UNIT 1

"Biological diversity" or "biodiversity" can have many interpretations. It is most commonly used to replace the more clearly defined and long established terms, species diversity and species richness. Biologists [11][12] most often define biodiversity as the "totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region". An advantage of this definition is that it seems to describe most circumstances and presents a unified view of the traditional three levels at which biological variety has been identified: species diversity ecosystem diversity genetic diversity

In 2003 Professor Anthony Campbell at Cardiff University, UK and the Darwin Centre, Pembrokeshire, [13] defined a fourth level: Molecular Diversity. This multilevel construct is consistent with Dasmann and Lovejoy. An explicit definition consistent with this interpretation was first given in a paper by Bruce A. Wilcox commissioned by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) for the 1982 World National Parks [14] Conference. Wilcox's definition was "Biological diversity is the variety of life forms...at all levels of biological systems (i.e., molecular, organismic, population, species and ecosystem)...". The 1992 United Nations Earth Summit defined "biological diversity" as "the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, 'inter alia', terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of [15] [15] ecosystems". This definition is used in the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. One textbook's definition is "variation of life at all levels of biological organization".
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Geneticists define it as the diversity of genes and organisms. They study processes such [14] as mutations, gene transfer, and genome dynamics that generate evolution. Measuring diversity at one level in a group of organisms may not precisely correspond to diversity at other levels. However, tetrapod (terrestrialvertebrates) taxonomic and ecological diversity shows a very [ close correlation. Species diversity is the effective number of different species that are represented in a collection of individuals (a dataset). The effective number of species refers to the number of equally-abundant species needed to obtain the same mean proportional species abundance as that observed in the dataset of interest (where all species may not be equally abundant). Species diversity consists of two components, species richness and species evenness. Species richness is a simple count of species, [1][2][3] whereas species evenness quantifies how equal theabundances of the species are. Ecosystem diversity refers to the diversity of a place at the level of ecosystems. The term differs from biodiversity, which refers to variation in species rather than ecosystems. Ecosystem diversity can also refer to the variety of ecosystems present in a biosphere, the variety of species and ecological processes that occur in different physical settings. Genetic Diversity, the level of biodiversity, refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. It is distinguished from genetic variability, which describes the tendency of genetic characteristics to vary.

Genetic diversity serves as a way for populations to adapt to changing environments. With more variation, it is more likely that some individuals in a population will possess variations of alleles that are suited for the environment. Those individuals are more likely to survive to produce offspring bearing that allele. The [1] population will continue for more generations because of the success of these individuals. The academic field of population genetics includes several hypotheses and theories regarding genetic diversity. The neutral theory of evolution proposes that diversity is the result of the accumulation of neutral substitutions. Diversifying selection is the hypothesis that two subpopulations of a species live in different environments that select for different alleles at a particular locus. This may occur, for instance, if a species has a large range relative to the mobility of individuals within it. Frequency-dependent selection is the hypothesis that as alleles become more common, they become more vulnerable. This is often invoked in host-pathogen interactions, where a high frequency of a defensive allele among the host means that it is more likely that a pathogen will spread if it is able to overcome that allele.

Importance of genetic diversity

There are many different ways to measure genetic diversity. The modern causes for the loss of animal [2][3] genetic diversity have also been studied and identified. A 2007 study conducted by the National Science Foundation found that genetic diversity and biodiversity (Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem) ] are dependent upon each otherthat diversity within a species is necessary to maintain diversity among species, and vice versa. According to the lead researcher in the study, Dr. Richard Lankau, "If any one type is removed from the system, the cycle can break down, and [4] the community becomes dominated by a single species." The interdependence between genetic and biological diversity is delicate. Changes in biological diversity lead to changes in the environment, leading to adaptation of the remaining species. Changes in genetic [1] diversity, such as in loss of species, leads to a loss of biological diversity. By Proffessor Randy McLightning

Threats
Jared Diamond describes an "Evil Quartet" of habitat destruction, overkill, introduced species, and [79] secondary extinctions. Edward O. Wilson prefers the acronym HIPPO, standing for habitat destruction, [80][81] invasive species, pollution, human over population, and over-harvesting. The most authoritative [82] classification in use today is IUCNs Classification of Direct Threats which has been adopted by major international conservation organizations such as the US Nature Conservancy, the World Wildlife Fund, Conservation International, andBirdlife International. [edit]

Habitat destruction

Deforestation and increased road-building in the Amazon Rainforest are a significant concern because of increased human encroachment upon wild areas, increased resource extraction and further threats to biodiversity.

