PRACTICAL WORK BOOK For The Course Instrumentation & Measurement

For

Fourth Semester
(B.Sc Electrical Engineering)
Name: Roll No.
Complied by: Engr. Omara Hanif (Lab. Engineer)

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING LAB

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

University of Engineering & Technology, Taxila, Pakistan

EXPERIMENT # 1
OBJECTIVE:
Study of instruments and their symbols.

APPARATUS:
All laboratory instruments

THEORY:
Any device that converts the physical variable of interest into a form that can be recorded is termed as measuring instrument. The instrument that records or measures an electrical quantity is called an Electrical Instrument. The two major categories of measuring instrument are: 1. 2. Absolute Measuring Instruments Secondary Measuring Instruments Absolute instruments are those instruments that indicate the quantity to be measured in terms of the instrument constant. In order to convert these quantities into practical unit it is necessary to multiply the deflection of such instrument by the instrument constant. No previous calibrations or comparison is required in this case. The most typical absolute measured instrument is the tangential galvanometer, which gives the measuring current in terms of tangent of the deflected angle, the radius and the number of turns of the galvanometer. Such instrument rarely used today (In laboratories these instruments are used for standardizing other lab Instrument). Secondary instruments are those that give the value of the electrical quantities by their deflection, but only after they have been previously calibrated with the absolute instrument. Secondary instruments are further classified into following categories: 1. Indicating instruments 2. Recording instruments 3. Integrating instruments

PROCEDURE:
Note the symbols made on each instrument and study them.

OBSERVATIONS:
Instrument Symbols and Description

EXPERIMENT # 2
3

OBJECTIVE:
Calibration of Energy Meter.

APPARATUS:

Energy Meter Watt Meter Load Connecting wires

1 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
C.C

1 3

2 4 L O A D

AC

P.C

THEORY:
Calibration is the validation of specific measurement techniques and equipment. At the simplest level, calibration is a comparison between measurements-one of known magnitude or correctness made or set with one device and another measurement made in as similar a way as possible with a second device. The device with the known or assigned correctness is called the standard. The second device is the unit under test (UUT), test instrument (TI), or any of several other names for the device being calibrated. All the instruments which are calibrated in industry are compared with the standards of ISO 9001 and ISO 9002. ISO stands for International Organization for Standardization.

An electric meter or energy meter is a device that measures the amount of electrical energy consumed by a residence, business, or an electrically-powered device. The most common type of energy meter consists of an aluminum disk and a dial. Two tests are performed for the calibration of energy meter. Speed test (for the calibration of aluminum disk) Dial test (for the calibration of dial)

PROCEDURE:
SPPED TEST: This test is carried out to calibrate the disc of energy meter. 1. Connect the circuit according to the circuit diagram. 2. Switch on the power supply and note the number of revolutions (say 25 revolutions) of the disc for some time. 3. Note the reading of wattmeter and calculate True Energy by using formula. 4. Note the reading of energy meter and calculate the Observed Energy. 5. Calculate %age error between true and observed energy. Error should be within limits 3.5%. DIAL TEST: This test is performed for the calibration of dial of energy meter. 1. Connect the circuit according to the circuit diagram. 2. Note the initial reading of the dial and call it Initial Energy. 3. Switch on the power supply and note the dial reading after some time. Call it Final Energy. 4. The difference between these readings will give the Observed Energy. 5. Note the wattmeter reading and calculate the True Energy. 6. Calculate %age error. Error should be within limits 3.5%.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

SPEED TEST: N = No. of revolutions = R = Meter Constant = W = Wattmeter Reading = T = Time for N revolutions = ET = True Energy = (W x T) / (1000 x 60) = EO = Observed Energy = N / R = % Error = [(ET EO) / ET] x 100 = DIAL TEST: EI = Initial Energy = EF = Final Energy = T = Time for which energy meter is turned on = EO = Observed Energy = EF EI = ET = True Energy = (W x T) / (1000 x 60) = % Error = [(ET EO) / ET] x 100 =

CONCLUSION & COMMENTS: _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________

PRECAUTIONS:
While dealing with electric circuits handle the apparatus carefully. Make sure the connections are tight. Observe the readings carefully.

