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Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Experiment No. 1
Aim: To study the Fourier spectrum of a pulse wave. Software Tool: TINA Pro v 8.0. Theory: The Fourier transform is a mathematical operation with many applications in physics and engineering that expresses a mathematical function of time as a function of frequency, known as its frequency spectrum; The function of time is often called the time domain representation, and the frequency spectrum the frequency domain representation. The inverse Fourier transform expresses a frequency domain function in the time domain. In the case of a periodic function, such as a continuous, but not necessarily sinusoidal, musical tone, the Fourier transform can be simplified to the calculation of a discrete set of complex amplitudes, called Fourier series coefficients. The Fourier transform is given as,

The Fourier transform has the following basic properties: Linearity For any complex numbers a and b, if h(x) = a(x) + bg(x), then

Translation For any real number x0, if h(x) = (x x0), then Modulation For any real number 0, if h(x) = e2ix0(x), then, Scaling .

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

For a non-zero real number a, if h(x) = (ax), then, leads to the time-reversal property, which states: if h(x) = (x), then Conjugation If , then

. The case a = 1 .

In particular, if is real, then one has the reality condition And if is purely imaginary, then Duality If Convolution If , then then

A pulse wave or pulse train is a kind of non-sinusoidal waveform that is similar to a square wave, but does not have the symmetrical shape associated with a perfect square wave. The pulse wave is also known as the rectangular wave, the periodic version of the rectangular function.

The shape of the pulse wave is defined by its duty cycle D, which is the ratio between the pulse duration ( ) and the period (T)

Result:
AC Lab Manual EC 4th Semester Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Viva Questions
Q.1. What is signal? Q.2. What are the different types of signals and systems? Q.3. What are the applications of convolution? Q.4. What are the Dirichlet conditions necessary for Fourier series representation? Q.5. What is the difference between Fourier series and Fourier transform?

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Experiment No. 2
Aim: To study the generation of amplitude modulated signal. Software Tool: TINA Pro v 8.0. Theory: Amplitude modulation (AM) is a technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. A carrier wave is modeled as a sine wave: in which the frequency in Hz is given by: The constants and represent the carrier amplitude and initial phase, and are introduced for generality. For simplicity, their respective values can be set to 1 and 0. Let m(t) represent an arbitrary waveform that is the message to be transmitted, and let the constant M represent its largest magnitude:

The message might be just a simple audio tone of frequency: It is assumed that and that

Amplitude modulation is formed by the product:

Modulation index The AM modulation index is the measure of the amplitude variation surrounding an unmodulated carrier. As with other modulation indices, in AM this quantity (also called "modulation depth") indicates how much the modulation varies around its "original" level. For AM, it relates to variations in carrier amplitude and is defined as:
AC Lab Manual EC 4th Semester Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Where

and

were introduced above.

So if h = 0.5, carrier amplitude varies by 50% above (and below) its unmodulated level; for h = 1.0, it varies by 100%. To avoid distortion, modulation depth must not exceed 100 percent.

Amplitude Modulated Waveform

Result:

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Viva Questions
Q.1. What is modulation? Define Amplitude Modulation? Q.2. Write the equation for AM wave? What does it represents? Q.3. What is the need of modulation? Q.4. Define modulation index for AM wave? What is its significance? Q.5. Differentiate between AM and FM techniques?

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Experiment No. 3
Aim: To study the generation of frequency modulated signal. Software Tool: TINA Pro v 8.0. Theory: Frequency modulation (FM) conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its instantaneous frequency. This contrasts with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier is varied while its frequency remains constant. FM is widely used for broadcasting music and speech, two-way radio systems, magnetic tape-recording systems and some video-transmission systems. If the baseband data signal (the message) to be transmitted is xm(t) and the sinusoidal carrier is , where fc is the carrier's base frequency and Ac is the carrier's amplitude, the modulator combines the carrier with the baseband data signal to get the transmitted signal:

