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1. Define Discrete-Time Signal sequence.

Discrete-time signals: A discrete-time signal is an indexed sequence of real or complex numbers. Thus, a discrete-time signal is a function of an integer-valued variable, n, that is denoted by x(n). Although the independent variable n need not necessarily represent time" (n may, for example, correspond to a spatial coordinate or distance), x (n) is generally referred to as a function of time. A discrete-time signal is undefined for no integer values of n. Therefore, a real-valued signal x (n) will be represented graphically in the form of a lollipop plot as shown in Fig. 1- I

Fig. 1-1. The graphical representation of a discrete-time signal x(n). In some problems and applications it is convenient to view x(n) as a vector. Thus, the sequence values x(0) to x(N - 1) may often be considered to be the elements of a column vector as follows: Discrete-time signals are often derived by sampling a continuous-time signal, such as speech, with an analog- to-digital (AID) converter.' For example, a continuous-time signal x,(t) that is sampled at a rate of fs= l/Ts samples per second produces the sampled signal x(n), which is related to Xa(t) as follows: Not all discrete-time signals, however, are obtained in this manner. Some signals may be considered to be naturally occurring discrete-time sequences because there is no physical analogto-digital converter that is converting an analog signal into a discrete-time signal.

2. Determine whether or not the signals below are periodic and, for each signal that is periodic, determine fundamental period.

(a) x(n)=cos(0.125n) Because 0.125= n/8, and cos( n) = cos( (n+16)) x(n) is periodic with period N = 16.

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(b). Here we have the sum of two periodic signals, With the period of the first signal being equal to N1 = 24, and the period of the second, N2 = 36. Therefore, the period of the sum is

(c) In order for this sequence to be periodic, we must be able to find a value for N such that Sin(+0.2n) = sin(+0.2(n+ N)) The sine function is periodic with a period of 2. Therefore, 0.2N must be an integer multiple of 2. However, because is an irrational number, no integer value of N exists that will make the equality true. Thus, this sequence is aperiodic. (d) Here we have the product of two periodic sequences with periods N1=32 and N2=34. Therefore, the fundamental period is

3. What are the Properties Discrete-time systems?

System Properties: A. Memory less System: The first property is concerned with whether or not a system has memory. Definition: A system is said to be memory less if the output at any time n = no depends only on the input at time n = no. In other words, a system is memory less if, for any no, we are able to determine the value of y(no) given only the value of x(no). Additivity: An additive system is one for which the response to a sum of inputs is equal to the sum of the inputs individually. Thus, Definition: A system is said to be additive if for any signals xI (n) and x2(n). Homogeneity: A system is said to be homogeneous if scaling the input by a constant results in a scaling of the output by the same amount. Specifically, Definition: A system is said to be homogeneous if for any complex constant c and for any input sequence x(n).

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4. Define the following terms as referred to LTI discrete time systems. a. Linear Systems b. Shift-Invariance: c. Linear Shift-Invariant d. Causality
Linear Systems: A system that is both additive and homogeneous is said to be linear. Thus, Definition: A system is said to be linear if for any two inputs xl(n) and x2(n) and for any complex constants a1 and a2. Linearity greatly simplifies the evaluation of the response of a system to a given input. For example, using the decomposition for x(n) given in Eq. (1.4), and using the additivity property, it follows that the output y(n) may be written as

Because the coefficients x(k) are constants, we may use the homogeneity property to write

If we define hk(n) to be the response of the system to a unit sample at time n = k,

. (1.1) which is known as the superposition summation. Shift-Invariance: If a system has the property that a shift (delay) in the input by no results in a shift in the output by no, the system is said to be shift-invariant. More formally, Definition: Let y (n) be the response of a system to an arbitrary input x (n). The system is said to be shift-invariant if, for any delay no, the response to x(n-no) is y(n-no). A system that is not shift-invariant is said to be shift-varying. In effect, a system will be shift-invariant if its properties or characteristics do not change with time. To test for shift-invariance one needs to compare y (n-no) to T[x(n-no)]. If they are the same for any input x(n) and for all shifts no, the system is shift-invariant. Linear Shift-Invariant Systems A system that is both linear and shift-invariant is referred to as a linear shift-invariant (LSI) system. If h(n) is the response of an LSI system to the unit sample 6(n), its response to (n-k) will be h(n-k). Therefore, in the superposition sum given in Eq. (1.1), hk(n) = h(n - k)

