2

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES:
2.1

Mathematics as a language

Concept of function f : x f(x); domain, range image (value); odd and even functions; composite functions f g; identity function; one-to-one and many-to-one functions; inverse function f 1 including domain restrictions; self-inverse functions 2.2 The graph of a function, its equation y = f(x); investigations of key features of graphs such as maximum and minimum values, intercepts, horizontal and vertical asymptotes, symmetry, and consideration of domain and range; the graphs of y = |f(x)| and y = f(|x|); the graph of 1 y= given the graph of y = f(x)
f ( x)

Transformations of graphs; translations; stretches; reflections in the axes; the graph of the inverse function as a reflection in y = x; ax b and its graph 2.4 The rational function f : x
2.3

cx

Before you start

You should know how to
1

Skills check
1

Change a quadratic function into the form (x h)2 +k, and identify the vertex and axis of symmetry. e.g. Rewrite y = x 2 + 2x 3 as y = (x + 1)2 4. The vertex is (1, 4) and the axis of symmetry is x = 1 Find the zeros of linear and quadratic functions. Find the zero(s) of a y = 2x 1 b y = 2x2 + 5x 3 2x 1 = 0, x =
1 2 2x + 5x 3 = 0 2

Change y = x 2 3x 1 into the form (x h)2 + k, and determine the vertex and axis of symmetry of the quadratic.

Find the zeros of a y = 3x + 4 b y = 3x2 2x 1

(2x 1)(x + 3) = 0
1 x1 = and x2 = 3 2
3

Change the subject of a formula. e.g. Make x the subject of y = 2 1 x 1 x = 2 y squaring both sides, 1 x = 4 4y + y 2 x = 3 + 4y y 2
Mathematics as a language

Make x the subject of each formula: y =3 + x 2 y=

2x 1 3x 2

46

Exploring the power of symbolic language

Mathematics is the language with which God has written the universe. Galileo Galilei (1564 1642) You are already familiar with the expansion of algebraic expressions, for example, (a + b)2 = a2 + b 2 + 2ab You would probably agree that this algebraic language is more concise and precise than saying, for example, If one takes a straight line and cuts it randomly into segments, then the area of the square on the line is equal to the area of the sum of the squares on the segments and twice the area of the rectangle contained by these segments. (from Euclids Elements, 300 B.C.) This example shows that mathematical language with its symbolism, notation and terminology is more effective in expressing mathematical concepts than a cultural language is. The language of mathematics has spanned as many centuries as people have been using and studying mathematics, and it continues to grow and adapt to new discoveries. In this chapter we will explore some of the mathematical language of functions and transformations.
Chapter 2
b

b b

a a b

The area of this square is (a + b)2. This is the same as the sum of the areas of the a by a and b by b squares, and the two a by b rectangles.

47

Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was a Persian mathematician, astronomer, geographer, and scholar in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. He is considered to be the Father of Algebra, since he wrote the first known recorded work on balancing equations. In addition, 12th century Latin translations of his work on Indian numerals introduced the decimal positional number system to the Western World. al-Khwarizmi texts seem to be the source of three common English mathematical words:

algebra derived from al-jabr, one of the two operations he used to solve quadratic equations algorithm used to refer to a sequence of routine arithmetic operations zero that seems to derive from the Arabic sifr that meant empty, translated into latin as zephirum

2.1 Relations and functions

According to legend, the invention of the coordinate system was due to a fly buzzing in Ren Descartes bedroom on a sultry F2(3, 2) summer day. As it landed somewhere on the ceiling, Descartes asked himself how 5 4 3 2 he could uniquely describe the position of the fly. He imagined the ceiling divided into F3(2, 3) four quadrants, with the right and upward directions being positive, and left and downward being negative. Then, no matter where the fly landed, a unique ordered pair of numbers would define its position.
y 4 3 2 1 1 0 1 2 3 4

F1(1, 1) 1 2 3 4 5 x F4(4, 2)

