CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

Introduction

Todays

organizations

require

more

talented

leaders

and

these

are

increasingly found to be women (Jogulu & Wood, 2007) in the workplace and in the management and senior leadership roles in organizations. According to Jogulu & Wood (2006) in their research leadership is one of the most

observed areas. According to Robinsons & Judge (2007), leadership is the ability to influences a group towards the achievement of a vision or a set of goal. Therefore the related literature will be reviewed to find how leadership likely impact on the career advancement of women in leaderships roles.

2.2

Overview of Related Theories

2.2.1 Role Theory

In recent years, role theory has been recognizing as one of the most productive viewpoints in research leadership phenomena. Role theory

provides a model for the process of role definition. The process is a cycle of interaction between the leader and various who work with the leaders

as subordinates, peers or superior and who communicate to the leader their expectations of how she/he should behave (Heller, 1982). The leadership role and the process of role definition are harmful to the leader in terms of job satisfaction and effectiveness in the organization.

Heller (1982) found that role conflict poses particular difficulties for female leaders. A woman who occupies a position of leadership is enacting a sex role, women and an organizational role leader. Because of the dual role, women are vulnerable to role conflict where one kind of role conflict exists when the female leaders co-workers have conflicting expectations of how a woman should behave and how a leader should behave. Another kind of role conflict which is peculiar to women leaders is the conflict arising from attitudes held by the leader herself (Heller, 1982). However the role theory conception of leadership is strongly underlines by stereotyping.

2.2.2 Social Role Theory

According to Weyer (2007) the social role theory of men and women are allocated different roles in society due to their gender. Men and women are assumed to possess qualities that ideally predispose them for the different roles they typically occupy. Social role theory argues women and men leaders behave somewhat differently because gender role exert some influence on leadership roles in terms of the expectation they and

other holds. The social role theory also argues that there is a bias in the evaluation of women leaders caused by the gap between the raters stereotypes about women and the raters implicit constructs of leadership.

2.2.3 Trait, Behavioral and Contemporary Theory

Other theories that can be related to leadership are (a) trait theory, (b) behavioral theory and (c) contemporary theory. According to Robinsons & Judge (2007), trait theory differentiates leaders from non-leaders by focusing on personal qualities and characteristics and behavioral theories proposing that specific behaviors in differentiate leaders from non-leaders. Traits theory also describing the traits in masculine terms and these characteristics were considered vital for successful leadership (Jogulu & Wood, 2006).

Behavioral theory is focus on behavioral which could be acquired or learned (Jogulu & Wood, 2006). Research has found that behavioral theory was emerging recognition of the important of a concern for people in the behavioral theories as being an effective leadership quality (Jogulu & Wood, 2006). Further, contemporary theory has been developed to explain the differences between the behavior of leaders by using the terms transactional and transformational leadership.

2.3

Review of Relevance Literature

The contents of this part are built upon some key terms, which is used in the study such as perception. Besides that literature reviews on the dependent variable (leadership effectiveness) and independent variable (communication skill, usage of power, decision making skill and personal character) also been included.

2.3.1 Concept of Perception

Perception is an important aspect to be studied because peoples behavior is based on their perception of what reality is not on reality itself (Robinsons & Judge, 2007). Perception is the mental process of observing the outer physical world and processing that information into patterns meaningful to the brain (Fritz, Brown, Lunde & Bunset, 2005). Perception also was defined by Robinsons & Judge (2007) as what ones perceive can be substantially different from objective reality.

Perceptions are fundamental to our forming opinions about ourselves, others and reality which involves the interaction of the outer world with our inner world (Fritz, Brown, Lunde & Bunset, 2005). For instance, negative attitudes towards women in the work place influence both self perceptions and the perception of others (Irene, 2005). Thus, the author suggests

perception depends on three components: (i) the effect on the person observing the behavior, (ii) the effect on the person acting and (iii) the observers unique reaction to the behavior (Fritz, Brown, Lunde & Bunset, 2005).

