Philips Lighting

Quantities and Units, Measurements Lighting Design and Application Center

Correspondence Course Lighting Application

PHILIPS

Contents
Introduction 1. Why separate lighting quantities ? 2. Photometric quantities and units 2.1 Luminous flux 2.2 Luminous intensity 2.3 Illuminance 2.4 Luminance 3. Practical relations between quantities 3.1 Relation between luminous flux and luminous intensity 3.2 Relation between luminous flux and avenge illuminance 3.3 Relation between luminous intensity and illuminance 3.4 Relation between luminous intensity and luminance 3.5 Relation between illuminance and luminance 4. Other lighting units 5. Radiometric quantities and units 3 3 5 5 5 8 9 11 11 11 12 15 15 16 17

6. Measuring Instruments 18 6.1 Visual photometers 6.2 Photoelectric photometers 7. Measuring techniques 7.1 Measurement of illuminance 7.2 Measurement of luminance 7.3 Measurement of luminous intensity 7.4 Measurement of luminous flux 7.5 Measurements carried out in the field Conclusion Exercise material

18 18 21 21 21 24 24 25 26 26

Introduction
Special lighting concepts and units For the quantitative measurement of light a special set of concepts and units has been adopted that bear no direct relationship to those used in other domains of physical science. This is in contrast with measuring practice in the other wavelength regions of the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, which is generally based upon the familiar concepts of energy and power, and therefore uses the related SI units - Joules and watts. One reason why lighting uses its own standards is that the oldest unit of light, the 'candIe', is based upon the flame of a standard lamp (see Lesson 2). The principal reason, however, is that a lighting unit must not only take the energy content of the radiation produced within the visible spectrum into account, but also the spectral distribution of the sensitivity of the human eye. As has been explained in Lesson 4, the latter varies greatly with wavelength. Four basic lighting quantities These considerations, together with requirements from lighting engineering practice, have resulted in the following four basic concepts of practical light measurement. quantity symbol unit luminous flux lumen (lm) luminous intensity I candela (cd) illuminance E lux (lx) luminance L candela per square metre (cd/m2) These four basic quantities, their interrelationship and application in practical lighting engineering will be the subject of the first part of this lesson. The second part will be devoted to the measurement of light, the equipment used, and the various measuring methods. Priority will here be given to measurements carried out on practical installations under practical conditions, rather than laboratory techniques Much of the trouble students sometimes experience in understanding the basics of lighting engineering can be attributed to confusion created by unfamiliarity with the above-mentioned concepts and their proper application. It Is essential, therefore, that these should be well understood before proceeding with this course.

1. Why separate lighting quantities?

Light measurement uses two dissimilar parameters When considering light - which is 'visible' electromagnetic radiation - we are concerned on the one hand with energy and on the other with a sensation obtained through the eye two principally dissimilar things, This makes it difficult to talk about light in quantitative terms. To solve this problem. a convention has been adopted that fits in perfectly well with illuminating engineering practice: viz. the product of radiant energy and eye sensitivity. Thus, light is regarded as radiation measured in terms of human eye sensitivity. The light-watt In Lesson 4 it was explained that the sensitivity of the eye varies with wavelength Under conditions of photopic vision, the maximum sensitivity lies at 555 nm. Now one could choose to define one watt of power radiated at a wavelength of 555 nm as being equal to one light-watt'. One watt of power radiated at a different wavelength within the visible range would then have to be multiplied by the relative eye-sensitivity factor as defined by the spectral eye-sensitivity curve for photopic vision, that is to say the V() curve (Fig. 1). By so doing, one arrives at the lightwan value corresponding to that wavelength. For example. for radiation with a wavelength of 490 nm the eye sensitivity is only 20 per cent of that for radiation with a wavelength of 555 nm. One watt of power radiated at 490 nm therefore equals 0,2 light-watt. 3

Fig. 1 The spectral or V(), curve for photopic vision. The candela By adopting the light-watt as the unit of visible radiation for the quantitative expression of visual perception, ambiguity would have been completely avoided. However this concept was not adopted because, long before it was even formulated, a light unit had already been derived from one of the earliest reproducible lighting standards. This standard has been described in Lesson 2, and was to become the 'candle', or, after 1948, the 'candela'. It was in fact a unit of light intensity in a given direction, that of the observer. A light source radiating a light intensity of one candela in all directions produces a welldefined quantity of light per second, which has been given the name 'lumen'. This has become the principal lighting standard in use today.

