Buane & II T P O'Neill

PrxnrnaNT TESTTNG
l0 On ferromagnetic materials it is normally preferable to use m.p.i..

,yp" of testing uses the forces of capillary action to detect surface breaking Tit defects. It is impossible to detect defects which do not break the surface with thii method, but it can be used on both magnetic and non-magnetic materials providing they are non-porous. There are several types of penetrant systems, this includes the following which are shown in a descendingorder of flaw detection sensitivity: o r r o o Post-emulsifable- fluorescent Solvent based- fluorescent Water based- fluorescent Solventbased- colour contrast Water based- colour contrast

Fluorescent penetrants require the use of an ultaviolet (uv-A) light to view indications, whilst colour conhast penetrantsare viewed with the naked eye. One of the most co[lmon sile used penehant systems uses solvent based colour contrastpenetrants aerosols.A typical sequence in ofoperations on a steeltest item is as follows: l. Clean area using wire brush, cloth and solvent. On aluminiums, other soft alloys and plastics, wire brushing should not be used, as there is a danger that surface breaking defectsmay be closed. red in colour and should remain on the part long enough to be draw into any surface discontinuities. This time can vary from about ten minutes to several hours dependingon the type of material and size/type of defect sought.

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2 . Apply penetrant - leave for 15 minutes. Colour contrast penetrants are normally
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3 . Remove surfacepenehant using cloth and solvent. Apply solvent to the cloth and
not directly on to the work piece. Clean thoroughly.

4. Apply developer - leave for 15 minutes. The developer draws any penetrant
remaining in any surfacebreaking discontinuities with a blotting action.

5 . Interpret area. Any discontinuities are indicated by a red mark, e.g. line or dot
against a white background. Fluorescent penetants would show green-yellow when viewed with an ultraviolet (UV-A) light.

M^q.cNErIc PARTICLErNsPEcrroN
This method of NDT may detect surface, and in certain cases, slight sub-surface discontinuities up to 2-3 mm below the surface. M.p.i. can be used on ferromagnetic materials only. 80 A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen to be tested, fine particles of ferromagnetic powder, or ferromagnetic particles in a liquid suspension, are then applied to the test area. Any discontinuity which intem.rpts the magnetic lines of force will create a leakage field, which has a north and soutl,pole on either side of it. This attracts the ferromagnetic padicles in great numbers. The disconthuity may show as a black indication againstthe contrasting background - usually white contrast pailt - or as a fluorescent indication which is usually green/yellow against a dark violet background. When m.p.i. is carried out using fluorescent inks, the use of an ultraviolet (W-A) light is necessaryto causefluorescenceofthe particles, although there is no need to apply a contrast paint. 100 Fluorescent ink methods are more sensitivethan black ink methods.

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There are many ways to apply a magnetic field, e.g. a permanent magnet, coils, prods, cables and a threading bar.
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Listed below is a sequenceof operations to inspect a weld using a permanent magnet with black ink: 6. Clean areausing wire brush and cloth plus solvent if necessary. 7. Apply a thin layer of white contrastpaint. 8. When paint is dry, shaddlc thc magnet over the weld. 9. Apply ink (1.25 to 3.5o/o particlesto a paraffin base). 10. Interpret area. I L To look for tansverse defects,turn magnet approximately 90" and re-apply ink. 12. Interpretarea.

Ranrocn.q.PHIC TESTING Principles

Radiography is carried out using x-ray machines or artificial gamrna soluces (radioisotopes). X-rays or gamma rays pass through the object to be radiographed and record an image on a radiographic frlm on the opposite side. The radiation reaching the filrn will be determined by the object's thickness and density, e.g. lack of root penetration in a weld will increase the amount of radiation falline on the film in that area to a reduction in thickness. It is the wavelength of the radiation which governs its penetrating power; this is governed by the kilvoltage (kV) when using x-rays, and isotope type with gamma rays. The intensity of the radiation is governed by the milli-amperage (rnA) when using x-rays, and by the activity of the specific isotope with gamma. Activity is measuredin Curies (Ci) or gigabecquerels(GBq). A negative is produced when the film is processed. The thin areas of an object will be darker than the thicker areas,therefore most weld defects will show up dark in relation to the surrounding areas; xceptions are excess weld metal, spatter, tungsten and copper inclusions.