EXPERIMENT # 3
OBJECTIVE:
Use of C.T. and P.T. to Extend the Range of Ammeter, Voltmeter and Wattmeter.

APPARATUS:

Current Transformer Potential Transformer Ammeter Voltmeter Wattmeter Load Connecting wires

1 1 1 1 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Ip

Is A

L O A D

Current Transformer

Vp 220 V AC

Vs

Potential Transformer Ip

Is Vp Vs V P.C C.C A L O A D

Power Transformer

THEORY:
Instrument transformers are used for measuring voltage and current in electrical power systems, and for power system protection and control. Where a voltage or current is too large to be conveniently used by an instrument, it can be scaled down to a standardized, low value. Instrument transformers isolate measurement, protection and control circuitry from the high currents or voltages present on the circuits being measured or controlled. A current transformer is a transformer designed to provide a current in its secondary coil proportional to the current flowing in its primary coil. Care must be taken that the secondary of a current transformer is not disconnected from its load while current is flowing in the primary, as the transformer secondary will attempt to continue driving current across the effectively infinite impedance. This will produce a high voltage across the open secondary (into the range of several kilovolts in some cases), which may cause arcing. The high voltage produced will compromise operator and equipment safety and permanently affect the accuracy of the transformer. In current transformer, the secondary current is in the range of 0 5A. Primary and secondary currents are related by CT Ratio. CT Ratio = Ip/Is And the line current is given by: IL = (Reading of Ammeter) x (CT Ratio)

Voltage transformers (VTs), also referred to as "potential transformers" (PTs), are designed to have an accurately known transformation ratio in both magnitude and phase, over a range of measuring circuit impedances. A voltage transformer is intended to present a negligible load to the supply being measured. The low secondary voltage allows protective relay equipment and measuring instruments to be operated at a lower voltages. Care must be taken that the secondary of a voltage transformer is not short circuited, as the transformer secondary will attempt to drive a large current across the effectively zero impedance. The high current will compromise operator and equipment safety and permanently affect the accuracy of the transformer. In voltage transformer, the secondary voltage is in the range of 0 150V. Primary and secondary voltages are related by PT Ratio. PT Ratio = Vp/Vs And the line voltage is given by: VL = (Reading of Voltmeter) x (PT Ratio) Extension in range of wattmeter can be made by using voltmeter, ammeter, CT and PT. Line power is given by: WL = (Reading of wattmeter) x (Multiplying constant) x (CT Ratio) x (PT Ratio)

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram.

2. Connect potential coil of wattmeter in parallel to voltmeter and secondary of P.T. 3. Connect current coil of wattmeter in series with ammeter and secondary of C.T. 4. Connect primary of P.T. in parallel to AC source and load while primary of C.T is connected in series with the load. 5. Switch on the power supply. Set C.T and P.T ratios. Vary the load and note the corresponding readings of ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter. 6. Change the C.T and P.T ratios and vary load. Again note the corresponding readings of ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter. 7. Calculate actual current, voltage and power delivered by AC source.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Sr. No. V (V) I (A) W (W) C.T. Ratio P.T. Ratio VL (V) IL (A) WL (W)

CONCLUSION & COMMENTS: _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________

PRECAUTIONS:
While dealing with electric circuits handle the apparatus carefully. Make sure the connections are tight. Observe the readings carefully.

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EXPERIMENT # 4
OBJECTIVE:
Calibration of Power Factor Meter.

APPARATUS:

Ammeter Voltmeter Wattmeter Power factor meter Resistive, Inductive and Capacitive Loads Connecting wires

1 1 1 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Watt Meter C.C A AC P.C V P.C L O A D Power Factor Meter C.C

THEORY:
Power factor is defined as the ratio of the average (or active) power to the apparent power (root-mean-square voltage times rms current) of an alternating-current circuit. Also known as phase factor.