In this equation, is the instantaneous frequency of the oscillator and is the frequency deviation, which represents the maximum shift away from fc in one direction, assuming xm(t) is limited to the range 1. Frequency deviation (f) is used in FM radio to describe the maximum instantaneous difference between an FM modulated frequency and the nominal carrier frequency. The frequency deviation of a radio is of particular importance in relation to bandwidth, because less deviation means that more channels can fit into the same amount of frequency spectrum. The FM broadcasting range (88108 MHz) uses a channel spacing of 200 kHz, with a maximum frequency deviation of 75 kHz, leaving a 25 kHz buffer above the highest
AC Lab Manual EC 4th Semester Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

and below the lowest frequency to reduce interaction with other channels. AM broadcasting uses a channel spacing of 10 kHz, but with amplitude modulation frequency deviation is irrelevant.

Frequency Modulated Waveform Modulation index As in other modulation indices, this quantity indicates by how much the modulated variable varies around its unmodulated level. It relates to variations in the carrier frequency:

Where, is the highest frequency component present in the modulating signal xm(t), and is the peak frequency-deviationi.e. the maximum deviation of the instantaneous frequency from the carrier frequency. If , the modulation is called narrowband FM, and its bandwidth is approximately . If , the modulation is called wideband FM and its bandwidth is approximately . Carson's rule A rule of thumb, Carson's rule states that nearly all (~98 percent) of the power of a frequency-modulated signal lies within a bandwidth of:

Result:

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Viva Questions
Q.1. Define Frequency Modulation? Write the FM wave equation? Q.2. What are the differences between FM and Phase modulation? Q.3. Define modulation index for FM? What is its significance? Q.4. Differentiate between Narrowband and Wideband FM? Q.5. What is Carsons Rule? Explain the phenomena of Diagonal Clipping?

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

10

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Experiment No. 4
Aim: To study the AM generation using Diode mixer. Software Tool: Multisim 11.0. Theory: In electronics a mixer or frequency mixer is a nonlinear electrical circuit that creates new frequencies from two signals applied to it. In its most common application, two signals at frequencies f1 and f2 are applied to a mixer, and it produces new signals at the sum f1 + f2 and difference f1 - f2 of the original frequencies. Other frequency components may also be produced in a practical frequency mixer. A diode can be used to create a simple unbalanced mixer. This type of mixer produces the original frequencies as well as their sum and their difference. The importance of the diode is that it is non-linear (or non-Ohmic), which means its response (current) is not proportional to its input voltage.

Diode Mixer Applications The mixer circuit can be used not only to shift the frequency of an input signal as in a receiver, but also as a product detector, modulator, phase detector or frequency multiplier.

Result:

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

11

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Viva Questions
Q.1. Explain the difference between a Mixer and modulator. Q.2.What is the transmission efficiency of an AM signal? Q.3. Explain the drawbacks of tuned radio frequency receiver. Q.4. Why SSB-SC is not used for transmission of video signals despite of the fact that SSB signals require lesser bandwidth for its transmission? Q.5. Explain the principle of AGC?

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

12

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Experiment No. 5
Aim: To study the synchronous demodulation operation of AM wave. Software Tool: TINA Pro v 8.0. Theory: Demodulation is the act of extracting the original information-bearing signal from a modulated carrier wave. A demodulator is an electronic circuit (or computer program in a software-defined radio) that is used to recover the information content from the modulated carrier wave. The simplest form of detection for an amplitude modulated signal utilizes a simple diode rectifier. To achieve improved performance a form of demodulation known as synchronous demodulation can be used. This circuit operates using the principle that if the signal is hard limited, the output of the amplifier will not have any amplitude variations on it - hence it will only allow through the carrier without modulation. This is exactly what is required for the mixing process.

High gain limiting amplifier synchronous detector Synchronous detectors are used because they have several advantages over ordinary diode detectors. Firstly the level of distortion is less. Under conditions when the carrier level is reduced by selective fading, the receiver is able to re-insert its own signal on the carrier frequency ensuring that the effects of selective fading are removed. As a result the effects of selective fading can be removed to greatly enhance reception. The other advantage is an improved signal to noise ratio at low signal levels. Result:

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

13

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Viva Questions
Q.1. What is Demodulation? What are the different demodulation techniques in AM&FM? Q.2. What is Synchronous Demodulation? Why it is different from other detection method? Q.3. What are the different AM detector circuits? Explain envelope detection? Q.4. What are the different FM detector circuits? Explain balanced slope detection? Q.5. Draw the block diagram of synchronous detector and explain its working?

