Class 3

Theory and Research

Social Research Roadmap

Hypothesis supported? Reasoning

Theory

Empirical Generalizations Data

Data analysis

Hypothesis

Operationalization Measurement Sampling

Paradigms
Paradigm (theoretical perspectives): A set of beliefs that guide scientific work in an area, including unquestioned presuppositions and accepted theories. Paradigms tell us what questions are important to ask about the social world and what are trivial pursuits. Paradigm shift, scientific revolution

Functionalism
A social entity, such as an organization or a whole society, can be viewed as an organism. All parts of a society--institutions, roles, norms, etc.--serve a purpose. Durkheims mechanical and organic solidarity Mertons manifest function and latent function

Conflict Theory
Karl Marx suggested that social behavior could be seen as the process of conflict: the attempt to dominate and avoid being dominated. Marx focused on the struggle among economic classes. It also applies to gender and race conflicts. Overemphasis on the tensions and divisions between the groups in a society. Overemphasis on economic factors as the driving force of human actions.

Symbolic Interactionism
Interactions revolve around the process of individuals reaching understanding through language and other such systems. Can lend insights into the nature of interactions in ordinary social life, and help understand unusual forms of interaction. Simmel, Mead, and Cooley Example How are girls and boys treated differently in the classroom? Do children become genderized in this process?

Rational Choice
Rational choice theorists explain individual behavior in terms of cost/benefit calculations. Prevalent in economics. Examples
Top-loading or front-loading washer? How do people decide whether they should go to college or not?

Feminism
Focuses on gender differences and how they relate to the rest of social organization. Draws attention to the oppression of women in many societies. Examples
Why are female professors paid less than male professors? Why are women less represented in the fields of science and engineering?

Comparison of Paradigms
A. Imagine that youre visiting a city for the first time, what kind of an overview will a _______ tour guide give you? 1. Functionalist 2. Conflict 3. Symbolic interactionist B. Think about immigration. What issues are likely to be examined under the functionalist (conflict, and interactionist, feminist, rational choice) paradigm?

Social Research Philosophies

Positivism
A belief that there is a reality external to us that we can understand through empirical research. Auguste Comte

Interpretivism and Constructivism

Social reality is socially constructed and that the goal is to understand the meanings people give to reality. Max Weber verstehen

Positivism vs. Interpretivism

One reality out there Social science modeled after natural science Seeking causal explanations, generalization Detached, objective researcher; value free Quantitative data & methods Multiple realities, socially-constructed realities Seeking understanding, situation specific Researcher as a participant; emphasis on personal experience Qualitative data & methods

Theory and Hypothesis

Theory: a systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of life. Hypothesis: a testable expectation about empirical reality derived from a theory, involving a relationship between two or more variables.

Example 1: Abusing Spouse

Rational Choice Theoretical perspective
Peoples behavior is shaped by calculations of the costs of benefits of their actions.

Symbolic Interactionism
People give symbolic meanings to objects, behaviors, and other people.

Criminological component

Deterrence theory: People break the law if the benefits of doing so outweigh the costs.

Labeling theory: People label offenders as deviant, promoting further deviance.

Prediction (effect of arrest on domestic assault)

Abusing spouse, having seen the costs of abuse (arrest), decides not to abuse again.

Abusing spouse, having been labeled as an abuser, abuses more often.

Example 2: Why Is Education Positively Related to Earnings?

Rational Choice Theoretical perspective
Peoples behavior is shaped by calculations of the costs of benefits of their actions.

Conflict Theory
Economic classes attempt to dominate and avoid being dominated.

Mechanism

Employers are willing to pay more salaries to more productive workers.

The lack of educational credentials keep the havenots out of desirable jobs.

Prediction (effect of education on pay)

Educated workers receive higher pay.

Two Logical Systems

Deduction - Moves from a general theoretical premise to specific expectations (hypotheses). Examples: determine the date of eclipse Induction Moves from specific observations to the discovery of general pattern or explanation. Example: statistical inference

The Interaction between Deduction and Induction

Theory Deduction

Empirical Generalizations Induction Data

Hypothesis

From Empirical Generalizations to Explanations

Example: Why Do Asian Americans Earn Less than Whites?
Empirical Generalizations
Asian Americans earn less than whites with the same qualifications.

Explanation
Asian Americans face racial discrimination in the labor market.

U.S.-born Asians have the same earnings as whites. Only Asian immigrants face an earnings disadvantage.

AA earn less than whites because immigrants face difficulties assimilating into mainstream society.

AA with U.S. educational credentials have the same earnings as whites. Only Asian immigrants who were educated in foreign countries earn less.

AA earn less than whites because foreign human capital is worth less than domestic human capital.

Summary
Social Science Paradigms Theory and Hypothesis Research Philosophies: Positivism and Interpretivism Induction and Deduction The Links Between Theory and Research