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Power factor meter is an instrument used to indicate whether load currents and voltages are in time-phase with one another. The single-phase meter contains a fixed coil that carries the load current, and crossed coils that are connected to the load voltage. There is no spring to restrain the moving system, which takes a position to indicate the angle between the current and voltage. The scale can be marked in degrees or in power factor. The angle between the currents in the crossed coils is a function of frequency, and consequently each power-factor meter is designed for a single frequency and will be in error at all other frequencies. In this experiment the calibration of power factor meter is done by comparing it with a standard. Power factor obtained from formula is taken as standard here. cos' = W VI

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram. 2. Connect resistive load and switch on the supply. 3. Note corresponding readings of voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter and power factor meter. 4. Now connect inductive and capacitive loads respectively and repeat step 3. 5. Calculate power factor of each load using formula. 6. Calculate %age error. Error should not exceed 6%.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

For Resistive Load: Sr. No. V (V) I (A) W (W) cos cos=W/VI %E

For Inductive Load: Sr. No. V (V) I (A) W (W) cos cos=W/VI %E

12

For Capacitive Load: Sr. No. V (V) I (A) W (W) cos cos=W/VI %E

CONCLUSION & COMMENTS: _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________

PRECAUTIONS:
While dealing with electric circuits handle the apparatus carefully. Make sure the connections are tight. Observe the readings carefully.

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EXPERIMENT # 5
OBJECTIVE:
Measurement of Resistance using Wheatstone Bridge.

APPARATUS:
Wheatstone bridge Unknown resistance Connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
A Wheatstone bridge is a measuring instrument used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component. In circuit diagram Rx is the unknown resistance to be measured; R1, R2 and R3 are resistors of known resistance and the resistance of R2 is adjustable. If the ratio of the two resistances in the known leg (R2 / R1) is equal to the ratio of the two in the unknown leg (Rx / R3), then the voltage between the two midpoints (B and D) will be zero and no current will flow

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through the galvanometer Vg. R2 is varied until this condition is reached. The direction of the current indicates whether R2 is too high or too low. Detecting zero current can be done to extremely high accuracy. Therefore, if R1, R2 and R3 are known to high precision, then Rx can be measured to high precision. Very small changes in Rx disrupt the balance and are readily detected. At the point of balance, the ratio of R2 / R1 = Rx / R3 Therefore, Alternatively, if R1, R2, and R3 are known, but R2 is not adjustable, the voltage difference across or current flow through the meter can be used to calculate the value of Rx, using Kirchhoff's circuit laws (also known as Kirchhoff's rules). This setup is frequently used in strain gauge and resistance thermometer measurements, as it is usually faster to read a voltage level off a meter than to adjust a resistance to zero the voltage.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the bridge terminal Rx to the unknown resistor. 2. Select a ratio R2/R1. If you know the range of Rx select R2/R1 near to a Rx for the maximum sensitivity of the bridge. If you dont know anything about Rx select R1=1K and R2=1K. 3. Push the button M and check the movement of the pointer of the null detector. 4. If the pointer is out of the range put the sensitivity knob SENS on 1/K. 5. Rotate the knob R3 until the pointer of the galvanometer goes to zero. 6. Now increase the sensitivity of the galvanometer (SENS to 1/100, 1/10,1/1) and, adjust the reference resistor R3, to obtain again the zero of the galvanometer. 7. With the maximum sensitivity and the galvanometer on the zero division we have the following formula: Rx = (R2/R1) x R3 () When: R1 = resistance of the arm R1 R2 = resistance of the arm R2 R3 = reference resistor when the pointer of the galvanometer is on the zero division.

15

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Sr. No. R2/R1 R3 () Rx=(R2/R1)xR3 () R(actual) () %E

CONCLUSION & COMMENTS: _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________

PRECAUTIONS:
While dealing with electric circuits handle the apparatus carefully. Make sure the connections are tight. Observe the readings carefully.