Inner World Senses Expectations Desire Interest Emotions Meta-perceptions Self-perception Tendencies Attitudes

Outer World Verbal Nonverbal Culture Gender Observations Context

Stimulus Perception

New Brain Patterns

Learning

Response s

Figure 2.1: A Model of Perception (Fritz, Brown, Lunde & Bunset, 2005)

Researches in the area of perception suggest many factors stemming from both the inner and outers world (refer a Model of Perception as in

Figure 2.1).

The inner world factors are metaperceptions (an individuals

awareness of others judgment of him or her), self perception, the five senses, expectations, desire, interest, emotions, attitudes, readiness and tendencies. The outer world factors most frequently mentioned as influencing perceptions are observable traits, verbal and nonverbal communications, context or

situation, culture and gender. Attribution theory has been proposed to develop explanations of the ways in which an individual judge people differently, depending on what

meaning individual attributes to a given behavior (Robinsons & Judge, 2007). Basically the theory suggests that when an individual observe

peoples behavior the individual attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused.

2.3.2 Effective Leadership Jogulu & Wood (2006) define leadership effectiveness as an outcome of leaders behavior rather than a particular type of behavior. Howell & Costley (2006) measured leadership effectiveness using numerous

indicators such as followers attitudes, level of commitment given to the organization, motivation towards the job, performance and outcomes of the organization and of group productivity. However this is contra with Hopkins, ONeil & Bilimoria (2006) view which indicates that effective

leadership contains five categories namely team performance, integrity and trustworthiness, performance in venues, self rating and assessment by others and concluded that key to leaders effectiveness is ability to build a team.

Selvarajah & Meyer (2008) has developed a model for identify excellence in leadership. This model for the behavioral of an Excellent Leader is illustrated in Figure 2. The four dimensions (organizational demand, personal quality, managerial behavior and environmental influence) defining excellence in

leadership has potential of providing cultural insights to leadership values to orderliness and time. Perception of excellence in leadership

Organizational

Environment

Managerial

Personal

Perspective of an excellent leader Figure 2.2: Model for the behavioral of an excellence leader by Selvarajah & Meyer (2008)

Further the most common characteristics that an effective leaders possess are listening and learning from others, energizing the organization, act for the benefits of everyone, development lead of themselves and others,

empowerment of others to

and finally recognition of achievement

(Baldoni, 2000). According to Jogulu & Wood (2006), women are more likely to possess leadership characteristics and attribute that are

predominantly effective in contemporary circumstances compared with their male counterparts (Eagle & Costley, 2003). Loeb & Kindle (1999) suggest that effective leadership requires doing three things well; a) Elicit cooperation with others leaders should able to get others to buy into our vision of the future and the right way to get there. b) Listen well leader should be able to gather many kinds of information from others in order to lead, doing so requires that leaders hone their listening skills. c) Place the needs of others above own needs leaders requires to be willing to sacrifices for a greater goal.

An effective leader must be adapt a number of skills such as able to develop and coach subordinates, communicates clearly, resolve conflict, analyze

problem, make sound decisions, respond to work challenges in a positive way, use time efficiently and delegates work (Burke & Collins, 2001). Williams (2006) also found that effective leader behaviors seen by others are as follow;

a) Envision well and crystallize the future effectively b) Articulate a compelling vision c) Set high expectation- for themselves and others d) Model and display e) Bring energy into their role and energize others f) Demonstrate personal excitement g) Express personal confidence h) Seek out, find and use success i) Enable others to act effectively j) Express personal support and commitment to others k) Empathize with others l) Express confidence in people Mirza (2003) indicates that the leadership style and its consequences increase the studies on the behavior of leaders as well as situational determinants of leader behaviors. In her research, Mirza (2003) found the key factors that are most important for effective leader behavior are; a) decision making b) communication skills c) leadership performance d) personal characteristics This point is similar to the study done by Brown (1964) which indicates five areas that important for effective leader are;

a) leadership performance b) decision making skills c) communications skills d) relationship with others e) personal characteristics

However research done by Porterfield & Kleiner (2005) indicates that todays women have an increased leadership presence. Therefore to hiring a great leader (Sharpe 2002 in Business Week) suggest hiring female as a leader.

