Totally Real Origami and Impossible Paper Folding Author(s): David Auckly and John Cleveland Reviewed work(s):

Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 102, No. 3 (Mar., 1995), pp. 215-226 Published by: Mathematical Association of America Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2975008 . Accessed: 19/03/2012 07:08
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Totally Real Origami and Impossible Paper Folding

David Aucklyand lohn Cleveland

Origamiis the ancient Japanese art of paper folding. It is possible to fold many intriguinggeometricalshapes with paper [M]. In this article, the questionwe will answeris which shapes are possible to constructand which shapes are impossible to constructusing origami.One of the most interestingthingswe discoveredis that it is impossibleto constructa cube with twice the volume of a given cube using origami,just as it is impossibleto do using a compass and straightedge. As an unexpectedsurprise,our algebraiccharacterization origamiis related to David of Hilbert's 17th problem. Hilbert's problem is to show that any rational function which is alwaysnon-negativeis a sum of squares of rational functions [B]. This problemwas solved by Artin in 1926 [Ar].We would like to thank John Tate for noticing the relationshipbetween our present work and Hilbert's 17th problem. This research is the result of a project in the Junior Fellows Programat The Universityof Texas. The Junior Fellows Programis a programin which a junior undergraduatestrives to do original research under the guidance of a faculty mentor. The referee mentioned two references which the reader may find interesting. "Geometric Exercises in Paper Folding" addresses practicalproblems of paper folding [R]. Arnongmany other things, SundaraRow gives constructionsfor the 5-gon, the 17-gon, and duplicatinga cube. His constructions,however,use more generalfoldingtechniquesthan the ones we considerhere. Felix Klein cites Row's work in his lectures on selected questionsin elementarygeometry[K]. In orderto understandthe rules of origamiconstruction, will first considera we sheet of everydaynotebookpaper. Our workwith notebookpaper will serve as an intuitivemodel for our definitionof origamiconstructions the Euclideanplane. in There are four naturalmethodsof foldinga piece of paper.The methodswill serve as the basis of the definitionof an origamipair. We constructthe line L1, by folding a crease between two differentcornersof the paper.Anotherline maybe constructed matchingtwo corners.For example, by if corners orand Syare matched,the crease formed, L2, will be the perpendicular bisector of the segment orSy. Another naturalconstructionis matchingone line to another line. For instance, ,8^y, paper's edge, and L2 are lines. If we lay ,8^y the upon L2 and form the crease, then we obtain L3 which is the angle bisectorof the two lines. If we startwith two parallellines in this thirdconstruction, then we will just get a parallelline half way in between. The fourth and final constructionwhich seems natural is consecutivefolding. This is similarto rollingup the sheet of paper only one does not roll it up, he folds it up. More explicitly,startwith a piece of paperwith two creaseson it as in Figure 2. Fold along line Ll and do not unfold the piece of paper.Notice that line L2 lies
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TOTALLY REAL ORIGAMI AND IMPOSSIBLE PAPER FOLDING

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//1

/1 I /l I
/ / I

/
" (t L2, ,

l
1

L'
1 \N

, / /

SI ,\ / \

,'

L3
Figure 1

/ L1

'L2

/ / / /
/ /

,
/ / /

/ I I I

/ / /

I I

L3

/L1
Figure 2

IL2

over the sheet of paper. With the paper still folded, fold the sheet of paper along the crease L2 to obtain a new crease on the sheet underneath L2. If we name this new crease L3 and unfold the sheet of paper, then it is easy to see that line L3 is the mirror image or reflection of line L2 about line L1. We now formalize these methods to define an origami pair on the plane. The creases on our sheet of paper are merely lines in the plane, and the corners of the paper are represented by points where lines (creases) meet. This previous discussion is the motivation for the following definition. Defilnition. (9, ) is an origami pair if 9 collection of lines in 2 satisfying: i) The point of intersection ii) Given any two distinct them. is a set of points in R2 and R is a

of any two non-parallel lines in y is a point in 9. points in 9, there is a line in y going through