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EXPERIMENT # 6
OBJECTIVE:
Calibration of Wattmeter by Phantom Method.

APPARATUS:
LVHI T/F HVLI T/F Ammeter Voltmeter Wattmeter Current controlling resistor (CCR) Connecting wires 1 1 1 1 2

THEORY:
The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power (or the supply rate of electrical energy) in watts of any given circuit. Calibration of wattmeter is done by various methods. Here we will calibrate wattmeter by Phantom Loading. The phantom loading is that no external load is connected in actual sense and the current and pressure coils are connected seperatly so that it will consume only less power. In this connection the voltage across pressure coil will be supply voltage. OR Method by which energizing the pressure coil circuit and current coil circuits separately is called phantom loading.

17

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
AC SUPPLY LVHI T/F A CCR CC1 CC2

HVLI T/F

PC1

PC2

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram. 2. For the calibration of current coil of wattmeter, vary the voltage while keeping the current at a constant value of 5A. 3. Note the corresponding readings of both wattmeters and calculate %Error. 4. For the calibration of potential coil of wattmeter, the current is varied by using current controlling resistor while voltage is kept constant at a fixed value of 220V. 5. Repeat step 3.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

I = 5A Sr. No. V (V) WS (W) WT (W) %E

18

V = 220V Sr. No. V (V) WS (W) WT (W) %E

CONCLUSION & COMMENTS: _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________

PRECAUTIONS:
While dealing with electric circuits handle the apparatus carefully. Make sure the connections are tight. Observe the readings carefully.

19

EXPERIMENT # 7
OBJECTIVE:
Study of LCR or Maxwell Bridge.

APPARATUS:
LCR bridge meter

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

C1 R1 AC

R2

R3 Rx

Lx

THEORY:
A Maxwell Bridge, also known as the Maxwell-Wien Bridge, is an AC bridge circuit used for measuring an unknown inductance in terms of a known capacitance by balancing the loads of its four arms, one of which contains the unknown inductance. For AC bridge to balance, the impedance ratios of each branch must be equal:

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The impedance quantities in the above equation are complex, accounting for both magnitude and phase angle. It is insufficient that the impedance magnitudes alone be balanced; without phase angles in balance as well, there will still be voltage across the terminals of the null detector and the bridge will not be balanced. As shown in circuit diagram, one arm of the Maxwell bridge consists of a capacitor in parallel with a resistor (C1 and R1) and another arm consists of an inductor Lx in series with a resistor (Lx and Rx). The other two arms just consist of a resistor each (R2 and R3). The values of R2 and R3 are known, and R1 and C1 are both adjustable. The unknown values are those of Lx and Rx. Like other bridge circuits, the measuring ability of a Maxwell Bridge depends on 'balancing' the circuit. Balancing the circuit in Figure means adjusting C1 and R1 until the current through the bridge between points A and B becomes zero. This happens when the voltages at points A and B are equal. When the Maxwell Bridge is balanced, it follows that Rx = R2R3/R1 And Lx = R2R3C1

Note that the balancing of a Maxwell Bridge is independent of the source frequency. One type of inductance measuring device is a multifunction meter, such as an inductance/capacitance/resistance (LCR) meter. The LCR meter uses a principle of a balancing bridge or an auto balancing bridge. The measurement device excites the inductor using built-in signal generator and bridge balancing technique to measure the value of impedance of the inductor. Specifically, in an LCR meter, the signal source is a sinusoidal wave, whereas in a real operating environment, the signal may be a square wave with a high voltage and a high current component.

PROCEDURE:
1. 2. 3. 4. Connect the unknown inductance to the bridge meter. Turn on the meter. Set the parameter, frequency, display and range. Set the indirect functions. Indirect functions are Clear 0, Sorting, Auto-LCZ, Buzzer, Change cursor, Advanced set, and State save & exit. Press setup key to enter menu in measurement state. Pressing setup key again, the instrument returns back to the measurement state. 5. Select the appropriate settings. The value of unknown inductance will be displayed on the LCD screen.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Value of the unknown inductance =
21

CONCLUSION & COMMENTS: _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________

PRECAUTIONS:
While dealing with electric circuits handle the apparatus carefully. Make sure the connections are tight. Observe the readings carefully.