Maximum spectral luminous efficacy Calculations hare shown chat one watt of radiant power with a wavelength of 555 nm equals 683 lumens, This figure is known as the maximum spectral luminous 'efficacy. Thus, one watt of power radiated at 490 nm equals 0,2 x 683 = 137 lumens . The lumen can therefore be defined as a certain quantity of radiant energy emitted per second, weighted against the spectral sensitivity of the human eye. Relative spectral eye sensitivity for photopic vision (555 nm = 1,00000)

2 Photometric quantities and units

Definition of luminous flux Luminous flux is the concept for the total quantity of light emitted per second by a light source (Fig 2). It is designated by the symbol . The unit is the lumen (lm). As mentioned in the previous section, luminous flux can be defined as: the energy radiated by a light source per second, weighted against the spectral sensitivity of the human eye: Some examples of practical light sources: Bicycle headlamp Incandescent lamp Compact fluorescent lamp Fluorescent lamp High-pressure sodium lamp Low-pressure sodium lamp High-pressure mercury lamp Metal halide lamp Luminous efficacy 3W Softone 75 W SL18 W 'TLD 58 W/83 SON-T Plus 100 W SOX-E 131 W HPL-N 1000 W HPI-T 2000 W 30 lm 900 lm 900 lm 5200 lm 10 500 lm 26000 lm 58500 lm 190000 lm

2.1 Luminous flux - symbol , unit lumen (lm)

As becomes clear from the above table, there is no fixed relationship between the electrical energy dissipated in a lamp and the luminous flux radiated The ratio between luminous flux and power dissipation i$ called 'luminous efficacy, and is expressed in lumens per watt (lm/W). Each lamp type has its specific luminous efficacy.

2.2 Luminous intensity - symbol I, unit candela (cd)

Definition of luminous intensity Luminous intensity is the concept for the concentration of light in a specific direction, radiated per second {Fig. 3). It is designated by the symbol L The unit is the candela (cd). The luminous intensity can be defined as: the luminous flux in certain direction, radiated per unit of solid angle. Fig. 2 The luminous flux rt defined the quantity if light emitted per second. It can be compared with the quantity of water passing a given point per second.

Fig. 3 The luminous intensity is defined as the concentration of light in a specific direction. It can be compared with the intensity of a water jet in a given direction. A solid angle can be regarded as a cone This brings us to the concept of the solid angle, and its unit the steradian'. A solid angle can best be described as a measure for that portion of space about a point bounded by the surface of a cone whose top (vertex) is at the point (Fig. 4). In general a light source will not radiate its luminous flux uniformly in all directions. If, however, we imagine a sufficiently narrow cone, with its vertex at the light source (which is considered as a point), then the luminous flux contained in this cone will approximate a uniform distribution. The concentration of luminous flux within this narrow cone can now be defined as the luminous flux in this cone divided by the opening of the cone. expressed in terms of the solid angle of the cone The result is called the luminous intensity (I), measured in candelas (cd). in the direction of the centre-line of the cone. Fig. 4 A solid angle con best be described us the opening angle of a cone. Fig. 5 A prone angle can be expressed in degrees or radians. One degree encloses of the circumference of a circle. One radian encloses 1/2 of the circumference of a circle. Fig. 6 A steradian is the measure for a solid angle, enclosing the part of the surface of a sphere (with the top of the angle as its centre), with an area equal to 1/4 of the total surface of the sphere.

A steradian is a measure for a solid angle The size of a solid angle is expressed in a similar manner as with a plane angle, either in degrees or radians (Fig. 5). Imagine a sphere of arbitrary radius (r). with the top of the cone as its centre (Fig. 6). The part of the surface of the sphere which is enclosed by the cone is then proportional to the solid angle () of the cone. If the area fl the surface of the sphere enclosed by the cone is equal to the square of the radius (r2). then the corresponding solid angle is termed a steradian. So, if the enclosed area of the surface of the sphere is not equal to but is, say, equal to A, then the solid angle = A / r2 = steradians. A whole sphere contains 4 steradians The maximum possible solid angle will enclose the whole sphere. As the surface of a sphere of radius r is 4r2, this solid angle will be equal to 4r2 / r2 = 4 steradians. Hence, a half-sphere will contain 2i steradians The concept of luminous intensity is of tremendous importance in lighting technology. as virtually no piece of lighting equipment emits its luminous flux equally in all directions. This is quite deliberately so, for some directions are of far more importance to the observer than others, and some even have to be avoided (glare!). The luminous intensity distribution of a lamp or luminaire, therefore, gives a good indication of its practical luminous efficiency and area of application. Lesson 15 wilt deal further with this subject. Some examples of practical light sources: Bicycle headlamp without reflector, in any direction 2,5 cd Bicycle headlamp with reflector, centre of beam 250 cd Incandescent reflector lamp PAR38E 120 W Spot, centre of beam 9500 cd Lighthouse. centre of beam 2 000 000 cd

2.2.1 The photometric standard

In physics, the metre is the basic unit of length in the SI (system of units) Systeme Internationale dUnits). Until recently, the physical standard was a metal bar of that length, made of a platinum-iridium alloy, kept at the 'Bureau des Standards in Paris, France. The physical photometric standard In photometry, the basic unit in the SI system Is the candela. All other photometric units are derived from it. Prior to 1979 the physical standard for the candela was a black-body radiator (in practice formed by a narrow tube which was partly filled with pure thorium oxide). which was kept at the temperature of solidification of platinum (2042 K. see Fig. 7). The candela was defined as one sixtieth of the luminous intensity emitted by 1 cm2 of the surface of the black-body radiator. Fig. 7 > Cross-sectional drawing of the primary photometric standard as used until 1979. 1. black-body radiator in the form of a tube partly filled with pure thorium oxide; 2. platinum; 3, crucible of thorium oxide; 4. insulation material; S. outer container. Fig. 8 >> Secondary standards mostly take the farm of carefully calibrated filament lamps of special construction.