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TOTALLY REAL ORIGAMI AND IMPOSSIBLEPAPER FOLDING

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bisector of the line iii) Given any two distinct points in 9, the perpendicular segmentwith given end points is a line in fi. iv) If L1 and L2 are lines in , then the line whichis equidistantfrom L1 and L2 is in . v) If L1 and L2 are lines in , then there exists a line L3 in such that L3 is the mirrorreflectionof L2 about L1. For any subset of the plane containingat least two points, there is at most one collection of lines whichwill pair with it to become an origamipair. if origami constructionsthere exists under Defilnition.A subset of 2, 9, iS closed a collection of lines, , such that (97, ) is an origamipair. The questionwhichwe answerin this paper is whichpoints maybe constructed describedabove.We will fromjust two points, using only the origamiconstructions points. call that collection of points the set of origamiconstructible Defilnition.90 = n {91(0, o) (o, 1) E 9 and 9 is closed under origamiconstrucpoints. constructible tions} is the set of origami Before we explain the structure of 90, we give an example of an origami namely, constructionanalogousto many compassand straightedge constructions, the constructionof parallellines.

any to a to Lemma.It is possible construct lineparallel a giuenlinethrough gizpen

. . . .

pomt

usmg

orlgaml.

Proof:Refer to Figure3. Given a line L and a point p, pick two points P1 and P2 on L. By propertyii) in the definitionof an origamipair, we may constructlines L1 and L2 runningthroughP1,p and P2,p, respectively.By propertyv) we may reflect L1 and L2 throughL to obtain L3 and L4.Now the intersectionof L3 and L4 is a constructiblepoint, so there is a line, L5 throughthis point and the given point, p, by propertiesi) and ii). Call the point where L5 and L intersect p3. To
bisector to finish the construction,use propertyiii) to constructa perpendicular

p, p3, and reflect L throughthis bisector with propertyv) to obtain the desired
exerciseto show that L6 has the desiredproperties. line, L6. It is a straightforward

Figure 3

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The reader may wish to try some constructionson his own. Two especially interestingexercises to attempt are the constructionof a right trianglewith given legs and the construction a righttrianglewith a givenhypotenuseand leg. More of explicitly,givenfour distinctpoints or,,l3,y and 8, the readermaytry to constructa point E such that or,,B,E are the vertices of a right trianglewith legs cz,8 and : such that the length of equals the length of yN. Now that we have a better feel for origamiconstructions, will start developwe ing tools to show that some figuresare not constructible. The first thingwe need is the notion of an origaminumber. Defilnition.F0= {cl! R13 vl, V2 E
orzgamz numsers.
. * 1

E 9

such that Ic}| = dist(vl, V2)}

iS

the

set of

It is easy to see that (x, y) E 90 if and only if x and y are both in F0.It is also easy to see that the numbers 2 4 8S*** are origaminumbers.To see that 5 is an origaminumberconsider Figure 4. In Figure 4 a line through(O,-) and (l, O)is constructed,then a parallel line through (O,8) iS constructed.This parallel line intersectsthe x-axis at (5, O),therefore 5 is an origaminumber.Another class of origaminumberscan be generalizedby a simple geometricconstruction.Starting with any segment, it is possible to construct a right triangle as in Figure 5. It follows that a/l + a2 iS an origami numberwhenever a is an origami number. Using this construction, see that we 4= /l + 12 and 4= vl + (4)2

are origaminumbers.In fact, the sum, difference,product,and quotientof origami numbersare origaminumbers.

*(0,1) \(0, 5/8)

\51/5,< \ (1, 0)N

Figure 4

vl +a2

Figure 5

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TOTALLY REAL ORIGAMI AND IMPOSSIBLEPAPER FOLDING

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the usual field operations and the operation x 21 + x2. It is enough to 21 + a2 .

under operation the F0 numbers, is a f eldclosed of Theorem. ThecoZ1ectionorigami

it Proof:If cz,,8 c IFo, follows from the definitionthat -cr and it is easy to E IFo constructionswith similar triangles are show that a +,B E IFQ. Straightforward enough to show that cz ,S, a-1 E EQ. See Figure 6. In the discussionpreceding this theorem we showed that 21 + Ct2 iS an origaminumberwhenever ogis. The P proof is thereforecomplete.