22

EXPERIMENT # 8
OBJECTIVE:
To Measure Single Phase Power by Three Voltmeter Method.

APPARATUS:

Ammeter Voltmeter Wattmeter Resistor Inductive load Connecting wires

1 3 1 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
A AC V1 R V2 C.C r P.C L V3

V1 I V2

V3 V3cos

V3sin

THEORY:

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Power may be defined as the rate at which energy is transformed. In almost all cases the power in a d.c. circuit is best measured by separately measuring quantities, V and I and by computing P=VI. In case of a.c. circuits the instantaneous power varies continuously as the current and voltage go through a cycle of values. The fact that the power factor is involved in the expression for the power means that a wattmeter must be used instead of merely an ammeter and voltmeter. However, single phase power may be measured by 3 Voltmeter method. Power and power factor are calculated using following relations. P= V32 V12 V22 2R V32 V12 V22 2V1V2

cos =

3 Voltmeter methods have following disadvantages.

Even small errors in measurement of voltages may cause serious errors in the value of power, Supply voltage higher than normal voltage is required.

This method is not of practical importance due to high degree of errors.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram. 2. Switch on the power supply and measure I, V1, V2, V3and PL as shown by wattmeter. 3. Calculate PL and Power factor by using formulae. 4. Find %error between PL and PL. 5. Vary resistance or inductive load and repeat above steps.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Sr. No. I (A) V1 (V) V2 (V) V3 (V) PL = (V12-V22V32)xI/2V2 (W) cos= (V12V22-V32) / 2V2V3 PL (W)

%E

24

CONCLUSION & COMMENTS: _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________

PRECAUTIONS:
While dealing with electric circuits handle the apparatus carefully. Make sure the connections are tight. Observe the readings carefully.

25

EXPERIMENT # 9
OBJECTIVE:
To Measure Single Phase Power by Three Ammeter Method.

APPARATUS:
Ammeter Voltmeter Wattmeter Resistor Inductive load Connecting wires 3 1 1 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
C.C R AC V A2 A1 A3 P.C L r

I2 I1

I3cos I3 I3sin

26

THEORY:
Like 3 Voltmeter method, 3 Ammeter method is also used for the measurement of single phase power. The disadvantages of measurement of power by 3 voltmeters are overcome in this method. The relations for the measurement of power and power factor are as follows. R 2 P = I 32 I12 I 2 2 2 I 32 I12 I 2 cos = 2 I1 I 2

The accuracy of this method is higher than 3 Voltmeter method.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram. 2. Switch on the power supply and measure V, I1, I2, I3and PL as shown by wattmeter. 3. Calculate PL and Power factor by using formulae. 4. Find %error between PL and PL. 5. Vary resistance or inductive load and repeat above steps.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Sr. No. V (V) I1 (A) I2 (A) I3 (A) PL = (I12-I22I32)xV/2I2 (W) cos= (I12-I22I32) / 2I2I3 PL (W) %E

CONCLUSION & COMMENTS: _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________

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PRECAUTIONS:
While dealing with electric circuits handle the apparatus carefully. Make sure the connections are tight. Observe the readings carefully.

EXPERIMENT # 10

OBJECTIVE:
To Measure Inductance by CRO.

APPARATUS:
Ammeter Function Generator Inductor Coil CRO Connecting wires 1 1 1 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
A R L CRO FUNC. GEN.

THEORY:
The characteristics of an inductor are dependent on the current and voltage source excitation signal, wave shape, and frequency of operation, which may vary in real time operating conditions. Inductance measuring devices typically utilize simulation techniques, such as subjecting the inductor to a known excitation signal having a controlled current and voltage source, wave shape, and frequency of operation to measure the inductance.

