Clay Lloyd aquifer TOTAL 10 - 12 13 - 17 18 - 22 23 - 25 26 - 30 1 - 30 -0.6 -4.9 -3.2 1.5 -0.5 -2.0 5.3 6.3 5.8 5.1 6.7 6.9 7 5 11 7 8 97 543 658 189 -1838 -7790 -1247 3112 1652 2838 6185 11,556 5821 17 8 106 23 34 204 4-9 -2.5 8.3 28 2458 6112 11 Mesh layers 4-9 Head residual (feet above sea level) Mean RMS Population -2.3 6.7 28 Chloride concentration residual (milligrams per liter) Mean RMS Population -1798 2857 5

Negative chloride residuals in the Lloyd aquifer and Raritan Clay are due to a deviation of the simulated steady-state configuration from conditions measured in the field. At present(2002), seawater intrusion is occurring as a result of post-Pleistocene sea-level rise. The freshwater/saltwater interface in deep parts of the northern Atlantic Coastal Plain has not yet reached a steady-state position (Meisler and others, 1984); therefore, exploratory simulations were conducted to investigate the movement of the interface over the last 10,000 years. No definitive location of the interface could be obtained, however, because offshore data were insufficient; therefore, the residuals shown in table 1 reflect simulated steady-state conditions, not actual conditions. The simulated chloride concentrations provided by the best steady-state calibration adjustments are too high in the Lloyd aquifer and Raritan clay because seawater continues to intrude into these zones. An important geometric feature of the model is three holes within the Gardiners Clay, each several miles in diameter near the south shore of Long Island. The Gardiners Clay is the uppermost confining unit (table 1), and these holes allow flow from the upper glacial aquifer into the Jameco and Magothy aquifers below. The exploratory simulations that were conducted to investigate the movement of the freshwater/saltwater interface over the last 10,000 years indicated that seawater can move downward into parts of the freshwater flow system through these holes, possibly hastening the regional movement of the interface from the south, where conditions are confined. The sea above these holes is fairly shallow; therefore, this effect depends in part on the rate of sea-level rise. RESULTS Two surfaces of equal simulated pressure are depicted in figure 4. The top surface, which mimics the land and coastline, represents the water table, where pressure is equal to zero. Parts of the model domain are above this surfacefor example, in the northeastern corner. The flat, triangular bottom surface is where pressure is equal to 3 x 10 6 kg/(m s 2 ) . Simulated pressure at the southeastern bottom corner of the model domain, where the bedrock surface is deepest, is about 5 x 10 6 kg/(m s 2 ) .

FIG. 4. Two surfaces of uniform simulated pressure, western Long Island, New York.

The surface of equal simulated chloride concentration (2,000 mg/l) is depicted in figure 5. This seawater interface is near the coast and extends landward at depth in response to natural gradients and pumping. Three breaks interrupt the continuity of the interface. The northwestern break (B1 in fig. 5) is where the bedrock surface extends above sea level. The northeastern break (B2 in fig. 5) is caused by the extension of the freshwater flow system beyond the model domain into a north-shore peninsula (not modeled). The eastern break (B3 in fig. 5) is caused by the extension of the freshwater flow system beyond the model domain into eastern Long Island. Localized curvature of the interface surface is caused by simulated pumping and by the model geometry. For example, a shelf is present beneath Jamaica Bay, where the Gardiners Clay confines freshwater below saltwater. The interface becomes more vertical east and west of the Jamaica shelf as a result of the three holes in the Gardiners Clay. An analysis was done to calculate the amount of time necessary to reach steady-state conditions from an initial state in which the interfaces are offshore, near their inferred present position (Misut and Monti, 1999). Development of this initial state, in which the pressure field is consistent with the concentration field and with boundary conditions, entailed simulation of the interfaces of the Raritan Clay and Lloyd aquifer with a second preliminary, transient simulation. This preliminary simulation had no pumping stresses and started the deep interfaces near the model boundaries, then continued forward for 6,000 years, stopping at the inferred 1900s predevelopment location. The simulation from the 1900s predevelopment location to a predevelopment steady-state (with no pumping or changes in recharge) requires an additional several thousand years of hypothetical time. This hypothetical time was sensitive to the amount of cross-flow that was allowed through the holes in the Gardiners Clay.