For x-radiography 150-300 kI/ is typically used on steel weldments up to 50 approximately 30 mm total thickness. Cobalt 60 (Co60) has a very high penetrating power very short wavelength - and can be used on materials up to 200 mm thiclc lridium 60 192 (r192) is commonly used on steel weldments up to 50 mm thick; this therefo re produces radiation with a Ionger wavelength than C060.

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Radiographicquality
An overall assessmentof radiographic quality is made by the use of image quality indicators (IQI'9; these usually consist of seven thin wires decreasing in thickness. IQI(s) are pre-placed on the weld being examined and therefore show on the radiographic image. The more wires visible the better the flaw detection sensitivity is likely to be. T\e density - degree of blackness - of a radiograph is also measured by using a densitometerto ensure it lies within a specified range for optimum quality.

Advantages and disadvantages

X-radiography requires bulky and expensive machinery in comparison with gamma radiography, but x-radiography generally produces better quality radiographs and is safer. X-ray machines can be switched on and ofi unlike gamma sources which permanently produce radiation and therefore require shielding when not in use. A major disadvantagewith radiography is that it will only detect defects which have significant depth in relation to the axis of the x-ray beam - roughly over 2oh of the wall thickness in the same axis as the x-ray bearq i.e. radiography will not usually detect plate laminations, lack of inter-run fusion or cracks pelpendicular to the x-ray beam.

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A major advantageof radiographic testing is that a permanent record is produced, i.e. the radiography.
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Ur,rnasomc TESTING
This method uses the ability of high frequency sound waves, typically above 2 MHz (2,000,000c.p.s.),to passthroughmaterials.

Sometimestwin crystals are used, one to act a -as 20 t ransmitter of ul tra so und.and the other to ict as a receiver.

A probe is used which contains a piezo electric crystal to transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses. Ultrasound hitting any air interface, or an interface with a different material density, which is perpendicular to the ultrasonic beam, is reflected back and displayed on a cathode ray tube (c.r.t.). The actual display relates to the time taken for the ulhasonic pulses to havel the distance to an interface and back, i.e. the longer the time, the further away the interface. An interface could be the opposite side of the plate, therefore, wall thickness measurements can easily be made. Lamination checks are easily carried out using ultrasonic methods (opposite to radiography). welds can be tested using angle type probes, although this requires more operator skill to apply and interpret results. Defects in welds usually can be located but the type of defect is sometimesdifficult to identify. To detect a linear defect with radiography, the defects must have depth in line with the radiation beam; the opposite is tue for ultrasonic flaw detection, i.e. when using ultrasonic testing the defects should ideally have their major face at 90o to the axis of the ulfrasonic beam. For the ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be introduced between the probe and the specimen, e.g. grease, oil, glycerine or water, because ultrasound does not havel very well through air. ultrasonic equipment is quite portable, but one major disadvantage with most of the equipment used is that no permanent record of results is produced. Equipment that is able to record results is currently expensive.

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Enny cURRENT TEsrrNG

Eddy current testing uses the electomagnetic induction of electrical currents - eddy currents - in a material. The currents are affected by any section change in the material, e.g. the presence of defects. These current changes are detected by the test instument, often by the use of a probe which induced the currents initially, they are then displayed on a meter or a cathoderay tube (c.r.t.). Eddy current testing is quite versatile. It is used for coating thickness measurements, cladding thickness measurementsand alloy sorfing as well as flaw detection. Eddy current testing is able to detect sub-surfacediscontinuities, but the depth of eddy current penekation is limited. It is excellent for surface flaw detection, but for all types of testing, can only be used on conductive materials; both magnetic and non-magnetic. Many different types of probe attachments are available, these include: intemal bobbin-type coils, extemal coils, knife edge probes and many unique designs for specific applications. 90

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Advantages

and limitations

of NDT test methods

for weld inspection

Visual Testing (VT)

