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Problem Statement Abstract 1) Introduction 2)Basic understanding of image acquisition and storage 3) Image source device identification 4)Using sensor imperfections 5)Extraction of PRNU noise pattern 6)Algorithms a) Gaussian method b) Wavelet based extraxtion method c) Non-local means method 7)PRNU method for identifying video camera 8)Work done 9)Future work References 2 2 3 3

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VIDEO SOURCE-CAMERA IDENTIFICATION USING PHOTORESPONSE NON UNIFORMITY (PRNU) Problem statement:
Source camera identification of a video using the noise pattern of the video, which is a characteristic of every camera. Every camera has a distinct noise pattern which acts as a fingerprint of the camera generated due to the imaging sensors used to capture the video.

Abstract:
With the advancement in technologies more and more video editing tools came into existence at cheap prices which made tampering with the videos easy and these edited videos seem so real to our naked eyes. Countering these fake videos is a necessity in these days where videos have become an important source of information. Digital video forensics is a brand new research field which aims at validating the authenticity of videos. In our project we deal with a method to counter these morphed videos using source camera identification method. The imaging sensors in the camera have PHOTO-RESPONSE NON UNIFORMITY (PRNU) as the intrinsic property due to slight variations among individual pixels in their ability to convert photons to electrons. Consequently, every sensor casts a weak noise like pattern onto every image it takes. This pattern plays the role of a fingerprint of the camera. This pattern is an unintentional stochastic spread-spectrum watermark that survives processing, such as lossy compression or filtering. This fingerprint is estimated from video taken by the camera and later used to correlate it with the noise pattern of the given video. If there is a high correlation between the two noise patterns then these two videos are taken from the same camera and if not then the given video is not taken from that camera under test.

1 ) Introduction
Images and videos have become the main information carriers in the digital era. As a consequence, today images and videos represent a common source of evidence in trails. The accessibility of digital visual media brings a major drawback. Image processing experts can easily access and modify image content, and therefore its meaning, without leaving visually detectable traces. Therefore a confirmation of authenticity is needed, before further relying on their content. Digital image forensics is a brand new research field which aims at validating the authenticity of images by recovering information about their history. Digital image forensics (DIF) aims at providing tools to support blind investigation. Two principal research paths evolve under the name of Digital Image Forensics. The first one includes methods that attempt to identify the device that captured the image. The second group of methods aims instead at exposing traces of inconsistencies in natural image statistics.

2 ) Basic understanding of image acquisition and storage

We need to have an understanding of the basic processing steps that are involved in the acquisition of image in digital cameras. The Light enters the imaging device through a system of optical lenses, which conveys it towards the imaging sensor. There exist two types of imaging sensors commonly found in digital cameras, camcorders, and scanners CCD (Charge-Coupled Device) and CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor)

Both consist of a large number of photo detectors also called pixels. Pixels are made of silicon and capture light by converting photons into electrons using the photoelectric effect. The accumulated charge is transferred out of the sensor, amplified, and then converted to a digital signal in an AD converter and further processed before the data is stored in an image format, such as JPEG. To render color, before reaching the sensor the light is filtered by the Color Filter Array (CFA), a specific color mosaic that permits to each pixel to gather only one particular light wavelength (i.e. color).

3 ) Image source device identification

Identifying the device used for its acquisition is of major interest. Helpful clues on the source imaging device might be simply found in the files header (EXIF), or by checking (if present) a watermark consistency. However, since this information can be easily modified or removed, it cannot always be used for forensics purposes. Blind image forensics techniques take advantage of the traces left by the different processing steps in the image acquisition and storage phases. These traces mark the image with some kind of camera fingerprint, which can be used for authentication. Each step image in acquisition is performed according to specific manufacturer choices, and hence might depend on the camera brand and model. This variation can be used to determine the type of camera from which a specific image was obtained

4 ) Using sensor imperfections

Sensor imperfections are the only traits able to distinguish between different exemplars of the same camera model. Due to imperfections and tolerances of manufacturing and minor defects, each imaging sensor exhibit unique and non-varying characteristics. As a result, data acquired by imaging sensors (e.g., camera images, scanned images,and videos) inherit traces of sensors peculiar characteristics. These characteristics appear in every image or frame captured by the sensor, and therefore, they can be used as a fingerprint of the imaging device.

