1

University of Alexandria Faculty of Nursing Doctorate Programme Research 2 2012

SUPERVISED BY: Prof. Dr. Mervat El Genedi PREPARED BY: Walaa elleithy

Goal At the end of this seminar the doctorate students will be able to: Understand Qualitative data analysis and two common approaches.

Intended learning outcomes:

A. Knowledge and understanding:
1.

Clarify of the concept of qualitative data analysis Explore main types of data analysis Explore aims of qualitative data analysis.

2. Describe the steps of grounded theory approach.

3. 4.

B. Intellectual skills:
1.

Clarify the relationship between grounded theory approach and framework approach .

2. Compare approaches in analysing qualitative data C. Professional and practical skills: 1- Code and develop categories in qualitative data analysis

D.General and transferable skills:

1.

Participate in developing a new qualitative research analysis.

Agenda Introduction What is qualitative data? What is analysis? Aim of qualitative data Inductive and deductive approch Stages in Qualitative Data Analysis a) Familiarisation b) Transcription c) Organisation d) Coding

Analysis (Grounded Theory)

Analysis (Framework) e) Report writing Qualitative Data Software References

Introduction Analysing qualitative data is not a simple or quick task. Done properly, it is systematic and rigorous, and therefore labour-intensive and time-consuming. The major element of qualitative analysis is to find, build, clarify, illustrate and explain an argument or issue. The analysis should take the form of a research essay containing certain expected elements: How you introduce them and sequence the elements must be logical and help readers to get it.

Qualitative Data

is mostly in the form of words, phrases, sentences and may include visual images, audio and video recordings. Qualitative data is a mass of words obtained from recordings of interviews, fieldnotes of observations, and analysis of documents as well as reflective notes of the researcher. This mass of information have to be organised, summarised, described and interpreted Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) is the range of processes and procedures whereby we move from the qualitative data that have been collected into some form of explanation, understanding or interpretation of the people and situations we are investigating. Aims of qualitative analysis 1. Understand the phenomenon

2. Go beyond reporting move towards INTERPRETATION 3. Identify themes and sub-themes Generally, since numbers are not used, the qualitative researcher looks for categories or themes from the raw data to describe and explain phenomena. analyses the relationships and patterns between the categories or themes that have been identified. using two approaches:
o Inductively whereby the categories or themes are allowed to

emerge from the data gradually. This has been termed as grounded theory.
o Deductively whereby from the very beginning or half-way through

you begin to identify the categories or themes and fit the data into the categories and themes which is later interpreted. Main Types Of Qualitative Analysis. Characteristics of language e.g. content analysis Discovery of regularities e.g. grounded theory Comprehension of meaning e.g. phenomenology

Content Analysis There are several ways to conduct content analysis of text: from grounded theory, without any preconceived ideas, to identifying only somebody elses categories e.g., when the researchers have to explore a set of questions, predetermined by an external funding body.

In grounded theory the categories emerge through a process of inductive reasoning, rather than the data being allocated to predetermined categories. Ideally, the researchers start the data gathering and subsequent analyses without any defined ideas on what they will find. The analyses are undertaken following Constant Comparative Method Steps: Immersion producing detailed transcriptions Categorization assigning categories Reduction grouping categories in themes Triangulation checking themes against all transcripts (preferably with other people) Interpretation making sense of data with new model or established theory
STAGES IN QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

these two approaches Grounded theory approach and Framework analysis approach. It usually begins with familiarisation of the data, transcription, organisation, coding, analysis (grounded theory or framework analysis) and reporting (though the order may vary). Stages in qualitative data analysis
Familiarisation Transcription Organisation