The photometric standard defined in terms of radiant power In 1979 the reference standard for the candela was redefined as fellows: 'the luminous intensity in a specific direction of a source emitting monochromatic radiation of a frequency of 540 x 1012 Hz (555 nm), and of which the radiant intensity in that direction as 1/683 watt per steradian'. In other worth: 1/683 'light-watts' per steradian. For practical use in laboratories, secondary standards, or sub-standards, are used. These are carefully calibrated incandescent filament lamps of special construction (Fig. 8).

2.3 Illuminance - symbol E, unit lux (Ix)

Definition of illuminance Illurninance is the quantity of light, or luminous flux, falling on a unit area of a surface (Fig. 9). It is designated by the symbol E. The unit is the Lux (lx). One lux equals one lumen per square metre (lm/m2). Illuminance can be defined as: the ratio of the luminous flux incident on a surface to the area of that surface. Or E=/A (1) The illuminance is independent of the direction from which the luminous flux reaches the surface. Some practical example are: Summer, at noon. under a cloudless sky Ditto, but in the shade In the open, under a heavily-overcast sky Artificial light, in well-lit office Artificial light, average living-room Street lighting Full moon, on a clear night 100 000 lux 10 000 lux 5000 lux 1 000 lux 100 lux 5 - 30 lux 0,25 lux

Fig. 9 Illuminance is defined as the quantity of light received on a unit area of surface per second. it can be compared with the amount of (rain)water falling on an area of surface per second.

Fig. 10 Surfaces of different reflective properties, or viewed from different angles, show different luminances to the observer.

2.4 Luminance - symbol L, unit candela per square metre (cd/m2)

Definition of luminance Luminance is the concept for the luminous intensity emitted per Unit of area of a surface in a specific direction (Fig. 10) The surface can itself be lightemitting. Or transmitting - like the surface of a lamp or the sun - but it can also reflect light from another source (and thus act as a secondary light source). It is designated by the symbol L. The unit is the candela per square metre (cd/m2). Luminance can be defined as: the ratio of the luminous intensity from a surface in a given direction to the apparent area of that surface Or: L = I / Aa (2)

Fig. 11 When viewed from different directions, the apparent area of this pyramid will change in shape and size.

Fig 12. Two surfaces of the some luminance may evoke different brightness impression. The gray square in this illustration looks darker against the white back ground than against the black background, although the luminances are the same. Apparent area By apparent area is meant (he projection of any area of the surface in question on a plane that is at right angles to the direction of view (Fig. 11). For a sphere. For example, the total apparent area in any direction is the area of the cross-section of the sphere.

Surfaces with different reflecting properties will, with the same illuminance, radiate different luminous intensities, and therefore have different luminances. As both the luminous intensity and the apparent area are independent of distance, the luminance is also independent of distance. On the other hand, luminance is generally dependent on the direction of observation, unless the surface has perfectly diffuse reflecting or emitting properties. Brightness The luminous intensity radiated by a light source or an illuminated surface per unit of apparent area (i.e. the luminance) evokes a sensation of brightness. However, luminance is an objective measure, whereas brightness Is a subjective evaluation made by the observer. The latter is largely dependent on the luminance of the surface, but also on other factors, such as the overall luminance distribution in the held of view or, in other words, the adaptation luminance of the eye (Fig. 12).

The most important lighting quantity What we really 'see' in life are luminances, or rather luminance variations in the field of view It is therefore the most important quantity in lighting engineering, although the other three - luminous flux, luminous intensity and illuminance - are generally easier to work with when performing calculations or measurements. Some practical examples: Surface of the sun Filament of a clear incandescent lamp Bulb of a 'Softone' incandescent lamp Fluorescent lamp Surface of the full moon Sun-lit beach White paper (reflectance 0,8) under 400 lux Grey paper (reflectance 0,4) under 400 lux Black paper (reflectance 0,04) under 400 lux Road surface under artificial lighting 1 650 000 000 7 000 000 200 000 5 000 - 15 000 2 500 15 000 100 50 5 0,5 - 2 cd/m2 cd/m2 cd/m2 cd/m2 cd/m2 cd/m2 cd/m2 cd/m2 cd/m2 cd/m2

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Fig. 13 This opal globe luminaire radiates (almost) uniformly in all directions. Therefore the relation between luminous flux and luminous intensity given in formula (3) is applicable.