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

14

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Experiment No. 06
Aim: To study the operation of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis process. Software Tool: TINA Pro v 8.0. Theory: In processing electronic audio signals, pre-emphasis refers to a system process designed to increase (within a frequency band) the magnitude of some (usually higher) frequencies with respect to the magnitude of other (usually lower) frequencies in order to improve the overall signal-to-noise ratio by minimizing the adverse effects of such phenomena as attenuation distortion or saturation of recording media in subsequent parts of the system. Pre-emphasis is usually employed in frequency modulation or phase modulation transmitters to equalize the modulating signal drive power in terms of deviation ratio. The receiver demodulation process includes a reciprocal network, called a de-emphasis network, to restore the original signal power distribution. Pre-emphasis The circuits are the transmitting side of the frequency modulator. It is used to increase the gain of the higher frequency component as the input signal frequency increased, the impendence of the collector voltage increase. If the signal frequency is lesser then the impendence decrease which increase the collector current and hence decrease the voltage.

Pre-emphasis Circuit EC 4th Semester

AC Lab Manual

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

15

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

De-emphasis The circuit is placed at the receiving side. It acts as allow pass filter. The boosting gain for higher frequency signal in the transmitting side is done by the pre-emphasis circuit is filtered to the same value by the low pass filter. The cut off frequency is given by the formula fc = 1/(2p RC)

De-emphasis Circuit

Result:

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

16

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Viva Questions
Q.1. Define Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis? Q.2. Why pre-emphasis is needed at higher frequencies in FM? Q.3. Draw the block diagram of FM transmitter including Pre-emphasis network? Q.4. What is the need for De-emphasis? Q.5. Draw the frequency response curve of De-emphasis circuit whose RC time constant is 75 seconds?

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

17

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Experiment No. 07
Aim: To study the operation of Slope detector FM detector. Software Tool: NI Multisim 11.0. Theory: In fm demodulators, the intelligence to be recovered is not in amplitude variations; it is in the variation of the instantaneous frequency of the carrier, either above or below the center frequency. The detecting device must be constructed so that its output amplitude will vary linearly according to the instantaneous frequency of the incoming signal. The slope detector is essentially a tank circuit which is tuned to a frequency either slightly above or below the fm carrier frequency. As the fm signal is applied to the tank circuit, the output amplitude of the signal varies as its frequency swings closer to, or further from, the resonant frequency of the tank. Frequency variations will still be present in this waveform, but it will also develop amplitude variations. This is because of the response of the tank circuit as it varies with the input frequency. This signal is then applied to the diode detector and the detected waveform is the output. This circuit has the major disadvantage that any amplitude variations in the RF waveform will pass through the tank circuit and be detected.

Fundamental circuit of Slope Detector

Result:
AC Lab Manual EC 4th Semester Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

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Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Viva Questions
Q.1. Why AM is called as linear modulation & FM as non- linear modulation? Q.2.What is the demodulating techniques used to detect the intelligence signal from modulating signal? Q.3. Explain the difference between foster-seeley discriminator and ratio detector technique. Which one is better? Q.4. Explain threshold effect and capture effect? Q.5.What is the channel frequency used in FM and AM and the maximum modulating signal frequency used for FM?