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Equipment required: Welding gauge;steelruler; inspectionlight; boroscope. Enables detection of: Surface flaws - cracks, porosity, unfilled craters; warpage, under-welding, overwelding, poorly formed beads, misalignments, improper fit-up; mechanical damage. Advantages: Low cost; can be applied whilst work is in process,permitting correction of faults; rapid results;gives indication ofincorrect procedures; post cleaning;safe. no Limitations: Applicable to surface defects only, some defects can be missed; provides no permanent record; no indication of depth. Remarks: Should always be the primary method of inspection, no matter what other techniques are required; is the only pro ductive type of iaspection; is the necessary function of everyone who in any way contributes to the making of the weld. Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) Equipment required: Permanent magnet; electromagnetic yoke; bench unit; magnetic ink; background paint; fluorescent ink for high sensitivity. Enables detection of: Excellent for detecting surface cracks; slightly sub-surface defects detectable with d.c.. Advantages: Simple to use; permits controlled sensitivity; rapid results; relatively low cost method; less surfacepreparation than penetrant testing. Limitations: Applicable to fenomagnetic materials only; skilled interpretation of indications and recognition of non-relevant indications; surface or near surface defects only; accessiblesurfacesonly; no indication ofdepth, best suited to linear defects. Remarks: Linear defects parallel to the magnetic field may not give an indication, for this reason, the field should be applied from two directions at or near right angles to each other. Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT) Equipment required: Commercial kits, containing fluorescent or dye penetrants, developers and removers; a source of ultraviolet light - if fluorescent method is used. Enables detection of: Surface cracks not readily visible to the unaided eye; can be used for locating leaks in weldments. Advantages: 100 Applicable to magnetic and non-magnetic materials; easy to use; low cost; simplp to use; amount of bleed out can indicate size/depthof defects.

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Ruane& Il T P O'Neill
Limitations: only surface defects are detectable;no real indication of depth; cannot be used effectively on hot assemblies;surface preparation is critical; post cleaning often required as penetrants can contaminatecomponent; interpretation ""r, be difncult when component geometry makes cleaning difficult. Remarks: Extensively used on austenitic and duplex stainless steels in the nuclear and food processing industries; penehantsnow available for porous material. Radiographic Testing @T) Equipment required: commercial x-ray or garnma units; crawlers for pipelines; film and processiag facilities; fluoroscopic viewing equipment. Enables detection of: Internal and external defects, cracks,porosity, blow holes, non-metallic inclusions, incomplete root penetration, excessive root penetration; burn through and undercut. Advdntages: Permanent record; can be carried out on most materials; little surface preparation; less reliant on operator skill. Limitations: Protection against harmful radiafion; skilled interpretation; orientation of planar defects; no indication of depth; limited thickness; expensive; large, iea.,y equipment; set up and processingtime; accessto both sides. Remurks: X-ray inspection is required by many codes and specifications; useful in qualification of welders and welding processes; becausi of health risk, its use should be limited to those areaswhere other methods will not provide the quality assruancerequired. Ultrasonic Testing (UT) Equipment required: Analogue and digital flaw detectors; various angled probes; calibration blocks; fully automated systems. Enables detection of: Surface and sub-surface flaws, including those too small to be detected by other methods; laminations: corrosion. Advantages: Very sensitive; can measure defect's depth; permits probing of joints inaccessible to radiography or too thick for radiography; only needs access from one side; lightweight and portable equipment which can be used in difficult access situations. Limitations: Requires high degree of skill in interpreting pulse echo patterns; no permanent record with manual scanning; good surface finish required; expensive. 90 Remurks: Pulse echo equipment is highly developed for weld inspection purposes; auto-ur, phasedanay and TOFD now extensiyely used on pipelines.

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Eddy Current Testing @T) Equipment required: Analogue and digital flaw detectors;probes; coils; comparator blocks. Enables detection of: Surfacebreaking cracks through non-conductive coatings; ferromagnetic and nonmagnetic materials. Advantages: very sensitive; can measure defect depth; lightrveight and portable equipment which can be used in difficult access situations; needto remove non-conductive no coatings. Limitations: High degree of operator skill; no permanent record for manual scanning; expensive;non-uniform geometry can causefalse readings. Remarks: Now being widely used to test welds offshore with rope access.

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