0Habitat destruction has played a key role in extinctions, especially related to tropical [83] forest destruction. Factors contributing to habitat loss [84] are: overpopulation, deforestation, pollution (air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination) and global [citation needed] warming or climate change. Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those living [85] at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area. Conversion to "trivial" standardized ecosystems (e.g., monoculture followingdeforestation) effectively destroys habitat for the more diverse species that preceded the conversion. In some countries lack of property rights or lax law/regulatory enforcement necessarily leads to biodiversity loss (degradation costs having to be [citation needed] supported by the community). A 2007 study conducted by the National Science Foundation found that biodiversity and genetic diversity are codependentthat diversity among species requires diversity within a species, and vice versa. "If any one type is removed from the system, the cycle can break down, and the community [86] becomes dominated by a single species." At present, the most threatened ecosystems are found in fresh water, according to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005, which was confirmed by the "Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment", organised by thebiodiversity platform, and the French Institut [87] de recherche pour le dveloppement (MNHNP). Co-extinctions are a form of habitat destruction. Co-extinction occurs when the extinction or decline in [88] one accompanies the other, such as in plants and beetles.

Unit 3

Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it
possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals, and infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions of carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere with positive results. Nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by lightning strikes and sulfur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions. The chemicals in acid rain can cause paint to peel, corrosion of steel structures such as bridges, and erosion of stone statues.

Emissions of chemicals leading to acidification

The most important gas which leads to acidification is sulfur dioxide. Emissions of nitrogen oxides which are oxidized to form nitric acid are of increasing importance due to stricter controls on emissions of sulfur containing compounds. 70 Tg(S) per year in the form of SO2 comes from fossil fuel combustion and [24] industry, 2.8 Tg(S) from wildfires and 7-8 Tg(S) per year from volcanoes.

Natural phenomena
The principal natural phenomena that contribute acid-producing gases to the atmosphere are emissions from volcanoes. Thus, for example, fumaroles from Laguna Caliente crater of Pos Volcano create extremely high amounts of acid rain and fog with acidity 2 of pH, clearing an area of any vegetation and [25] frequently causing irritation to the eyes and lungs of inhabitants in nearby settlements. Acid-producing gasses are created also by biological processes that occur on the land, in wetlands, and in the oceans. The major biological source of sulfur containing compounds is dimethyl sulfide. Nitric acid in rainwater is an important source of fixed nitrogen for plant life, and is also produced by electrical activity in the atmosphere such as lightning. Acidic deposits have been detected in glacial ice thousands of years old in remote parts of the globe.
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Soils of Coniferous forests are naturally very acidic due to the shedding of needles and this phenomenon should not be confused with acid rain.

Human activity

The coal-fired Gavin Power Plant inCheshire, Ohio

The principal cause of acid rain is sulfur and nitrogen compounds from human sources, such as electricity generation, factories, and motor vehicles. Coal power plants are one of the most polluting. The gases can be carried hundreds of kilometers in the atmosphere before they are converted to acids and deposited. In the past, factories had short funnels to let out smoke but this caused many problems locally; thus, factories now have taller smoke funnels. However, dispersal from these taller stacks causes pollutants to be carried farther, causing widespread ecological damage.

Adverse effects

This chart shows that not all fish, shellfish, or the insects that they eat can tolerate the same amount of acid; for example, frogs can tolerate water that is more acidic (i.e., has a lower pH) than trout.

Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing insect and aquatic life-forms as well as causing damage to buildings and having impacts on human health.

Surface waters and aquatic animals

Both the lower pH and higher aluminium concentrations in surface water that occur as a result of acid rain can cause damage to fish and other aquatic animals. At pHs lower than 5 most fish eggs will not hatch and lower pHs can kill adult fish. As lakes and rivers become more acidic biodiversity is reduced. Acid rain has eliminated insect life and some fish species, including the brook trout in some lakes, streams, and creeks in geographically sensitive areas, such as the Adirondack Mountains of the United [28] States. However, the extent to which acid rain contributes directly or indirectly via runoff from the catchment to lake and river acidity (i.e., depending on characteristics of the surrounding watershed) is variable. The United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) website states: "Of the lakes and streams surveyed, acid rain caused acidity in 75 percent of the acidic lakes and about 50 percent of the [28] acidic streams".