Analysis
Grounded theory

Report Writing

Coding

Analysis

Phase 1. Familiarisation

Framework analysis

You have massive amount of material and you may have to listen to tapes and watch video material, read and re-read the field notes, make memos and summaries before formal analysis begins. This is especially important when besides you, others are also involved in data collection. You have got to be familiar with the field notes they made (perhaps trying to decipher their handwriting!). Phase 2. Transcription converting audio recorded data or handwritten fieldnotes obtained from interviews and observations into verbatim form (i.e. written or printed) for easy reading. Why? If you were to analyse direct from an audio recording or fieldnotes, there is the likelihood that you may include those sections that seem relevant or interesting to you and ignore others. Transcription involves judgments about what level of detail to choose (e.g. omitting non-verbal dimensions of interaction), data interpretation (e.g. distinguishing 'I don't, no' from 'I don't know')
Interview Field notes Transcript

???You should not forget to include non-verbal cues in the transcript such as silence (which may indicate embarrassment or emotional distress), pause for thought (such as wellerI suppose.) laughter, gestures (which may add meaning to the spoken word) and so forth. If someone else is transcribing your material, make sure to tell him or her how much of this non-verbal information to include. Phase 3. ORGANISATION organise data into sections that is easy to retrieve. Example, in your study you interviewed 10 teachers (30 minutes each) on their opinion about the leadership style of their principal. It is advisable that you give each teacher a pseudonym (e.g. Elvis, Michael, Dina not their real name) or referred to by a code number (e.g. T1, T2..T10). You need to keep a file that links the pseudonym or code number to the original informants which should be kept confidential and destroyed after completion of the research. Names and other identifiable material should be removed from the transcripts. Phase 4. CODING

looking for similar words or phrases in the transcripts. Once you have these phrases, put them into categories/themes, that they can easily be retrieved at a later stage for further comparison and analysis. Codes can be based on: *Themes, Topics *Terms, Phrases *Ideas, Concepts *Keywords

The codes are given meaningful names that gives an indication of the idea or concept that underpins the theme or category. This process of coding (associating labels with the text, images etc) involves close reading of the text (or close inspection of the video or images). If a theme is identified from the data that does not quite fit the codes that are already existing then a new code is created. EXAMPLE: Strauss and Corbin (1998) suggest open coding. Open coding is where you sweep through the data and marking the text Example of an interview with a teacher describing the behaviour of his principal at staff meetings with teachers in the school. the following codes are assigned. B1 hot tempered; B3 refused to listen B6 scolds B8 one man show Next recode the eight descriptions into one or two categories. B3 and B8 could be recoded to A1 and assigned theme autocratic. Coding Techniques The following are two techniques of coding: 1- Cut and Paste cut your transcripts into smaller unit of analysis which could be individual words, phrases, sentences or

B2 lost his cool B4 just went on and on B7 ridiculed for questioning

10

paragraphs. paste these text units on to cards which you could sort easily. Keep in mind that each text unit needs to be traceable to its original context. 2-Colour Code highlight text units to underline units of text. There could be a problem when there are hundreds of text units and you will need hundreds of colours which could pose a problem differentiating the colours. Is the choice if you do not have too many categories or text units.
Combination perhaps a preferred technique would be combination

Step 5. ANALYSIS A) Grounded Theory Inductive Approach is an inductive approach in the analysis of qualitative data in which theory is systematically generated from data. However, many studies in medicine, public health and in nursing), has been widely adopted as a procedure for conceptualising and analysing data. it allows for the theory to emerge from the data through a process of rigorous analysis. The grounded theory approach is different from the framework approach in analysing qualitative data. The grounded theory approach emphasises on theory as the final output of research. The framework approach in data analysis may stop at the level of description or simple interpretation. The aim of grounded theory is theoretical development. which is increasingly commonly used in health-related research. grounded theory approach, the plausible (likely or probable) relationships between sets of categories which have emerged from data analysed. So, theory is a statement about possible relationships among categories about a phenomenon that helps one understand his or her social world. Note that a theory is not an absolute truth but rather a tentative explanation of a phenomenon (e.g., adolescents

11

damage public property in an effort to seek attention because of low selfesteem).