28

One technique for measuring inductance is by oscilloscope. In this method voltage waveform is obtained on CRO and calculations are performed to find Z. Inductance is then calculated using following relation. L= 1 2f Z 2 R2

Measurement of inductance using bridge circuits is more accurate method than this one.

PROCEDURE:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram. Set the function generator to produce sine wave at a frequency of, say 200 Hz. Note corresponding readings of current and Vp-p in table. Calculate Vmax, Vrms, f, Z and L using formulae. R is obtained by using ohmmeter or multimeter. Repeat the above procedure using different coils.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Sr. No. f (Hz) I (A) Vp-p (V) Vmax Vrms = (V) V max 2 Z= Vrms Irms () R () L= 1 Z 2 R2 2f (mH)

(V)

CONCLUSION & COMMENTS: _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________

PRECAUTIONS:
While dealing with electric circuits handle the apparatus carefully. Make sure the connections are tight.
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Observe the readings carefully.

EXPERIMENT # 11
OBJECTIVE:
Study of Kelvin Bridge.

APPARATUS:
Ammeter Function Generator Inductor Coil CRO Connecting wires 1 1 1 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

30

THEORY:
If a standard Wheatstone bridge is used to measure low resistance, it would look something like this:

31

When the null detector indicates zero voltage, the bridge is balanced and the ratios Ra/Rx and RM/RN are mathematically equal to each other. Knowing the values of Ra, RM, and RN therefore provides the necessary data to solve for Rx. There is a problem, in that the connections and connecting wires between Ra and Rx possess resistance as well, and this stray resistance may be substantial compared to the low resistances of Ra and Rx. These stray resistances will drop substantial voltage, given the high current through them, and thus will affect the null detector's indication and thus the balance of the bridge Since there is no need to measure these stray wire and connection resistances, but only measure Rx, there must be some way to connect the null detector so that it won't be influenced by voltage dropped across them. A specialized version of the Wheatstone bridge network designed to eliminate, or greatly reduce, the effect of lead and contact resistance, and thus permit accurate measurement of low resistance is called Kelvin Bridge. Also known as double bridge, Kelvin network or Thomson Bridge. As with the Wheatstone bridge, the Kelvin bridge for routine engineering measurements is constructed using both adjustable-ratio arms and adjustable standards. However, the ratio is usually continuously adjustable, over a short span, and the standard is adjustable in appropriate steps to cover the required range.

PROCEDURE:
1. Place the BA switch to OFF position, open the Rx terminals. 2. Set the GA sensitivity dial to CH position. By doing this check that the galvanometer driving battery is good. When the pointer of the galvanometer deflects to the blue zone on the scale, this shows that the battery is good. 3. Set the GA sensitivity dial to G2, and check that the galvanometer indication is in the zero adjusting screw of the galvanometer to obtain a true zero point. 4. Connect an unknown resistance to the Rx terminal. 5. Select a multiplying factor by using the plug, to fit the approximating value of the unknown resistance. 6. Turn the BA switch ON. 7. Set the measuring dial to a position near the center, push the GA button switch momentarily, and observe the galvanometer. If the deflection is on the (+) side, increase the dial value to obtain zero indication by repeating the above operation. When the indication comes near the zero position, push and turn the GA button switch either clockwise or counter clockwise, to lock the switch. Then, move the

32

measuring dial to obtain zero indication on the galvanometer. If the indication is on the (-) side in the beginning of this adjustment, reduce the dial value and obtain zero indication in the same manner as above. If more sensitivity is required, select G1 position first, and then G0. 8. When the galvanometer indication comes to zero through adjustment of the measuring dial, the resistance value of Rx is calculated from the following equation. Rx = (indication on the measuring dial) x (multiplying factor) 9. When measurement is finished, first release the GA button switch. Then turn off the BA switch and set GA sensitivity dial to GA OFF position.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Indication on the measuring dial = Multiplying factor = Rx =

CONCLUSION & COMMENTS: _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________

PRECAUTIONS:
While dealing with electric circuits handle the apparatus carefully. Make sure the connections are tight. Observe the readings carefully.

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