2.3.3 Women and Communication Skills Communication is continuous processes involve receiving and sending message between two parties (Bittle & Newstrom, 1992).

Communication is an important aspect in management (Dixon, 1991) because it can help to control and motivate the workers (Robbins, 1993) and build a good relationship between the management and the worker (Abdul Aziz, 1994). According to Kayworth and Leidner (2002) an effective leaders will be effectively communicate with peer at workplace. However communication occurs in organization based on the hierarchy level of individual in organization (Rasbery & Lindsay, 1994). For

managerial level, communication is an important element in managing organization (Massie & Douglas, 1992). This is because communication will impact to organization (Rasberry & Lindsay, 1994) and also manager need information to perform effectively (Redmond, 1989). According to Hunt,

Tourish, Owen & Hargie (2000) a good communication will result in mutual understanding and harmony working place.

There are the differences between men and women in term of their conversation styles which impact notions of acceptable forms of gender

communication at workplace (Still, 2006). Basically men use talk to emphasize status whereas women use it to create connection. Besides that men are often more direct than women in conversation (Robinsons & Judge, 2007). Iteratively, this notions impact back on womens supposed unsuitability as leaders. For instance, Case (1994) found that leadership has typically been linked with masculine models of communication. Oakley (2002) believes that the less aggressive and assertive forms of communication associated with females may be particularly unacceptable ways to communicate in the upper level of most organization. This is because according to Oakley (2002) linguistic styles can be a key factor in the ability to negotiate with authority. Still (2006) in her research found that women presented a cultural dilemma at senior management level especially in term of

communication and management styles apposed to

the traditional masculine versions which is felt to misleading and risky to women development.

2.3.4 Women and Usage of Power Carli & Eagly (2001) perceived that women who hold managerial positions might exercise power somewhat differently than men. Power and influence are two factors that have been characterized effective leaders for centuries and do so in the future (Williams, 2006). According to Fritz, Brown, Lunde & Bunset (2005), the degree to which the leaders are influential with others depends to a large extent on: a) Our personal or organizational sources of power b) Our awareness of our sources of power c) Our ability to select a personnel influence tactics appropriate to a given situation d) Our ability to respond assertively when faced with inappropriate or adverse influences attempts.

Sources of Personal Power Expert power Referent power

Selection of Best Influence Tactic

Power of An Individual

Influence over Others

Sources of Position Power Reward power Coercive power Legitimate power

Appropriate Assertive Responses to Inappropriate Influences Attempts

Figure 2.3: Personal Influence Model (Fritz, Brown, Lunde & Bunset,2005). Based on the model, the true measures of our ability to be influential arises from our awareness of our sources of power and our choices of influences tactics, as well as from the ability to consistently match an appropriate tactic to the demands of a situation while increasing and improving our repertoire of effective responses. Besides that, usage of power is different between men and women leaders where women leaders are more to share their power (Gordon, 1993). Previous research indicates that more women bosses empowered their power compare to men more to concentrate and strict to control the

situation. However men are powerful in organization compare women who are powerless. This is because women had been socializing those constraint women to gain their power (Lahtinen & Wilson, 1994). According to Hersey & Blanchard (1993), women and men leaders make assumption differently in usage of power. Women assume that if they can control the worker that means they already perform effective and efficiently. assume once they control the worker, they must

However men leaders

concentrate their attention to others. This show that men are more like to spread their power compares to the women leaders.