3. Practical relations between quantities

The definitions of the quantities described so far in fact also inform us about the relationships between them- Nevertheless, the relationships thus expressed are often not very suited to practical use. It is possible, however, to derive from the basic relationships a number of formulae that are important and useful for practical lighting engineering

3.1 Relation between luminous flux () and luminous intensity (I)

Relation between and I for uniform radiators The luminous intensity in any direction of a light source whose light distribution is uniform in all directions, is equal to the luminous flux divided by 4. Thus: l = / 4 For example, an incandescent lamp of 2000 lumens, fitted in a globe luminaire of opal glass with a transmittance of 0,9 will (approximately) have in any direction a luminous intensity of: 2000 x 0,9 / 4 = 143 cd (Fig. 1 3). This equation it only of limited practical importance, as it is only valid for light sources that radiate equal luminous intensities in air directions. (3)

3.2 Relation between luminous flux () and average illuminance (Eav)

The average illuminance on a surface is equal to the luminous flux (inc) incident on that surface, divided by the area (A) of the surface (Fig. 14). Thus: Eav = inc / A (4)

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Fig. 14 The relation between incident luminous flux and average illuminance according to formula (4).

If a luminous flux of 10 000 Im falls on a surface with an area of 12 m2, the average illurninance (Eav) will be 10 000/12 = 833 lux.

3.3 Relation between luminous intensity (I) and illuminance (E)

The inverse square law 1. The illuminance on a point in a plane perpendicular to the direction of light incidence is equal to the luminous intensity in die direction of the point, divided by the square of the distance between the (point) light source and the point in question (Fig. 15). If we call this distance d, the following formula applies: Ep = I / d2 for example, if a point light source emits a luminous intensity of 1200 cd in a direction perpendicular to a surface at a distance of 3 metres, the illuminance (Ep) at the point where the light strikes the surface will be 1200/32 = 133 lux. If the source is at a distance of 6 metres from the light source, the illuminance will be 1200/62 = 33 lux. This relationship is called the inverse square law. Strictly speaking, it is only valid for point sources. In practice, however, the law holds good approximately as long as the distance between the light source and the point of calculation or measurement is more than three times the longest dimension of the light source. For laboratory measurements on luminaires, on the other hand, the distance should be at least five to ten times the longest dimension of the luminaire (5)

Fig 15. The relation between luminous intensity and illuminance on a plane perpendicular to the direction of light incidence - the inverse square law according to formula (5).

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sin 0 = 0 cos 0o = 1 tg 0o = 0 o o sin 30 = 0,5 cos 60 = 0,5 tg 45o = 1 sin 90 = 1 cos 90 = 0 tg 90o = Fig. 16 Basic goniometric formulae. The cosine law 2. The illuminance at a point in a plane riot perpendicular to the direction of the luminous intensity is equal to the luminous intensity in the direction of the point, divided by the square of the distance between the light source and the point in question, multiplied by the cosine (Fig. 16) of the angle gamma that the direction of light incidence makes with the normal (perpendicular) to the plane (Fig. 14) Thus: Ep = I cos / d2 This is called the cosine law. For example. if a point light source radiates a luminous intensity of 1200 cd in the direction of a point on a surface at 3 metres distance, and the light strikes the surface a an angle of 600 to the normal to the surface, the illuminance (Ep) at that point will be equal to: (1200/32) x cos 60o = (120O/32) x 0.5 = 67 lux. (6)

3.3.1 Horizontal illuminance

Illuminance on a horizontal surface For horizontal surfaces it will often he more practical to modify the above formula by replacing the distance (d) between the light source and the calculation point by the vertical height (h) of the light source above the surface (Fig. 19). The result is called the horizontal illuminance ax the point and the formula becomes: Ehor = I cos / h2 (7)

Fig. 17 The relation between luminous intensity and illuminance on a plane not perpendicular to the direction of light incidence - the cosine law Fig. 18 The cosine law, modified for horizontal according to formula (6). illuminance, according to formula (7).

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Fig. 19 Calculation of the vertical illuminance according to formula (8)

Fig. 20 Calculation of the vertical illuminance according to formula (9).

3.3.2 Vertical illuminance

Illurninance on a vertical surface By rotating the system for horizontal illuminance through 90o, one obtains the illuminance on a vertical surface (Fig. 19). Thus: Evert= I cos / d2 This is called the vertical illuminance at a point. For practical reasons, this formula is often rewritten so as to substitute for the angle gamma between the angle of light incidence and the normal to the vertical surface, the vertical angle between the direction of light incidence and die normal to the horizontal surface, and the horizontal angle indicating the orientation of the vertical surface with respect to the plane of light incidence (Fig. 20). Thus: Evert = I sin cos2 cos / h2 (9) (8)

3.3.3 Hemispherical and semicylindrical illuminance

Illuminance on a spherical surface The illuminance on the curved surface of an infinitely small hemisphere can be expressed as (Fig. 21): E = I cos2 (1 + cos ) / 4h2
Fig. 21 calculation of the hemispherical illuminance, according to formula (10).

(10)

Fig. 22 Calculation of the semicylindrical illuminance, according to formula (11).