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and it follows that

.1.2 Equation (1.2), which is known as the convolution sum, is written as Where * indicates the convolution operator. The sequence h(n), referred to as the unit sample response, provide a complete characterization of an LSI system. In other words, the response of the system to any input x(n) may be found once h(n) is known. Causality: A system property that is important for real-time applications is causality, which is defined as follows: Definition: A system is said to be causal if, for any no, the response of the system at time no depends only on the input up to time n = no. For a causal system, changes in the output cannot precede changes in the input. Thus, if xl(n)= x2(n) for n n0, yl(n) must be equal to y2(n) for n n0. Causal systems are therefore referred to as non-anticipatory. An LSI system will be causal if and only if h(n) is equal to zero for n < 0.

5. State and prove the basic properties of convolution?

CONVOLUTION

The relationship between the input to a linear shift-invariant system, x(n), and the output, y(n), is given by the convolution sum

Because convolution is fundamental to the analysis and description of LSI systems, in this section we look at the mechanics of performing convolutions. We begin by listing some properties of convolution that may be used to simplify the evaluation of the convolution sum. Convolution Properties Convolution is a linear operator and, therefore, has a number of important properties including the commutative, associative, and distributive properties. The definitions and interpretations of these properties are summarized below. Commutative Property The commutative property states that the order in which two sequences are convolved is not important. Mathematically, the commutative property is From a systems point of view, this property states that a system with a unit sample response h(n) and input x(n) behaves in exactly the same way as a system with unit sample response x(n) and an input h(n). This is illustrated in Fig. 1-2(a).

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Distributive Property The distributive property of the convolution operator states that From a systems point of view, this property asserts that if two systems with unit sample responses h1(n) and h2(n) are connected in parallel, as illustrated in Fig. 1-2(c), an equivalent system is one that has a unit sample response equal to the sum of h1(n) and h2(n):

Associative Property The convolution operator satisfies the associative property, which is From a systems point of view, the associative property states that if two systems with unit sample responses hl (n) and h2 (n) are connected in cascade as shown in Fig. 1-2(b), an equivalent system is one that has a unit sample response equal to the convolution of hl (n) and h2(n):

Fig. 1-2 The interpretation of convolution properties from a systems point of view.

6. If the response of a linear shift-invariant system to a unit step (i.e., the step response) is find the unit sample response, h(n).
(n) = u(n)-u(n-1) Therefore, the unit sample response, h(n),is related to the step response, s(n), as follows: h(n)=s(n)-s(n-I)

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Thus, given s(n), we have h(n) = s(n)-s(n-I)

7. Prove the commutative property of convolution

Proving the commutative property is straightforward and only involves a simple manipulation of the convolution sum. With the convolution of x(n) with h(n) given by with the substitution 1=n-k, we have and the commutative property is established.

8.Consider a system described by the difference equation Find the response of this system to the input with initial conditions y(-1) = 0.75 and y(-2) = 0.25.
Let x(n) = (0.5)n u(n), we assume a solution of the form n 0 yp (n) = Cl(0.5)n Substituting this solution into the difference equation, we have Dividing by (0.5)n which gives CI =2 CI -4 CI +0.5+1 CI=0.5 to find the homogeneous solution. The characteristic equation is z2-z+l=0 which has roots

Therefore, the form of the homogeneous solution is and the total solution becomes (1.3)