1, , 8183 laW31) I
|
* ,{

: |

,-'Flal
l
;

1)

-o1(1slal)
s

(l,la-ll)., *

(0,0)

(1,0)

(I,BI,O) Figure6

(0,0) (1,0)

(lal,)

Now that we have some algebraic operations which will produce origami numbers,it is naturalto ask if there are any more operationswhich will produce origaminumbers.Once we have a list of all waysto create origaminumbersand a method to test if a given number can be achievedSthen we will know which This is and geometricshapes are constructible, whichshapes are not constructible. because any figure is constructibleif and only if the coordinates of all of the vertlces are orlgamlnumDers.
* * * .

Defilnition.G
21 x2.

is the smallest subfield of (Cclosed under the operation x

t c GoX It is in fact true that The precedingTheoremmay be rephrasedas IF Thus, the previouslylisted operationswhich produce origaminumF = Ev bers are the only independentoperationswhich produceorigaminumbers. Theorem. IF= G,v.

Proof:Since we alreadyknow that G,c

F

Ff, we only need to show that Goc . That is, we need to show that any origaminumbermay be expressedusing

consider the coordinatesof origamiconstructiblepoints, because a numberis an point. There are origaminumberif and only if it is a coordinateof a constructible new origamipoints from old ones using the only four distinctways of constructing These are illustratedin Figures7 and 8. The only axiomsfor origamiconstruction. way a new point will be constructedis by a new crease intersectingan old one The four ways of makinga crease are: folding a line between two existingpoints as in bisector to two points as in the the line y3 in Figure 7 folding the perpendicular second part of Figure7, reflectinga line as in the thirdpart of Figure7, or forming
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Nowthe slopeb2y, the (al, b1y) sends is m-tan(0/2)-csc 0 to (b1, b2). Let 0 = (x, y) (b1x - of b2x + ,k(X, new creasea2)the pointY) / (1,0) back cot 0, which only

--X---

a-

ELLT

Figure 7

C1

C2)

-Xb2)

Figure 8

the angle bisector as in Figure 8*We will explain the case illustratedin Figure 8 and leave the remainingthree cases to the reader.When showingthat the point (x, y) only depends on the prescribedoperations? may assume that (a1, a2) = we (0,0) by translation,because the point (x, y) is found by adding (a1, a2) to the translatedpoint. We may further assume that (b1,b2) is on the unit circle, by scaling because multiplyingby vbl2 + b22 lb1t; 1 + (b2/b1)2 will reverse the = scaling. Even further (bl,b2) may be assumed to be (1,0) because the rotation
Z cab,with the

above assumptions, 0 = c1/c2 and cot

CSC 0 = /cl2 + C22/C2 =; 1 + (C1/C2)

depends on the prescribedoperations.The new point (x, y) is the intersectionof the two lines y = ntx and y = [cJ(c1 - l)](x-1), so x = c2 - m(c1 - 1)
C2

and Y

c2 - m(c1 - 1)
t

mc2

whichonly dependson the prescribedoperationsas was to be shown.