Photo
[ Rene Descartes, French mathematicion (15961650)

The positions of the y are examples of a relation. A relation is a set of ordered pairs (x, y). A function is a special type of relation. A function is a set of ordered pairs in which no two ordered pairs can have the same x-value. In other words, every x-value has a unique y-value. The set of x-values is called the domain of a function. A function assigns, or maps, to each x-value in the domain, a unique y-value. The set of assigned values is called the range of the function. Since the value of y, or output of the function, depends on the value of x, or input, we call y the dependent variable, and x the independent variable. In summary A relation is a function, f, if

domain f 1 2 3 4 x-values

range f(1) f(2) f(3) f(4) y-values

f acts on all elements of the domain, and f is well dened, i.e., it pairs each element of the domain with one and only one element of the range.

48

Mathematics as a language

 In general, if y is a function of x, you can write y = f (x). You can also write f : x f (x), f is the function that maps x into f (x). The independent variable, x, is called the argument of the function. Traditionally, x and y are the variables used for ordered pairs. Any variables, however, can be used in dening a function. For example, the area of a circle depends upon the size of the radius. The variable for the input is r (radius), and for the output is A (area). The rule of the function is A = r2 You could also write the area function as A(r) = r 2. The domain is the set of all possible radii, that is, r  +. Hence the area, or range, is the set of all possible areas, that is, A(r)  +. This function maps + into +. It is important to note here that the domain of the function A (r) = r 2 is restricted by the context of the problem. Length and area are nonnegative, hence the domain and range must be non-negative values. If a domain for a particular function is not restricted by its context, or otherwise, then the domain of a function is assumed to be the largest set of x-values for which the range will have real values. This set is called the natural, or implied, domain of the function f.

The term argument, used for the independent variable, stems from the 13th century, and it refers to a quantity from which another quantity can be deduced.

In this book, for any given function, its domain is assumed to be the natural or implied domain, unless otherwise stated.

Example 1
Determine, with reasons, which of these relations are functions. For those that are functions, write the domain and range. a {(1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (1, 1)} b {(4, 2), (1, 1), (4, 2), (9, 3)} c y = 2x 1 d y2 = x e f maps set A to set B where both A and B are the set of real numbers, and f : x
1 x 1

Reduce image 51%

Answers a This relation is a function as no two y-values have the same x-value. Domain = {1, 2, 3, 1} Range = {1, 4, 9} b This relation is not a function since both (4, 2) and (4, 2) have the same x-value. c For every x-value there is only one y-value, hence it is a function. Domain = {x | x } Range = { y | y }

Both conditions are satised.

Write the x-values in a set. Write the y-values in a set. The relation is not well-dened.

Did you know that Gottfried Leibniz, one of the first to use calculus, was the first to use the mathematical term function in 1673? Almost one hundred years later, Leonhard Euler was the first to write a function as y = f (x).

Both conditions are satised. All non-vertical lines are graphs of functions. Since this is the equation of a straight line, neither x nor y have any restrictions.

x | x  means the set of x-values where x is a real number. Chapter 2

49

d Not a function, since x = 1

maps to y = 1 or y = 1
e f is not a function since 1 1 1 , 1 ,  0 0

f is not well-dened. You only need to nd one counter-example. The rst condition is not met because the number 1 is not mapped onto any real number.

In Example 1, part e is not a function since not all elements of A are mapped onto an element of B. In this case, in order for the relation to be a function, we would have to restrict the domain, i.e. exclude the number 1 from the domain. Hence, if y = function, the domain is A = {x | x , x 1}. The range of the function must exclude 0 since the numerator of the rational expression is non-zero. The range is therefore B = { y | y , y 0}.
1 is a x 1

Vertical line test

The vertical line test is a practical way of determining if a relation is a function. If a vertical line intersects the graph of a relation at more than one point, then the relation is not a function. The graph of the relation in Example 1 part b is
y 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 y

The graph of the relation in the Example 1 part c is

y 8 6 4 2 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 0

(9, 3) (4, 2) (1, 1) 2 4 6 8 10 x (4, 2)

f(x) = 2x 1 2 4 6 8 10 x

[ This relation (blue line) passes the vertical line test (red lines).