The sensor noise is the result of three main components, i.e. pixel defects, fixed pattern noise (FPN), and Photo Response Non Uniformity (PRNU). Pixel defects include point defects, hot point defects, dead pixels, pixel traps, and cluster defects, which reasonably vary across different sensors, independent on the specific camera model. The impact of defect pixels closely depends on the content of the image. Furthermore, some camera models do not contain any defectives pixels or they eliminate it. Therefore, this method is not applicable to every digital camera. FPN and PNRU are the two components of the so-called pattern noise, and depend on dark currents in the sensor and pixel non-uniformities, respectively. FP noise reveals itself in the form of fixed offset values in pixel readings and can be easily extracted by capturing a video (or an image) when the sensor is not exposed to any light. However, since FP noise is additive and can be easily extracted, manufacturers later added mechanisms to eliminate FP noise by first capturing a dark frame and subtracting it from every subsequently captured video frame or image. Photo-response non-uniformity (PRNU) noise pattern is caused mainly by the impurities in silicon wafers. These imperfections affect the light sensitivity of each individual pixels and cause a fixed noise pattern. Unlike FP noise, PRNU noise is multiplicative and correcting the offsets in the pixel readings due to PRNU noise requires the ability to create a perfectly lit scene within the device. Since this cannot be trivially achieved, PRNU noise pattern can be reliably used for fingerprinting an imaging device.

5 ) Extraction of PRNU Noise Pattern

To extract PRNU noise pattern from digital camera images, an input image is subjected to a wavelet-based denoising operation and the resulting noise residue is deemed to be an estimate of the PRNU noise. However, due to inaccurate modeling, extracted noise residues also contain contributions from the image itself. To suppress the content dependent part, noise residues extracted from multiple images (captured by the same camera) are averaged together to generate a fingerprint of the camera. In the method, source camera of a given image is

decided through a correlative procedure between the extracted PRNU noise estimate from the image in question and the (PRNU noise based) fingerprints of all potential source cameras.

6 ) Algorithms
It is possible to extract the PRNU patterns from the images using different methods. The three algorithms used are:

a ) Gaussian method
The Gaussian smoothing filter is a local smoothing filter, in which the PRNU pattern is extracted simply by taking the convolution of the image with a (symmetrical) Gaussian kernel. In practice this means that the pattern is obtained by subtracting a blurred version of the image from the image itself. The degree of 'blurring' is controlled by the sigma parameter. This is a very fast method, but as this method is not spatially adaptive, there is a serious downside: there is a lot of image residue in the extracted PRNU pattern when the local image variance is large, e.g. at the edges. There are multiple input parameters: sigma (the size of the standard deviation of the low-pass filter (generally 0.6)), the amount of averaging to reduce periodic patterns (generally 4x4), and a threshold value to remove image residue from the estimated PRNU pattern (default: 5).

b ) Wavelet based extraction method

The wavelet based PRNU extraction is based on the algorithm that works by denoising the image in the wavelet domain. First, the input image is transformed into the wavelet domain, where the wavelet coefficients in the high frequency subbands are denoised using the Wiener filter. Based on the local image variance, a spatial adaptive denoising parameter is estimated. After the denoising, the resulting coefficients are transformed back to the 'image domain'. By subtracting this resulting image from the original image, the PRNU pattern is obtained.
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Although estimating the PRNU patterns in this way is more reliable, it is also much more CPU and memory intensive. Only one input variable needs to be given: the size of the PRNU 'noise', i.e. the amount of noise to be extracted from the input image. Although some parameters work better than others, a sigma value of 5 is generally adequate.

c ) Non-local Means method

The non-local means method for denoising is a very intuitive way of denoising. The non-local means method is a neighbourhood filter; in practice this means that each pixel is denoised by looking at the neighbourhood of each pixel. Specifically, the nonlocal means method looks at the neighbourhoods of a pixel P; if a neighbourhood pixel R is found with a very similar neighbourhood (based on the Euclidian distance between the neighbourhoods), the grey level value of the pixel under consideration is adjusted by averaging P and R. By checking multiple neighbourhoods, we see that some neighbourhoods look more like the neighbourhood of P than others. The more similar the neighbourhoods are, the larger the weight assigned to the pixel value.