2.3.5 Women and Decision Making Skills

Decision making is very important day to day job of leaders where decision will focus on the resources, plans, mission and goals (Loeb & Kindel, 1999, Williams, 2006). Decision making need leaders to consider a few factors that is; the skills, ability to work together as a team, the resource available and the competition for those resources elsewhere (Loeb & Kindel, 1999). According to Syd & Bohhar (2007) women will be strict in making decision and their decision are not be influenced by others. Besides that Loeb & Kindel (1999) also indicates that the leaders job is to listen to members before making decisions.

In organization leaders are responsible for make a decision in order to solve an easy or complex problem occur at workplace (Batemen & Snell, 1996). Basically problem occurs because of internal/ external factors and because of the differences of what to achieve and what is been achieved (Bitle & Newstrom, 1992). Thus, most of the managers will try to avoid making a decision because the risk from decision made (Batemen & Snell, 1996). Decision made by the leaders is based on the trust, efficiencies, vision and personality of the leader. According to (Bowditch & Buono, 2000), decision making level is influence by the individual personality. Therefore, Gedney (1999) suggest that leaders could often participate in the decision making process by improve group performance. However according to Ainon & Abdullah (1994), decision logically made in organization can help to coordinate a proper work procedure. Zand (1992) indicates that an improve organizational productivity effectively decision making process can and workers effectiveness. Besides that

workers involvement in decision making also can improve organizational and workers productivity (Knippen & Green, 1992). Flood, Hannan, Smith, Turner, Wert & Dawson (2000) in their research found that leadership style has both direct and indirect relationship with decision making. Further, a high degree of quality and acceptance of the decision is needed for effective decisions.

In order to solve the problem effectively to there are step in decision making process (Batemen, 1996, Bittle & Newstrom, 1992). First, identify and

diagnosis the problem. By identified the problem can help the manager to solve the problem easily and effectively. Second develop an alternative for solve the problem been identified. Third, analysis strength and weakness of each alternative have been developed. Forth, choose the best alternative

accordingly to the problem and fifth take action based on the alternative been choose. Finally, evaluate the decision made.

2.3.6 Women and Personal Character

Research on leadership effectiveness is the focus on the personal attributes of leaders (Hartman, 1999). The personal character of leader which contributes to effective leadership is complex. Robinsons & Judge (2007) found that personal characteristics that will affect perceptions of an individual include a persons attitudes, personality, motives, interests, past experiences and expectations.

Deeper examination of the notion of character is importance as a part of leadership selection and development (Calabrese and Roberts, 2002). According to Davis & Pullen (2003) the important character of a leader are trustworthiness, credibility, commitment, respectfulness, compassion,

loyalty, empathy, integrity and ethical decision making. Schein (1973)

found

that

manager

in

the

organization

should

have

following

characteristics; a) b) Leadership ability Competitiveness c) Self-confidence d) e) Objectivity Aggressiveness f) Forcefulness g) h) Ambition Eagerness to assume responsibility

2.4

The Theoretical Framework

In guidance of the relevance literature, a theoretical framework on the proposed research is developed. The main variable is leadership

effectiveness which is dependent variable. These researches also explore the findings on the difference perception of selected demographic factors on leadership effectiveness and the relationship between leader behavior and leadership effectiveness. This independent variable is demographic factors

which are gender, age, educational level and length of service and leader behavior includes communications skills, usage of power, decision making skills and personal character. The theoretical framework

development is shown in Figure 2.4.

Independent Variables

Dependent Variables

Demographics Factor 9 Age 9 Gender 9 Educational Level 9 Length of Services

Women Leadership

Leader Behavior Communication Skills Usage of Power Decision Making Skills Personal Character

Figure 2.4: The theoretical framework

2.6

Conclusion

In this chapter discussion includes women leadership based on leadership skill towards women leadership effectiveness. Literatures on women leadership

have an impact on the contribution to further understanding of this study. Therefore this study will help us to understand to what extent the leadership skills such as communication skills, decision making skills, usage of power and personal characteristic of effective women leaders.