It clearly does not pass the vertical line test.

It passes the vertical line test.

Example 2
Determine, with reasons, which of these graphs show relations that are functions. For those that are functions, write the domain and range of the function.
a
y 10 8 6 4 2 2 1 0 2 4 6

y
4 3 2 1 4 2 0 1 2 3 4

f(x) = x + 3 2 4 6 8 10 x f(x) = x + 3

f(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 1 1 2 3 4 5 x

50

Mathematics as a language

y
6 4 2 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 2 4 6 x

y 5 4 3 2 1

f(x) = x+1, x > 1 (1, 1) x

x2, x < 1

3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Answers Graphs a and c pass the vertical line test, hence they are graphs of functions. Graphs b and d do not pass the vertical line test, hence they are not graphs of functions. a Both domain and range are the set of real numbers. c Domain is the set of real numbers. Range is the set of integers.

Exercise 2A
1

Determine if these relations are functions. For those that are, state the domain and range. a {(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1)} b {(3, 0), (2, 0), (1, 0), (0, 0)} c {(1, 3), (1, 2), (1, 1), (1, 0)} d {(, 2), (, 3), (, )} Determine which of these graphs represent a function. For those that are functions, state the domain and range.
a
y 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x

y 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 1 x

y 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 x

y
4 3 2 1 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x

Chapter 2

51

2.2 Special functions and their graphs

A quadratic function has the general form y = ax 2 + bx + c, where a, b, and c are real numbers, and a 0. x and y are variables. The constants a, b, and c are called parameters of the function. They determine the shape of a particular quadratic function. Here is the graph of the quadratic function y = x2 + x 5
y 10 8 6 4 2 5 4 3 2 1 0 2 4 6 1 2 3 4 5 x f1(x) = x2 + x 5

circle parabola ellipse hyperbola

By taking slices of a cone at different angles you obtain different shapes or curves called conic sections. An instrument for drawing conic sections was first described in the year 1000 AD by the Islamic mathematician al-Kuhi. The shape of a quadratic function is called a parabola. You will find the cone useful as you meet different functions whose shapes are conic sections.

From the graph, the domain is the set of real numbers. The range has a minimum value. Using the appropriate menu on your GDC you can Find the minimum.

From now on the domain will be from the set of real numbers, unless otherwise specified.

Hence, the range = { y | y 5.25} Another way of nding the minimum value is to write the quadratic y = x 2 + x 5 in the vertex form, by completing the square, so y = (x + 0.5)2 5.25. The coordinates of the vertex are (0.5, 5.25). Since the leading coefcient, a, is positive, the quadratic will be concave up, and hence the vertex will be a minimum point.

52

Mathematics as a language

 For a quadratic in the form y = ax 2 + bx + c, the axis of symmetry is x =

b b , hence the vertex is , f 2a 2a
y x= b a y = ax2 + bx + c

b 2a

In y = x 2 + x 5, a = 1 and b = 1. The axis of symmetry is indeed x= ,

2 1

and the vertex is

1 , 5.25 2

b b ,f 2a 2a

( ))

Example 3
Find the domain and range of the function y = 2x2 + 4x 3. Conrm your answers graphically. Answer The domain is the set of real numbers. Vertex = (1, 1) Range = { y | y 1} Use your GDC to graph the function.

a = 2, b = 4
b 4 = =1 2a 4

f(1) = 2 + 4 3 = 1 Vertex = 2a , f 2a Since a < 0, the quadratic is concave down, hence the vertex is a maximum point.
b b

Investigation quadratic graphs

Consider quadratics of the form y = (x h)2 + k, where h and k are real numbers. Graph quadratics of this form for different values of h and k. What effect do these parameters have on the graph of y = x2?