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Illuminance on a cylindrical surface Similarly, the Illuminance on the curved surface of an infinitely small vertical semi-cylinder can be expressed as (Fig. 22): E = I sin cos2 (1 + cos ) / h2 (11)

The practical usefulness of the concepts of semi spherical and semi-cylindrical illuminance is found in street and residential area lighting, where the illuminance effects on curvatures are more important for recognition of human faces than illuminance on a point in a plane and seldom more than two light sources are instrumental for the illuminance result

3.4 Relation between luminous intensity (I) and luminance (L)

The surface luminance of a light source or of a light-reflecting surface (secondary light source) is equal to the luminous intensity divided by the apparent area (Aa) of the surface. Thus: L = I / Aa (12)

A clear tubular high-pressure sodium lamp with a light-emitting area (discharge tube) of 100 mm length and 8 mm diameter radiates perpendicularly to the cylindrical surface with a luminous intensity of 4000 cd (Fig. 23). The surface luminance of the discharge tube, when viewed from the same direction, then equals: 4000/(100 x 8) = 5 cd/mm2 = 5 000 000 cd/m2.

3.5 Relation between illuminance (E) and luminance (L)

Relation between E and L for mat surfaces In the case of a light-reflecting surface, the luminous intensity of the surface is usually nor known, but very often the illuminance on the surface is. For perfectly diffusing surfaces a relationship exists between the illuminance (E) on the surface, the surface reflectance (), and the luminance (L) of the surface (Fig. 24). Thus: L=E/ (13)

Fig. 23 The surface luminance of the discharge tube Fig. 24 The luminance of a perfectly mat surface in a clear SON lamp, as a function of the luminous one direction as a function of the luminance can intensity, can be calculated according to formula (12) be calculated according to formula (13).

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For example. a sheet of mat paper is illuminated so as to receive an illuminance of 500 lux. The reflectance of the surface is 0,7 (70%). The luminance of the sheet of paper in all directions then equals: 500 x 0,7 / = = cd/m2. This equation is valid for perfectly diffuse (man) surfaces. These display an equal luminance in all directions, no matter what the direction of view, The formula is not valid for specular surfaces and for surfaces exhibiting compound reflection - such as road surfaces - when viewed in the direction of the specular component

4. Other lighting units

Units in use before the adoption of the international candela The units lumen. candela. lux, and candela per square metre are those adopted in 1948 for the SI system of units (Systme Internationale dUnits). They are the only recommended lighting units. However, the reader might come across ocher lighting units, like those in use before 1948, or units derived from the (British) Imperial System of measures. These are therefore briefly listed here. unit description conversion factor Luminous flux dekalumen 10 lumens 10 Im light-watt 1 watt of radiant energy of a wavelength of 555 nm 683 Im Luminous intensity candle (international) derived from incandescent standard lamp Hefner candle derived from flame standard lamp Illuminance Metrecandle footcandle phot nox

1 cd 0,9 cd

1 lumen per square metre 1 lumen per square foot 1 lumen per square centimetre 0.001 lumen per square metre

1 lux 10.764 lux 10 000 lux 0,001 lux

Luminance *) lambert 1/ candles per square centimetre 3183 cd/m2 footlambert 1/ candles per square loot 3,426 cd/m2 nit 1 candle per square metre 1 cd/m2 stilb 1 candle per square centimetre 10000 cd/m2 apostilb 1/10 000 candles per square centimetre (0,0001 lambert) 0.3183 cd/m2 blondel = 1 apostilb 0,3183 cd/m2 skot = 0,001 apostilb 0.00032 cd/m2
*) All deprecated luminance units mentioned here are derived from the international candela. In older German literature, however, one might encounter the 'Hefner apostilb, equal to 0,9 International 2 apostilb or 0,2865 cd/m .

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Fig. 25 Plant growth depends on light - normal or artificial - and all green plants respond in much the same way to different spectral wavelengths (right).

5. Radiometric quantities and units

Non-visible radiation In Section 1 it was explained that the photometric quantities and units are based upon the visual sensation perceived by the human eye. For electromagnetic radiation outside the visible region of the spectrum the quantities and units therefore have no meaning and the same holds true for those effects produced by light that have nothing to do with the visual process. e.g. stimulation of plant growth and the various chemical processes encountered In photography and reprography. Like the rods and cones in the retina of the human eye the active elements responsible for most of these photochemical processes show a specific and reproducible spectral sensitivity distribution. The spectral sensitivity curve for plant growth (photosynthesis), for example, is well-known, and practically independent of the species of plant (Fig. 25). It would thus be possible to create an individual 'lumen' for each photochemical process; and indeed, it has been suggested that the 'phytolumen' be introduced as a measure for the influence of light on plant growth. This would have to be defined as: 'a certain quantity of radiant energy emitted per second, weighted against the standard plant-sensitivity curie for photosynthesis'. Radiometry follows the concept of radiant power However, in view of the great variety in photochemical processes. such an approach would be neither feasible, nor practical. Therefore, for the measurement of radiation - called 'radiometry - a system of quantities and units has been chosen solely on the basis of the energy content of the radiation within the wavelength range of interest The radiometric quantities closely follow the photometric quantities! the four basic ones being: radiant flux. radiant intensity, irradiance, and radiance. The units, however, are all derived from the SI unit of power. the watt (W). The following relations between the two systems of measurement can be plotted: Radiometry
quantity radiant lux radiant intensity irradiance radiance unit watt (W) watt per steradian (W/sr) watt per square metre watt per steradian square metre (W/sr.m2) quantity luminous flux luminous intensity illuminance luminance

Photometry
unit lumen (lm) candela (cd) (= lm/sr) lux (lx) (= lm/m2) candela per square metre

The interrelationships between the various radio-metric quantities are the same as between photometric quantities. 17

Fig 26 Photometer bench set-up for visual photometry. 1. photometer, 2. Lamp being measured; 3. standard lamp; 4. diaphragms.