The preceding theorem gives an algebraicdescriptionof the field of origami numbers,and in principle answerswhich shapes are constructibleand which are not constructibleusing origami.In practiceit is still difficultto decide whetheror not a given numberis an origaminumber.For example, 24 + 24 is an origami number because +/4 + 24 = /1 + (1 + 4), but what about 21 + 4 ? In order to answer this question we need a better characterizationof origami numbers.Before we proceed we will review some elementaryfacts from abstract algebra[AH], [L].
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TOTALLY REAL ORIGAMI AND IMPOSSIBLE PAPER FOLDING

arc z

Defilnition. number,or,is an algebraic A number it is a root of a polynomial if with rationalcoefficients. Any algebraicnumber,cz,is a root of a unique monic irreducible polynomialin Q[x], denoted by p,y(x). This polynomial,moreover, divides any polynomialin (Qx ] having czas a root. [ Defilnition.The conjugates c} are the roots of the polynomial p\(x). An of algebraicnumberis totally realif all of its conjugatesare real. We denote the set of totallyreal numbersby FTs Of the numbers which we are using to motivate this section, 24 + 24 is totally real, because all of its conjugates(_ 24 _ 24 ) are real, but 21 + 4 is not totally real because two of its conjugatesare imaginary +/1 - 4 ). (_ The last topic whichwe reviewis symmetric polynomials. The symmetricgroup on n letters acts on polynomials in n variables by (rt(x1, x2,. . ., xn) = t(x<r(1), xXr(2), , xa(n))where f E R[X1,. . ., Xn]and R is an arbitrary ring. DeSlnition.The fixed points of the above action are called symmetric polynomials over R. For example, xl2+ x22is a symmetricpolynomialin two variablesbecause it remainsunchangedwhen the variablesare interchanged. However,xl2- x22is not a symmetricpolynomialbecause it becomes x22 xl2+ xl2- x22when x1 and x2 are interchanged.One importantclass of symmetricpolynomialsis the class of elementarysymmetric polynomials. Defilnition.If flk=l(t + Xk)is expanded,we obtain

n
k=l
H

n
(t + xk) =
l=o
E

(rz(xl,. . ., xn)tn 1.

The /(xl, . . ., xn) are the elementary symmetric polynomials. It is easilyverifiedthat

CZ1 =X1 +X2 + +Xn

= the sum of all productsof I distinctxk's

(Jn xl

X2 * ** Xn

Fact. [L, page 191].The algebraof symmetric polynomialsover R is generatedby the elementary symmetricpolynomials.That is, any symmetricpolynomialis a linear combinationof productsof the elementarysymmetric polynomials. We will now begin the final characterization the origaminumbers.It happens of that all origaminumbersare totallyreal. To provethis, it is necessaryto show that the sum, difference, product and quotient of totally real numbersis totally real, and that 21 + a2 is totallyreal whenevera is totallyreal. This is provenby using symmetric polynomialsand the followinglemma. Lemma.

n m
t=1 J=1

n rf (t - xiYj)= det( tI - AB)

where and B are matrices A with entriesexpressed termsof the elementary in symmetric polynomials xi or yj, respectively. of
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allkl

19t

A IJW

t119

n n lllatlW,

This lemmais interestingbecause it is easier to prove a more generalstatement which implies the lemma than it is to verifythe lemma. We will prove the lemma when the xi and yj are independentvariables,a more general statement than when the xi and yj representnumbers,but, neverthelessn easier statement to an prove.
Proof: Let n PA(t) =
n

n (t -Xk) (-1) 1=0

E

k=l

I(X)tn

and
nt

PB(t) = rI(t
J=1

-yj)

=
E (-1)

oj(y)t

Let
1
Xk

j=0

x2 k

Xk

n-l

Yl Xky

X k

m-1
Yl Xkyl

n-1

rl-1
Xk Yl

n-1

n,4

1of

A ho

fho

v o

n+t-

1 o
oo

o 1 o

o o

o o o

*+* *** **.

o o o

Oo
( _ l)nAl (X)

(-1)

ffn-l(X)

***

al(x)

Now let A be the following nm x nm matrix A A A= A

A

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TOTALLYREAL ORIGAMI AND IMPOSSIBLEPAPER FOLDING

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qO+:(t)

rl (t

ai

1t)S

By pluggingxk into PA(t),we find that

xn E (-1) 1+ 1 ( X ) Xp2-1

1=1

This implies that

AVk I = Xk Vk,l

where A is independentof k and 1* a similarwaywe can constructa matrix,B, In with entries given by the elementarysymmetric functionssuch that
BV>,=YIVknl