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The constants A1 and A2 must now be found so that the total solution satisfies the given initial conditions, y(-1) = 0.75 and y(-2) = 0.25. Because the solution given in Eq. (1.3) is only applicable for n 0, we must derive an equivalent set of initial conditions for y(0) and y(l). Evaluating the difference equation for n = 0 and n = 1, we have And Now, substituting these derived initial conditions into Eq. (1.3), we have y(0) = 0.5 + Al + A2 = 1 Writing this pair of equations in the two unknowns A1 and A2 in matrix form,

and solving, we find

Substituting into Eq. (1.3) and simplifying, we find, after a bit of algebra. An important observation to make about this solution is that. Because the difference equation has real coefficients, the roots of the characteristic polynomial are in complex-conjugate pairs. This ensures that the unit sample response is real. With a real-valued input x(n), the response must be real and, therefore, it follows that A2 will be the complex conjugate of A1 :

9. Write an expression for a Parsevals relation for discrete time periodic signals.
Parseval's Theorem: A corollary to the multiplication theorem is Parseval's theorem, which is

Parsevals theorem is referred to as the conservation of energy theorem; because it states that the DTFT operator preserves energy when going from the time domain into the frequency domain.

10. Consider the linear shift-invariant system characterized by the secondorder linear constant coefficient difference equation.
The frequency response may be found by inspection without solving the difference equation for h(n) as follows: Note that this problem may also be worked in the reverse direction. For example, given a frequency response function such as

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a difference equation may be easily found that will implement this system. First, dividing numerator and denominator by 2 and rewriting the frequency response as follows, we see that a difference equation for this system is

11. What are the Advantages of DSP?

Advantages: Digital signal processing possesses several advantages over analog signal processing are 1. Greater accuracy: The tolerance of the circuit components used to design the analog filters affects the accuracy, where as the DSP provides superior control of accuracy 2. Cheaper: In many applications, digital realization is comparatively cheaper than its analogy counterpart 3. Ease of Data Storage: Digital signals can be easily stored on magnetic media without loss of fidelity and can be processed off-line in a remote laboratory 4. Implementation of Sophisticated algorithms: The DSP allows implementing sophisticated algorithms when compared to its analog counterpart 5. Flexibility in configuration: A DSP system can be easily reconfigured by changing the program. Reconfiguration of an analogy system involves redesign of system hardware. 6. Applicability of VLF Signals: The very low frequency signals such as those occurring in seismic application can be easily processed using a digital signal processor when compared to an analogy processing, when inductors and capacitors needed would be physically very large in size. 7. Time sharing: DSP allows the sharing of given processor among a number of signals by time sharing thud reducing the cost of processing of signals.

12. What are Limitations of DSP?

Limitation: 1. System Complexity: Systems complexity increases in the digital processing of an analog signal because of devices such as A/D and D/A converters and their associated filters. 2.Bandwidth limited by sampling rate: Band limited signals can be sampled without information loss if sampling rate is more than twice the bandwidth therefore , signals having extremely wide bandwidths require fast sampling rate A/D converters and fast digital signal processors. But there is a practical limitation in the speed of operation of A/D converters and digital signal processors. 3. Power consumption: A variety of analog processing algorithms can be implemented using passive circuit elements like inductors, capacitors and resistors that do not need much power, whereas a DSP chip containing over 4 lakh transistors dissipates more power.

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11. What are the Applications of DSP?

1. Telecommunications: Echo cancellation in telephone networks, Telephone dialing application, Modems, Line repeaters, Channel multiplexing, Data encryption, Video conferencing, Cellular phone, FAX 2. Consumer Electronics: Digital Audio/TV, Electronics music synthesizer, Educational toys, FM stereo applications, Sound recording applications 3. Instrumentation and Control: Spectrum analysis, Digital filter, PLL, Function generator, Servo control, Robot control, Process control 4. Image processing: Image compression, Image enhancement, Image analysis and recognition 5. Medicine: Medical diagnostic instrumentation such as computerized Tomography, X-ray scanning, Magnetic resonance imaging, Spectrum analysis of ECG and EEG signals to detect the various disorders in heart and brain, patient monitoring 6. Speech Processing: Speech analysis methods are used in automatic speech recognition, Speaker verification and speaker identification. Speech synthesis techniques include conversion of written text into speech. 7. Seismology: DSP techniques are employed in the geophysical exploration for oil and gas, detection of underground nuclear explosion and earthquake monitoring 8. Military: Radar signal processing, Sonar signal processing, Navigation, Secure communications.

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