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

19

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Experiment No. 08
Aim: To study the operation of voltage controlled oscillator as FM generator. Software Tool: TINA Pro v 8.0. Theory: A voltage-controlled oscillator or VCO is an electronic oscillator designed to be controlled in oscillation frequency by a voltage input. The frequency of oscillation is varied by the applied DC voltage, while modulating signals may also be fed into the VCO to cause frequency modulation (FM) or phase modulation (PM); a VCO with digital pulse output may similarly have its repetition rate (FSK, PSK) or pulse width modulated (PWM). VCO time-domain equations

, is called the oscillator gain. Its units are hertz per volt. , is the symbol for the time-domain waveform that is the VCO's tunable frequency component. , is the symbol for the time-domain waveform that is the VCO's output phase. , is the time-domain symbol of the control (input) voltage of the VCO; it is sometimes also represented as

Types of VCOs VCOs can be generally categorized into two groups based on the type of waveform produced: 1) harmonic oscillators, and 2) relaxation oscillators. Harmonic oscillators generate a sinusoidal waveform. They consist of an amplifier that provides adequate gain and a resonant circuit that feeds back signal to the input. Oscillation occurs at the resonant frequency where a positive gain arises around the loop. Some examples of harmonic oscillators are crystal oscillators and LC-tank oscillators. When part of the resonant circuit's capacitance is provided by a varactor diode, the voltage applied to that diode varies the frequency.
AC Lab Manual EC 4th Semester Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

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Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Relaxation oscillators can generate a sawtooth or triangular waveform. They are commonly used in monolithic integrated circuits (ICs). They can provide a wide range of operational frequencies with a minimal number of external components. Applications VCOs are used in:

Function generators, The production of electronic music, to generate variable tones, Phase-locked loops, Frequency synthesizers used in communication equipment.

Result:

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

21

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Viva Questions
Q.1. Explain VCO. How it works? Q.2. How does the VCO phase noise affect the overall noise of a Phase Locked Loop system? Q.3. When the supply voltage to the VCO changes, what parameters are affected and how? Q.4. Is there a delay from the time the supply voltage is applied to the VCO, and the time when the VCO actually starts to oscillate?

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

22

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Experiment No. 09
Aim: To study the AM and FM operation in presence of white noise. Software Tool: NI Multisim 11.0 Theory: An AM signal carries information by its amplitude. Noise distorts the amplitude of any signal. Thus, the amplitude of a received AM signal will be distorted and wrong information will received. This drawback is caused by the very nature of AM signal and cannot be eliminated by any technological advances.

The ultimate solution to this problem is switching to frequency-modulated (FM) transmission. An FM signal carries information by its frequency. Noise distorts the amplitude of any signal, but it doesnt prevent an FM signal from delivering correct information.

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

23

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

As the above figure shows, we can recover the correct frequency information in spite of heavily present noise. This figure clearly illustrates the main advantage of FM transmission.

Result:

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

24

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Experiment No. 10
Aim: To calculate the thermal noise of resistors of an inverting amplifier. Software Tool: NI Multisim 11.0 Theory: JohnsonNyquist noise (thermal noise, Johnson noise, or Nyquist noise) is the electronic noise generated by the thermal agitation of the charge carriers (usually the electrons) inside an electrical conductor at equilibrium, which happens regardless of any applied voltage. Thermal noise in an idealistic resistor is approximately white, meaning that the power spectral density is nearly constant throughout the frequency spectrum. The one-sided power spectral density, or voltage variance (mean square) per hertz of bandwidth, is given by

where kB is Boltzmann's constant in joules per kelvin, T is the resistor's absolute temperature in kelvins, and R is the resistor value in ohms (). Use this equation for quick calculation, at room temperature:

For a given bandwidth, the root mean square (RMS) of the voltage,

, is given by

where f is the bandwidth in hertz over which the noise is measured. For a 1 k resistor at room temperature and a 10 kHz bandwidth, the RMS noise voltage is 400 nV Result:

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu

25

Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology and Sciences, Jabalpur 2012

Viva Questions
Q.1. Define noise? What are the different types of communication noise? Q.2. What is white noise? Why is it so called? Q.3. What is the mathematical expression for white noise in resistors and capacitors? Q.4. What are the factors affecting thermal noise? Q.5. What is noise figure? What is the noise figure of cascaded system? Q.6. What is the effect of thermal noise in FM? Q.7. What is the effect of thermal noise in AM?

AC Lab Manual

EC 4th Semester

Prepared By: Mr. Abhishek Singh Ms. Papiya Dutta Mr. Raj Tiwari Mr. Pankaj Sahu