Now
ABVk, I = AYzVk, I = ylAVt
= XkylVk

I
1

Thus {Xkyl} are nm distinctroots of det(tI - AB) which is a monic polynomialof degree nm. Therefore, det(tI - AB) =

n rI (t-Xiyj).
i=l j=l

If the xk's and yl's were not independent variables,we would not be able to concludethat the elements in {Xkyl} are distinct. y Withthis lemma,we are readyto prove that the set of totallyreal numbersform a field under the operation x ? +/1+ x2 . Theorem. ,
C FTR-

f f /3 F:TR, must show that -zt cl-1 21 we 2 Jl3 Let {a}i=l be the conjugatesof or and {8X3J}Jmthe conjugatesof p. We will l be prove the theoremby consideringthe followingfive polynomials.

q_a(t)=n(t+i),
i=l

qOr ( )

(L(t
1=1

6ti

))(8> [|6ti)
t=1

n
q\(t)= rl(t2 1 AZ)

n
i=l
n . _ .

m
J=
m . _ .

qa,8(t)

=
i=1

L (t - 6tiaBj)
j-l

The proofs of the first three cases are similar,and the proofs of the last two cases are similar,so we will only prove, in detail, the third case and the fifth case. If we expandq (t), it is clear that the coefficientsof tk will be symmetric polynomials in the or. They may, therefore, be expressed as rational polynomialsin the
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223

As we have seen before, 4 - YJ) and det(tI 225 ; -1 + (1 + B). are (t - xi /1 + 12 = 24 + A - /5) i

are polynomialsof the ori.Since (- 1)I(JI(o{) the coefficients elementarysymmetric E 0[t]. It is of the minimal polynomialfor a we may conclude that q2(t) clear that 21 +
cy2 iS

a root of q(t),

thus the minimal polynomial of

The fact that oris totally real implies that divides qvz(f). 511+ a2 ap+/(t) all of the conjugates, ori, are real. ThusS 1 + a2 are all real and positive, so are + 21 + a2 are all real. We now conclude that all of the roots of q(t) realX therefore 21 + or2is totally real. and For the fifth case, we use the previouslemma to conclude that qag(t)E 0[t]. is Clearly,oe,B a root of qa{(t)and all of the roots of qa(t) are real because a and ,8 are totally real. In the other three cases, it is necessaryto show that each of the q's are polynomialswith rational coefficients and only real roots. The first two cases may be tackled with the fact that the elementarysymmetricpolynomials The fourthcase maybe verified polynomials. generatethe algebraof all symmetric with a lemma analogousto the previouslemma statingthat
n
i=

t31

This theorem gives us a practicalway to decide that certain shapes may not be constructed using origami. For example, it is not possible using origamiSto constructtwo cubes such that the volume of the second cube is twice that of the were possiblev4 would be an origaminumberand first cube. If this construction would thereforebe totallyreal. One, however,finds that the conjugatesof 4 are
4(2 +

2 i) and 2t, but the first two are not real, so ;5 is not an origami

number. origaminumbers,so +/2 + 4 = vC 1X/4+ 24 we see the followingcorollary. is an origaminumber.Fromthis

given with arbitrarily a to Corollary It is not possibZe construct righftriangle origami. and hypotenuse legusing Proof:If this were possible, it would be possible to constructa right trianglewith
hypotenuse +/2 + 4 and leg 1, since these are origami numbers. Any such = +/(22 + 4 ) - 12, but this is 4 triangle would have a leg of length 21 + 4 impossiblebecause vt1 + 4

is not totallyreal.