Soils
Soil biology and chemistry can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some microbes are unable to tolerate [29] changes to low pHs and are killed. The enzymes of these microbes are denatured (changed in shape so they no longer function) by the acid. The hydronium ions of acid rain also mobilize toxins such as [30] aluminium, and leach away essential nutrients and minerals such as magnesium. 2 H (aq) + Mg
+ 2+

(clay)

2 H (clay) + Mg

2+

(aq)

Soil chemistry can be dramatically changed when base cations, such as calcium and magnesium, are [31][32] leached by acid rain thereby affecting sensitive species, such as sugar maple(Acer saccharum).

Forests and other vegetation

Effect of acid rain on a forest, Jizera Mountains, Czech Republic

Adverse effects may be indirectly related to acid rain, like the acid's effects on soil (see above) or high concentration of gaseous precursors to acid rain. High altitude forests are especially vulnerable as they are often surrounded by clouds and fog which are more acidic than rain. Other plants can also be damaged by acid rain, but the effect on food crops is minimized by the application of lime and fertilizers to replace lost nutrients. In cultivated areas, limestone may also be added to increase the ability of the soil to keep the pH stable, but this tactic is largely unusable in the case of wilderness lands. When calcium is leached from the needles of red spruce, these trees [33][34] become less cold tolerant and exhibit winter injury and even death.

Human health effects

Acid rain does not directly affect human health. The acid in the rainwater is too dilute to have direct adverse effects. However, the particulates responsible for acid rain (sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) do have an adverse effect. Increased amounts of fine particulate matter in the air do [35] contribute to heart and lung problems including asthma and bronchitis.

Other adverse effects

Effect of acid rain on statues

Acid rain can also damage buildings and historic monuments and statues, especially those made of rocks, such as limestone and marble, that contain large amounts of calcium carbonate. Acids in the rain react with the calcium compounds in the stones to create gypsum, which then flakes off.

CaCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq)

CaSO4 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

The effects of this are commonly seen on old gravestones, where acid rain can cause the inscriptions to become completely illegible. Acid rain also increases the corrosion rate of metals, [36][37] in particular iron, steel, copper and bronze.

Affected areas
Places significantly impacted by acid rain around the globe include most of eastern Europe [38] [39] from Poland northward into Scandinavia, the eastern third of the United States, and southeastern Canada. Other affected areas include the southeastern coast [citation needed] of China andTaiwan.

Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s:
a steady decline of about 4% per decade in the total volume of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth's polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena, there are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events. The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning, but the most important [1] process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens. The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photodissociation of man-made halocarbonrefrigerants (CFCs, freons, halons). These compounds are transported into the stratosphere after being emitted at the [2] surface. Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halo-carbons increased. CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (280315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere, observed and projected decreases in ozone have generated worldwide concern leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs, halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane. It is suspected [3] that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion.

Global warming refers to the rising average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans,
which started to increase in the late 19th century and is projected to keep going up. Since the early 20th century, Earth's average surface temperature has increased by about 0.8 C (1.4 F), with about two [2] thirds of the increase occurring since 1980. Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and scientists are more than 90% certain that most of it is caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse [3][4][5][6] gases produced by human activities such as deforestation and burning fossil fuels. These findings [7][A] are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations. Climate model projections are summarized in the 2007 Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC). They indicate that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 1.1 to 2.9 C (2 to 5.2 F) for their lowest emissions

scenario and 2.4 to 6.4 C (4.3 to 11.5 F) for their highest. The ranges of these estimates arise from [9][10] the use of models with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations. An increase in global temperature will cause sea levels to rise and will change the amount and pattern [11] of precipitation, and a probable expansion of subtropical deserts. Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be associated with continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects of the warming include more frequent occurrence of extreme-weather events including heat waves, droughts and heavy rainfall, species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes, and changes in crop yields. Warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe, with [12] projections being more robust in some areas than others. If global mean temperature increases to 4 C (7.2 F) above preindustrial levels, the limits for human adaptation are likely to be exceeded in many parts of the world, while the limits for adaptation for natural systems would largely be exceeded throughout the world. Hence, the ecosystem services upon which human livelihoods depend would not be [13] preserved. Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate [14] Change (UNFCCC), whose ultimate objective is toprevent "dangerous" anthropogenic (i.e., human[15] induced) climate change. Parties to the UNFCCC have adopted a range of policies designed to reduce [16]:10[17][18][19]:9 greenhouse gas emissions and to assist in adaptation to global [16]:13[19]:10[20][21] warming. Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are [22] required, and that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 C (3.6 F)relative to the pre[22][B] industrial level. A 2011 report of analyses by the United Nations Environment [23] [24] Programme and International Energy Agency suggest that efforts as of the early 21st century to reduce emissions may be inadequately stringent to meet the UNFCCC's 2 C target.

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