THEORY EMERGES SHOWING RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE CATEGORIES

Identify and Categorise Data

CATEGORIES EMERGE FROM THE DATA Category #2 Category #3 Category #1

R A W DAT A

Word Phrase Word

Phrase

Word Phrase

Phrase

Word

The Main Feature Of The Grounded Theory

1.

use of the constant comparison technique. categories or concepts that

emerge from one stage of analysis are compared with categories or concepts that emerge from the previous stage.
2.

The researcher continues with this technique until what is called

theoretical saturation is reached or no new significant categories or concepts emerge.

12

3.

procedure is cyclical involving frequent revisiting of data in the

light of emergence of new categories or concepts as data analysis progresses.

4.

The theory that develops is best seen as provisional until proven

by the data and validation from others.

Grounded Theory Analysis

1. open coding (initial familiarization with the data)

2. delineation of emergent concepts 3. conceptual coding (using emergent concepts) 4. refinement of conceptual coding schemes 5. clustering of concepts to form analytical categories 6. searching for core categories 7. core categories lead to identification of core theory 8. testing of emerging theory by reference to other research and to social/cultural/economic factors that affect the area of study. B) Framework Analysis Deductive Approach
1. framework analysis was explicitly developed for applied research, the

findings and recommendations of research need to obtained with a short period to be adopted.
2. This approach allows the researcher to set the categories and themes

from the beginning of the study. However, this approach also allows for categories and themes that may emerge during data analysis which the researcher had not stated at the beginning of the study.
3. specific pieces of data are identified which correspond to the different

themes or categories.

13

Example from medicine. You may want to know, for instance, about how people who had had a heart attack conceptualise the causes of the attack. From existing literature, you may know that these can be divided into physical causes, psychological causes, ideas of luck, genetic inheritance and so forth. You interview people who have had a heart attack and from the interview transcript you search the data for material that could be coded under these headings. Using the headings, you can create charts of your data so that you can easily read across the whole dataset. Charts can be either thematic for each theme or category across all respondents (cases) or by case for each respondent across all themes. Thematic Chart THEME Psychological cause Case Chart Theme 1 Theme 2 Genetic inheritance Physical cause My younger brother and I hardly do any father died of a heart attack exercise. I too busy to do any exercise Case 2 Case 3

The stress at office is too Business was bad. much. Got to work late Had to close shop

CASE 1

Key Stages Of Framework Analysis

1. Familiarisation (reading of the data.) 2. Identifying a thematic framework (initial coding framework)

14

3.

coding (using numerical or textual codes to identify specific pieces of data which correspond to differing themes)

4. Charting (thematic or cases) 5. Mapping and Interpretation (searching for patterns,

associations, concepts, and explanations in your data, aided by visual displays and plots).

Step 6: REPORT WRITING a) Introducing your Study

1. Begin with something interesting, e.g., a quote or story, to

capture the reader's interest.

2. Introduce your question or curiosity. What is it that you want to

know or understand? How did you get interested in the topic?

3. Tell why there's a need for the study. Cite relevant literature

that calls for the need for the research in this area, or demonstrates the lack of attention to the topic. In your own words, describe how you think this study will be useful.
4. Describe the intended audience for your research (e.g., the

public, family therapists). b) Research Method

1. Identify and generally describe your research method (e.g., ethnographic

field study, single case study), and your research procedures (e.g., long interviews, observation).
2. Cite the major authors who have described your research method.

15

3. Explain how you will selected your subjects and gained entry into the

research context (if relevant).

4. Describe the procedures you took to protect the rights of your subjects

(e.g., informed consent, human subjects approval, debriefing).

5. Describe the kind of relationship you had with the subjects. Will you be

neutral, collaborative, objective?

6. Describe the kind of data you collected (e.g., field notes from memory,

audio tapes, video tapes, transcripts of conversations, examination of existing documents, etc.).
7. Describe the procedures used in data collection. If interviews were used,

list your question(s) or attach as an appendix. Describe any equipment used. 8. Describe the procedures you used to keep track of the research process. i.e. your audit trail.