Fig. 27 Visual photometer with built-in reference lamp for field measurements.

6. Measuring instruments
6.1 Visual photometers
Two different measuring techniques Two fundamentally different techniques for the measurement of light, or photometry as a termed, have been developed: the visual technique and the photoelectric technique. Visual photometry compares luminances Visual photometry, the older of the two techniques. was practiced as long ago as 1760 by Bouguer and Lambert. In measuring the luminous intensity of a light source, light from the source under test is projected art a screen with diffusely transmitting or reflecting characteristics, along with the light from a standard light source of known luminous intensity (Fig. 26). By varying the illuminance on the screen from one of the two light sources, under controlled conditions, the luminances created by the two sources are equalized, as judged by the eye of the observer. Therefore, visual photometry essentially involves the comparison of luminances. Visual photometers have been improved over the years to a high degree of precision, and they remained in use until quite recently (Fig. 27). However. today they have virtually been ousted by photoelectric - also called physical photometers. The photoelectric photometer is therefore the type referred to in the following sections.

6.2 Photoelectric photometers

Photoelectric photometry measures illuminances In the photoelectric photometer the light falling upon the surface of 'receptor' serves to generate a small electric current which can be measured.

Fig. 28 Circuit diagram of a photometer based upon the photo-emissive principle. To the right, the physical layout of a photo-emissive cell: C = cathode, A = anode, B = glass bulb.

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Fig. 29 To the left, circuit diagram of a photometer based upon the photo-multiplier principle: C = cathode, D = dynode, A = anode. To the right, photo-multiplier tubes.

Fig. 20 Circuit diagram of a photometer based upon the photovoltaic principle.

Since, in photometry. light falling on an area of surface is defined as 'illuminance' it is in fact the illuminance that is measured with this class of instruments, which is why they are often called luxmeters. In physical photometry. therefore, all photometric quantities have to be converted into illuminance values The photocell employed in the photoelectric photometer can be of various types: photo-emissive photovoltaic photo-conductive (e.g. photo-resistors, photodiodes or phototransistors) Photo-emissive cells are vacuum diodes Photo-emissive cells are based on die principle that certain metals release electrons from their surface when exposed to light. Within certain limits, the rate of electron emission is proportional to the amount of light received by the surface, in other words the illuminance. If the photo-emissive material is connected to the negative terminal of a tic source (thus forming the cathode), another metal electrode (the anode) is connected to the positive terminal and both are placed in an evacuated or gas-filled glass bulb, then the electrons released from the cathode will move toward the anode The result is a minute electric current flowing through the circuit, which can be measured with an ammeter (Fit 28) As the electron emission rate is proportional to the illuminance, the intensity of the current will be a measure for the amount of light falling on the cathode The photo-multiplier The current flowing through the circuit is invariably very small, which is why it is generally first amplified before being measured. Another possibility is to use a cell based upon the 'photo-multiplier principle. Here, the electrons released by the photo-cathode are first attracted by an auxiliary anode (dynode) which is itself of the electron-emitting type. Each electron hitting the auxiliary anode will release five to ten electrons from it, which will move to a next dynode carrying a higher voltage (Fig. 29). If several dynodes are placed one behind the other, the final current will be quite considerable, so chat it can be measured without problemsPhoto-multiplier tubes are therefore very useful at low lighting levels. Nowadays, the photo-emissive cell has largely given way to the photovoltaic cell for use in photometry. as the latter offers considerable advantages, especially in portable equipment. Photovoltaic cells are semi-conductor diodes Photovoltaic cells convert the incident light directly into electric power, and therefore need no external voltage source. However, to maintain accuracy at low illuminance levels, and facilitate calibration, the output current of the cell is often amplified before being measured. The power for the amplifier is usually supplied from dry batteries. 19

Fig. 31 Measuring circuit with

Fig. 32 Measuring circuit with photodiode.

Fig. 33 Measuring circuit with phototransistor, also including an amplifying stage.