The followingcorollaryis a consequenceof the standardalgebraicdescription of compass and straightedge constructionsand the two previoustheorems [AH].

with as with Corollaly. Everythingwhichis constructib1fe origami constructible a as and edge compass straaght buttheconuerse not true.
We want to expand on the relationshipbetween compass and straight edge constructionsand origami constructions.To review, compass and straight edge
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x 4, then GR/X n R is the collection of numbers whichare constructible with a

constructionsn G,SX the smallest subfield of C:closed under the operation let be compassand straightedge. From our work thus far, it is evident that the origami nlFT. It numbers,Go,are containedin G,ZX XETR. is in fact the case that Go= GVX This characterization the origami numbersis related to David Hilberts 17th of problem.At the InternationalCongressof Mathematicsat Paris in 1900 Hilbert gave a list of 23 problems [B]. His 17th probIemwas to show that any rational functionwhich is non-negativewhen evaluatedat any rationalnumberis a sum of squares of rational functions. In 1926, Artin solved Hilbert's 17th problem [Ar]. The key idea whichArtin used was the notion of totallypositive.An element of a field is defined to be totally positive if it is positive in every order on the field. Artin provedthat an element is totallypositiveif and only if it is a sum of squares. of This is the idea which we use to prove the final characterization the origami numbers. Fact. [L, page 457]. If K is a finite real algebraicextensionof X, then an element of K is a sum of squaresin K if and only if all of its real conjugatesare positive. Theorem. Go= G-

NGTE G,ZX

SO and that Goc Glr NGTRS we Proof:We have alreadyshown that Go= Flf c If orE G,ZX nGTR,then there exists a need to show that G,/xrnlFTRG.
and sequence of totally real numbers {,BIi}i_l a sequence of totally real fields a and {Kj}n=-ol that Ko = 0, Ki = Ki_l(,Sk)7 = 13nx each ,Bihas degree 2 over such

Kl-1. Since ,Bihas degree 2 over Ki_l,,Bi is a root of a polynomialof the form
X2 + cix + din

where cidl E Ki_l. Therefore (,l3i+ ci/2)2 = ci2/4 - di. By the proof of the previoustheorem, we know that every conjugateof (pi + cJ2)2 is the square of some conjugateof 83i+ ci/2. Hence, each of the conjugatesof (,Bi+ cJ2)2 are positive and (.Si + ci/2)2 is a sum of squaresof elements in Ki_l- Say that
( jBi + CJ2) -ri2 1 + ri22 + * * * + im S

thenS {3z=r'I|1+
i,2
|1+ ri'3lr

Ci

and we are done. This shows that any totally real number in Fx is an origami X number. Legend has it that the ancient Athenianswere faced with a plague. In order to remedythe situation they sent a delegationto the oracle of Apollo at Delos. This delegationwas told to double the volume of the cubicalaltarto Apollo. However the Athenians doubled the length of each side of the altar, thereby creating an altarwith eight times the volume ratherthan twice the volumeof the originalaltar. Needless to say, the plague only got worse. For years, people have tried to double the size of a cube with compass and straightedge, and the gods have not smiled
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upon them. We now can see that the gods will not be satisfiedwith our elementary origamieither.
REFERENCES [AH] G. Alexanderson, A. Hilman, A First Undergraduate Coursein Abstract Algebra,3rd edition, Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1983. [Ar] E. Artin, Uberdie zerlegung defniterfixnktionen quadrate, in Abh. Math. Sem. Hausischen Univ. 5 (1927), 100-115. [B] F. Browder, Mathematical developments arisingfrom Hilbertproblems,in "Proceedings of Symposia in Pure Mathematics," Volume 28, American Mathematical Society, 1976. [K] F. Klein, Vortrage uberausgewahlte FragenderElementargeometrie, Teubner, 1895. [L] S. Lang, Algebra, 3rd edition, Addison-Wesley, 1993. [M] J. Montroll, Origami the Enthusiast, for Dover, 1979. [Bl T. Sundara Row, Geometric Exercises PaperFolding,Dover, 1966. in

Department Mathematics of The University Texasat Austin of Austin, TX 78712

PICTURE PU7,7jFJ (fromthe collection Paul Halmos) of

This picturewas taken in 1939 (see page 242.)

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