Process notes: Day to day activities, methodological Materials relating to intentions and reactions: personal Instrument development information: revisions of

notes, decision making procedures.

notes about motivations, experiences with informants, etc. interview questions. 9. Describe your data analysis procedures (coding, sorting, etc.)?

Data reduction: Write-ups of field notes, transcription conventions, computer programs used, etc.

procedures and

16

Data reconstruction: development of categories, findings,

conclusions, connections to existing literature, integration of concepts. 10.Describe how you ensure "reliability" and "validity." For mention whether you used triangulation, member checking, peer debriefing, auditing. 11.Describe how you reviewed the literature and how it has influenced the way you approached the research.
12. Discuss how your previous experience with your topic has influenced the

way you have conceptualized this research.

13. Summarize references

The bottom line is credibility.

It refers to the accuracy of your

description as show in your report... If you want to convince your reader that the findings you obtained are credible (or accurate) you need to state precisely the parameters of the study. Parameters involves who was studied, where and when, and methods used. If you are able to state these aspects clearly, you enhance the credibility of the study. Qualitative Data Software
The most commonly used packages:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

ETHNOGRAPH. ATLASTi. NVIVO HyperRESEARCH NUD*IST.

17

The last two packages are examples for having theory- building capability, and all of packages have coding ability, retrieving data that relates to specific codes, which can then be arranged to show relationships as determined by the researcher. The benefits of using computer-assisted data analysis aren't necessarily linked to time- saving, but there are advantages to the researcher in the way packages organize and store information.

REFERENCES
1. Glaser, B. and Strauss, A. (1967): The discovery of grounded theory.

London: Weidenfield & Nicolson. 2. Lacey, A. & Luff, D. (2001). Trent focus for research and development in primary health care: An introduction to qualitative analysis. London: Trent Focus. 3. Lewins, A., Taylor, C. & Gibbs, G. (2005). What is qualitative data analysis? School of Human & Health Sciences, University of Huddersfield. United Kingdome. 4. Strauss, A. (1987). Qualitative analysis for social scientists. New York: Cambridge University Press. 5. Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. London: Sage

18

6. Russell, B. (1996) Qualitative Data, Quantitative Analysis. Cultural

Anthropology Methods Journal, Vol. 8 no. 1, 9-11. http://web.missouri.edu/~anthgr/papers/Bernardqualquant.htm

7. Chapter 15: Qualitative Data Analysis

http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/dr_johnson/lectures/le c17pd
8. Lindee Morgan. Module: Qualitative Data Analysis

http://comm2.fsu.edu/programs/commdis/ddseminar/QualitativeAnaly sis.
9. Donald Ratcliff. 15 Methods of Data Analysis in Qualitative Research

http://www.vanguard.edu/uploadedFiles/faculty/dratcliff/qualresource s/15methods.pdf
10. John Carney and Joseph Joiner. Categorising, Coding and

Manipulating Qualitative Data Using the WordPerfect Word Processor. The Qualitative Report. 1997. 3(2) http://www.nova.edu/sss/QR/QR3-1/carney.html
11. Thorne, S. (2000): Data analysis in qualitative research. Evid Based

Nurs ;3:68-70 doi:10.1136/ebn.3.3.68 12. Gibbs, G. (2002) Qualitative data analysis: explorations with NVivo. London: Open University Press. 13. Glaser, B. G. and Strauss, A. L. (1967) The discovery of grounded theory: strategies for qualitative research. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
14. Barry, Christine (1998). Choosing qualitative data analysis software:

Atlas/ti and Nudist compared.Sociological Research Online, 3(2), http://www.socresonline.org.uk.socresonline/3/3/4.html.

15. Fielding, Nigel, & Lee, Raymond (1998) (Eds.). Computer analysis &

qualitative research. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

19

16. Fielding, Nigel, & Lee, Raymond (1993) (Eds.). Using computers in

qualitative research (revised & updated). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

17. Kelle, Udo (1997). Theory building in qualitative research and

computer programs for the management of textual data. Sociological Research Online, 2(2), http://www.socresonline.org.uk.socresonline/2/2/1.html