Basically, a photovoltaic cell is a bipolar semiconductor, or 'diode. It consists of two layers having different electric properties. sometimes separated by a third neutral or barrier layer. Under the influence of light, electrons migrate through the junction between the two layers. So, if the layers are externally connected via an ammeter a current is measured of a magnitude proportional to the amount of light incident on the cell (Fig. 30). Initially, selenium was the most popular semiconductor material, but now silicon is almost universally used for the purpose. In contrast with selenium cells, silicon cells have no barrier layer. Photometers based upon the photovoltaic principle are the most widely used nowadays for field measurements. They are mostly filtered to match, as far as possible, the spectral sensitivity V() curve of the human eye. Photo-conductive cells are variable resistors Photo-resistors are made of a material the resistance of which decreases under the influence of the light As the resistor is a passive element it always needs an external source of electric power. i.e. a battery (fig. 31). The materials used most often in photo-resistors are cadmium sulfide (CdS) and cadmium selenide (CdSe). CdS-cells are extremely popular as light-meters in photographic cameras, hut they show too much instability (or them to be suitable for use in precision instruments. Photodiodes are in fact no different from photovoltaic cells, but rely on an external power supply. They are mostly of the silicon type. The conductivity of a photodiode in the reverse direction steeply increases with the amount of light failing upon it. as does the current through the external circuit (Fig. 32) Photodiodes are sometimes used in measuring instruments but their main application lies in light-dependent switching of electrical circuits. Phototransistors display characteristics analogous to those of photodiodes but with the additional advantage that they also work as amplifiers (Fig. 33) Their non-linearity, however, makes them unsuitable for measuring purposes although they are widely used in switching and lighting control systems.

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Fig. 34 Various luxmeters: Left older type, with separate filters. Right: Modem luxmeter, with digital read-out and built-in (left) w separate (right) photocell with both colour and cosine correction.

7. Measuring techniques
7.1 Measurement of illuminance
Limitations of field measurement accuracy In the foregoing section, it has been explained that photoelectric lightmeters measure the illuminance incident on the lightsensitive cell. Although the meters intended for field work are simple arid convenient to use, most of them - at least the less expensive types -are not designed as precision instruments. Careful handling and frequent calibration will help to maintain their reliability, but measurements in the field should not be expected to have an accuracy of better than five to ten per cent, and even this can only be reached under favorable conditions with a good instrument, In addition, all photocells exhibit certain inherent characteristics, which the user must understand to obtain the best possible results (Fig. 34).

7.1.1 Spectral sensitivity

Adaptation to the eye- sensitivity curve The response of most photoelectric cells to the various wavelengths of the visible spectrum is quite different From that of the human eye Meters without colour correction are therefore only accurate under the kind of illumination tar which they are calibrated (usually light from a filament lamp of a colour temperature of 2700 K). Many meters, however, are supplied with a colour-correcting filter, which changes their spectral response to a reasonably dose approximation to the spectral sensitivity curve of the human eye. Colour correction Even with these meters, however, to obtain accurate results with light sources whose spectral compositions show a considerable departure from that of a normal thermal radiator, a colour correction factor' will have to be employed. These colour correction factors are normally supplied by the manufacturer of the photometer. Meters provided with filters. so accurate that for exacting field measurements no colour-correction factors need to be used, do exist, but are necessarily rather expensive.

7.1.2 Cosine correction (correction for oblique incidence)

Errors as result of a low angle of incidence Light striking the surface of the photo-electric cell at an angle, will produce an illuminance proportional to the cosine of the angle of incidence (see Section 3,3), but this may not always result in an equivalent response from the cell There are two reasons for this: Firstly, light at oblique angles will be more reflected by the protective cover-plate of the cell, and thus not reach the lightsensitive surface; and, secondly, the protective rim often fired round the cell partly shades the light incident n low angles. Both these effects become more manifest with increasing angle of incidence. 21

Fig. 35 Cosine correction is especially important when carrying out measurements in road-lighting installations, as very oblique angles of light incidence then often occur. Since photometers are usually calibrated for light perpendicular to me surface of the cell. light entering at an angle. and also diffuse light, will give readings lower than the values following from calculation, unless some corrective procedure is applied. For illuminance measurements in the horizontal plane. the error may vary from a few per cent - for indoor areas with direct or semidirect lighting from above, where only a small proportion of the light is received through reflection from the walls or ceiling - to 10 - 15 per cent for predominantly indirect lighting, and even as much as 25 per cent if the light comes from the side-windows only. With floodlighting or roadlighting installations, where light incidence at very low angles is often the rule, the error can be even larger (Fig. 35). Correction systems Good photometers should incorporate some device - for example a diffusing shield that can be placed over the cell - designed to correct the receiving surface in such a way that light arriving from all directions is properly evaluated - so-called cosine correction. Modern photometers are often provided with a photocell of a design chat ensures good cosine correction under all circumstances, without the need of a special adapter. A well-corrected photometer follows the cosine law for all angles of incidence. Uncorrected meters should be used only if one is fully aware of their limitations.

7.1.3 Fatigue
Adaptation to the prevailing illuminance level All photoelectric cells exhibit a certain degree of fatigue - that is to say a tendency for the meter indication to drop off slowly over a period of minutes until a constant reading is obtained. This effect is most noticeable at high illuminance values, and therefore so if the photoelectric cell has been covered, or the meter has been kept in the dark for some time previously - or used at much lower illuminance levels. Therefore, before starting measuring, the meter should be allowed time to adapt (for as long as may be necessary) to the illuminance level at which measurements are to be taken.

7.1.4 Ambient temperature

Temperature dependence With some types of photoelectric cells, the sensitivity changes with the ambient temperature. If measurements are taken at extremely high or low temperatures, the corresponding corrections should be made. Temperaturecorrection tables are usually supplied by the manufacturer of the meter.