7 ) PRNU method for identifying Video camera

This approach is extended to videos to identify source camcorder. Although digital cameras and camcorders are very similar in their operation, obtaining an estimate of the PRNU noise pattern from a video is a more challenging task. There are several reasons for that: (i) Frame sizes of typical videos are smaller which decreases the available information needed for reliable detection (ii) Successive frames are very much alike, hence averaging successive instances of PRNU noise patterns do not effectively eliminate content dependency (iii) Because of motion compensation PRNU noise might be lost in some parts of the frames.

Essentially, the accuracy of the PRNU noise estimate depends on the quality (compression and resolution) and the duration of video (i.e., number of frames). Increasing quality and longer segments the PRNU estimates yield better differentiation of videos taken by the reference camcorder from the videos taken by other camcorders. Since a video can be generated by a single camcorder or by combining multiple video segments captured by several camcorders, we define a video signature to be the weighted combination of the fingerprints of the involved camcorders. We denoise each video frame with a wavelet-based denoising filter and extract the noise residues which are then averaged together. The resulting pattern is the combination of camcorder fingerprints, and it is treated as the signature of the video. If a video is shot by, for example, two camcorders, the extracted signature will be the weighted average of the fingerprints of these two camcorders. The weighting will depend on the length of the video shot by each camcorder. To detect of two videos are copies of each other, we assess the correlation between two video signatures. Essentially, due to inability to extract an accurate estimate of the underlying PRNU noise, extracted PRNU noise pattern extracted from a video has also contributions from the content itself. That is, the extracted video signature will not only depend on the imaging sensor fingerprints but also it will exhibit some degree of content dependency. Therefore for unmodified or slightly modified videos the correlation would take values close to one. On the other hand, for near-duplicate videos, no matter how similar they are, as long as the source camcorders are different, the correlation values will not take high values.

8 ) Work Done
First, we read a paper on digital image forensics. From the various plausible projects, we picked video source identification viz. our problem statement. After reading through the literature, we have chosen source identification method . We already have a java program source code which is used to extract and manage the patterns from the images or videos. Using the above mentioned program, we extract the noise from images using wavelet extraction method.

This was done as follows:-

1) Creating reference patterns:The first thing we want to do is make a set of reference images with the reference camera. It is advised to make a large number of flatfield images, images that do not contain any texture and have an approximately uniform illumination, like in Figure below. The PRNU pattern can be extracted most reliably from these images.

From these images, we find out PRNU pattern of the camera using the software.

2) Creating the natural pattern:This step is the same as the previous step, but instead of selecting the reference images, the natural images of which you want to know the origin should be selected instead. Use the Select natural images button instead.

Thus we create the PRNU pattern of the natural image.

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3. Comparing the patterns:We compare the patterns of two images with each other .The correlation for each colour channel is calculated by the program. A high correlation means a high degree of similarity (linear) between the two patterns.

9 ) Future Work
We create an interface between the java file that we use to extract the PRNU patterns and the MATLAB. We further work on MATLAB coding to extract the noise patterns for videos. The work is to identify video source by calculating noise pattern for individual frames. Each frame is then taken as one still image. We proceed to take the average PRNU of all the frames. This average PRNU is then compared with the camera signature to identify the source camera. If we find correlation between the average PRNU pattern and the camera signature, then the camera under test is the source of the video under inspection.

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References:1) Judith A. Redi & Wiem Taktak & Jean-Luc Dugelay ,Digital image forensics: a booklet for beginners, http://www.springerlink.com/content/j21563m0078r6354, 24 October 2010. 2) Jessica Fridrich , Digital Image Forensics Using Sensor Noise ,IEEE Signal processing magazine,vol.26,no.2,march 2009,pp.26-37. 3) H.Farid ,Digital Image Forensics,Scientific American,298(6):66-71,2008. 4) Sevinc Bayram, Husrev Taha Sencar, Nasir Memon ,Video Copy Detection Based on Source Device Characteristics: A Complementary Approach to Content-Based Methods, in proc.Multimedia Information retrival,2008,pp.435-442.

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