FIG. 5. Surface of equal simulated chloride concentration (2000 mg/l), and location of breaks (B1-B3) in surface continuity, western Long Island, New York.

The effect of pumping and changes in recharge on the movement of the interfaces at depth was also analyzed. Incorporating these stresses accelerated the landward movement of the interface and caused seawater intrusion beyond the predicted prevelopment steady-state configuration in some areas. In other areas, however, simulation of pumping and recharge

starting with the interface at the 1900s predevelopment location did not result in a close match with measured increases in chloride concentration since 1920. The position of the interfaces at depth is highly uncertain at present and may be farther inland and, thus, closer to steady state than inferred previously by Misut and Monti (1999). PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS The solution of the western Long Island model requires large computational resources. Although the new three-dimensional version of the SUTRA code used in this test leverages modern PC computer technologies such as double-data-rate RAM, a gigahertz-speed CPU, and a 10,000-rpm hard drive, SUTRAs traditional numerical methods were nevertheless found to run slowly for a 30-layer mesh with about 54,000 finite elementsabout 3 hours per time step. A faster run of about 5 minutes per time step was attained by replacing the direct-banded matrix solver with the Sparse Linear Algebra Package (SLAP) (Seager, 1988) of routines for approximately solving large, sparse systems of linear equations. SLAP does not store the entire matrix; preconditioned iterative methods store only the nonzero elements and their row and column numbers. The extra effort at optimizing SLAP parameters and the errors introduced by an approximation method were outweighed by the benefits of faster model-run times. CONCLUSION A three-dimensional version of the U.S. Geological Surveys SUTRA ground-water-flow model code was tested for its ability to simulate seawater intrusion into the ground-water system of western Long Island, N.Y. The SUTRA code seems to accurately represent ground-water flow and solute transport in the area, including the effect of pumping and recharge on seawater intrusion. The amount of simulation time required for the interfaces to reach their present position depends on factors that remain uncertain, namelythe rate of sea-level rise since the Pleistocene glaciation and the amount of flow that moves through offshore holes in the Gardiners Clay. Given reasonable assumptions about these and related factors, the model can reliably predict the movement of the interfaces in response to anticipated future stresses. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors thank the New York City Department of Environmental Protection (http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/) and Argus Interware LLC for their cooperation in this study.

DISCLAIMER Any use of trade, product or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.

REFERENCES ______2002, Ground-Water Software, accessed February 26, 2002 at http://water.usgs.gov/software. ______2002, Environmental Systems Research Institute, accessed February 26, 2002 at http://www.esri.com. ______2002, LANDSAT, accessed February 26, 2002 at http://edcwww.cr.usgs.gov/webglis/. ______2002, Argus Interware, accessed February 26, 2002 at http://www.argusint.com. ______2002, New York City Department of Environmental Protection, accessed February 26, 2002 at http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/. Kontis, A.L. (1999) Simulation of Freshwater-Saltwater Interfaces in the Brooklyn-Queens Aquifer System, Long Island, New York : U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 98-4067, 26 p. Meisler, H., Leahy, P.P, and Knobel, L.L. (1984) Effect of Sea-Level Changes on Saltwater-Freshwater Relations in the Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain: U.S.Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2255, 28 p. Misut, P. E., and Monti, J. Jr. (1999) Simulation of Ground-water Flow and Pumpage in Kings and Queens Counties, Long Island, New York: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 98-4071, 50 p. Seager, M. (1988) A SLAP for the Masses: Lawrence Livermore Nat. Laboratory Technical Report UCRL-100267. Voss, C.I., Boldt, D.R., and Shapiro, A.M. (1997) A graphical-user interface for the U.S. Geological Survey's SUTRA code using Argus ONE (for simulation of variable-density saturated-unsaturated ground-water flow with solute or energy transport): U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 97-421, 106 p. Voss, C.I., (1984) A finite-element simulation model for saturated-unsaturated, fluid-density-dependent ground-water flow with energy transport or chemically-reactive single-species solute transport: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 84-4369, 409 p.