7.1.5 Age effects

Regular calibration is essential Both the absolute sensitivity and the spectral sensitivity distribution of photoelectric cells may change with time. Yearly calibration of the photometer on different types of light sources is therefore necessary. 22

Fig. 36 Two types of luminance meters, the 'LMT meter (left) and the older 'Morass' meter (right). The latter is especially suited few road-surface luminance measurements.

7.2 Measurement of luminance

Illuminance received from an area If an image of the apparent area of a surface whose luminance is to be measured is projected on the photosensitive area of photo-emissive or photovoltaic cell, the illuminance reading of this cell becomes proportional to the luminance of the area in the direction of measurement. A luminance meter thus consists of a photoelectric cell, and an optical system that projects an image of the area to be measured on the surface of the cell (Fig. 36). The measuring circuit is calibrated to give luminance values in cd/m2. Luminance meters can be distinguished into spot and area luminance meters. Some are suitable for both types of measurement.

Fig. 37 Gonio-photometer, few measuring the luminous intensity distribution of luminaires.

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7.3 Measurement of luminous intensity

Measuring the luminous intensity distribution Most luminous intensity measurements are made in the laboratories of luminaire manufacturers in order to obtain the light (or luminous intensity) distribution characteristics of a particular lamp-luminaire combination. This involves measuring the illuminance on the photocell of the meter at various directions around the luminaire. Given the illuminance value and the distance between the photocell and the luminaire, the luminous intensity can be calculated (see Section 33). For this work gonio-photometers are used, in which either the luminaire, or a system of mirrors (or both) is rotated with respect to a stationary photocell (Fig. 37).

7.4 Measurement of luminous flux

The Ulbricht sphere The luminous flux of a lamp can either be calculated from the luminous intensities measured in a great many directions, or measured direct in a socalled integrating photometer. or Ulbricht sphere. after the scientist who. in 1900. described its principle for the first time. The lamp being measured is suspended at the centre of a large hollow sphere, painted matt-white to make it perfectly diffusing (Fig. 38). Owing to the internal reflection, the illurninance on any part of the spheres iris ide surface is proportional to the lamps total light output A small window in the wall of the sphere allows this ilIum inance to be measured, The set-up is calibrated against a standard lamp of known luminous flux. Whilst the Ulbricht sphere photometer is used by photometric laboratories to determine the luminous flux of lamps, the luminous flux of a lamp-luminaire combination us more easily obtained by calculation, after measuring the luminous intensity distribution in all important directions (see the previous Section). The calculation procedure is nowadays generally carried our with the aid of a computer.

Fig. 38 Two integrating photometers. Left. a two-metre sphere; right the four-metre sphere an the laboratory of the Quality Department Lighting in Eindhoven, which is suitable for measurements on the largest lamp types.

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Fig. 39 Measurement of the horizontal illuminance on Fig. 40 Car-mounted 'Morass' luminance meter for the working plane. The lighting engineer has to take carrying out road-surface luminance measurements care that hrs body does not throw shadows or reflections on the photocell.

7.5 Measurements carried out in the field

The measuring conditions must be known The outcome of any Lighting measurement can only be evaluated properly if the conditions prevailing at the time of measurement are known, For this reason, it is important to put on record all pertinent Information. including the type of meter used, the ambient temperature, the operating voltage of the lighting installation, the state of cleanliness of the lighting equipment and of the walls and ceilings that reflect the light, and, finally, the operating age of the lamps. For example, new discharge lamps should burn for 100 hours before any measurements are made. The light output of discharge lamps. and of fluorescent lamps Especially! also varies significantly with ambient temperature. Therefore, these should always be given sufficient warm-up time to attain a constant temperature in the luminaire. Preventing shadows or stray-light When carrying out illuminance measurements the operator must take every precaution to avoid shadows or stray-light - reflected from his clothing - falling on the cell (Fig. 39). Also, in the case of luminance measurements, the test surface must be free from shadows or reflections. Open-air measurements should not be taken during hazy weather, as light absorption in the air can be quite considerable under such circumstances (Fig. 40). Humid conditions can, moreover affect the transmittance of the protective layer on the photoelectric cells. It will be obvious that a single illuminance measurement only applies to the point where it is taken. Therefore, to obtain the average value over an area, a number of readings will have to be made. 25

Conclusion
The measurement of light is based on a system of quantitative concepts and units that takes into account the energy content of visible radiation, as well as the response of the human eye to the various spectral wavelengths. The basic quantity is the luminous intensity, and the associated unit is the candela - one of the seven basic units in the SI system of measurement. The other lighting quantities: luminous flux, illurninance and luminance, together with their related units, have been derived from the luminous intensity. Their Mutual relationship Is laid down In a number of formulae, which are of immense practical value in lighting engineering. Lighting measurements originally involved visual comparisons with standard light sources, but today all measuring equipment works on the photoelectric principle. in essence. illuminance is the only quantity measured. The other photometric quantities must be obtained by conversion from illuminance values by making use of the appropriate formulae.

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