Chapter 2

53

Radical functions
A function of the type y = ax + b ; a, b  is a square root function whose radicand (the expression in the square root) is linear. The radicand must be non-negative so the domain is restricted. The domain is x | x
b since ax + b 0 a
The symbol for square root dates back to 1850 BC from Babylonian clay tablets. The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus from 1650 BC shows that the Egyptians obtained this symbol from the Babylonians. The first usage of the same symbol in the western world appeared in 1669 in an Introduction to Algebra, edited by John Pell. The word radical comes from the Latin radix, which means root.

ax b x a
b

The range is the set of non-negative real numbers, { y | y 0}

Example 4
Determine the domain and range of y = 4 x 3 and conrm your results graphically. Answer 3 4x 3 0 x
4 3 4

Domain: x | x , x Range: { y | y , Y 0}

For the function to be real, the radicand must be non-negative. This is the restricted domain. The range is the set of non-negative real numbers. Conrmed on the GDC.

Exercise 2B
1 2

Explain why y 2 = x is not a function, and y = x is a function. Determine the domain and range of these functions, and conrm your results graphically. a y = x 2 4x + 2 b y = (x + 2)2 3
c e

y= x 2 y = 3x 2 + 6x 1

d f

y= 3 x y = 4 2x

54

Mathematics as a language

Absolute-value functions
For any real number a, its absolute value, denoted by vertical bars, is dened as |a| =
a, a 0 a, a 0
Another term for absolute value is the modulus of a number. It comes from the French word module, which means unit of measure, and has been used by mathematicians since the early 1800s. Karl Weierstrass first used the vertical bar notation in 1841.

The absolute value of a real number is non-negative. Geometrically, the absolute value is the distance between the point representing a number on the real number line, and the origin of the real number line. More generally, the absolute value of the difference of two real numbers is the distance between them. From the denition of absolute value, these useful fundamental properties follow, for a any real number:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

|a| 0 |a| = |a| |a| = 0 a = 0 |a b| = 0 a = b a a |ab| =|a||b|; = ,b0 b b |a + b| |a| + |b|; |a b| |a| |b| |a| b b a b; |a| b a b or a b

The denition of an absolute-value function follows from the denition of the absolute value of a number. The absolutevalue function is a piecewise dened function, meaning that it has different denitions within disjoint subsets of its domain. x, x 0 f (x) = |x| = x , x < 0 Graphically,
y 10 8 6 4 2

Compare the graphs of y = x and y |x|.

f(x) =|x|

10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 x

The domain of the absolute value function is the set of real numbers, and its range is the set of non-negative real numbers.

Chapter 2

55

Example 5
Determine the domain and range of y = |2x + 3|, and conrm graphically. Answer Domain = {x | x } Range = { y | y 0}
y 6 5 4 3 2 1

f(x) =|2x + 3|

5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 x

Example 6
Determine the domain and range of y = |2 3x| 1 Answer The domain is the set of real numbers. Range = { y | y 1}
y 6 5 4 3 2 1 3 2 1 0 1 2

f(x) =|2 3x| 1

1 2 3 4 5 x

Since the smallest value of |2 3x| is 0, the smallest value of the function is y = 0 1 = 1

Investigation absolute-value functions

Consider absolute-value functions of the form y = |x h| + k, h, k .
a b c

Graph functions like this for different values of h and k. What effect do these parameters have on the graph of y = |x|? Investigate how the parameter a in the general form y = a|x h| + k affects the shape of the graph of the function. Determine the coordinates of the maximum or minimum point of y = |x h|+ k and the condition for it being a maximum or minimum point.

Exercise 2C
Determine the domain and range of these functions, and conrm graphically. 1 y = |x| 2 y = |2x + 1| 3 y = |2x + 1| 4 y = 2|x 1|
5 7

y = |3x + 2| y = 2|x 1| + 1

1 2

6 8

y = |x + 4| 2 y = 3|1 2x| 2

56

Mathematics as a language