Page 4: 1.Unwinding 2.

Complementary pairing up of the nucleotide bases

At Ta CG GC

Nulcues Mitosis One strand is saved and another strand is newly made.

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1. 1. Initiation:

RNA polymerase binds to DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides called the promoter. The promoter contains an initiation site where transcription of the gene begins. RNA polymerase than unwinds DNA at the beginning of the gene. 2.Elongation: Only one of the unmound DNA strands acts as a template for the RNA synthesis. RNA polymerase can only add nucleotids to the 3' end of the strand so like DNA, RNA must be synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction. Free ribonucleotides triphosphates from the cytoplasm are paired up with their commplementary base on the exposed DNA template. RNA polymerase joins the ribonucleoside triphosphates to form an mRNA strand. As RNA polymerase advances, the process continues. The DNA that has been transcribed, re-winds to form a double helix. Termination: RNA polymerase continues to elongate until it reaches the terminator, a specific sequence of nucleotides that signals the end of transcription. Transcription stops and mRNA polymerase and the new mRNA transcript are released from DNA. The DNA double helix reforms. The termination sequence usually consists of a series of adjancent adenines preceded by a nucleotide palindrome. This gives an RNA molecule that assumes a stem-and loop configuration. This configuration stops RNA polymerase from transcribing any further.

AU UA Cg Gc

Ribose

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1. The ribosome binds to mRNA at a specific area. 2. The ribosome starts matching tRNA anticodon sequences to the mRNA codon sequence.

3. Each time a new tRNA comes into the ribosome, the amino acid that it was carrying gets added to the elongating polypeptide chain. 4. The ribosome continues until it hits a stop sequence, then it releases the polypeptide and the mRNA.

au ua cg gc

ribosomes

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Introduction
DNA-based paternity determinations are carried out by biotechnology companies such as Genetic Design, Inc., of Greensboro, N.C. The standard method is to analyze samples from the mother, the child, and the alleged father. Occasionally, however, the alleged father is deceased and did not (unlike Megabucks) prudently leave behind a blood sample for future DNA typing needs. In these cases, biotechnologists type DNA from known relatives of the alleged father, such as his acknowledged children or his parents. The DNA profiles are compared. Since two people who share the same father will have many more bands in common than two randomly selected individuals, it is possible, with careful analysis, to determine paternity on the basis of DNA profiles from a man's close relatives. A particularly poignant application of DNA testing occurred in Argentina. During the Argentine military's brutal rule (1976 through 1983), many families were torn apart. Often, parents were murdered, and their children were given away or sold. In other cases, parents were dragged away to prison, unwillingly leaving their babies to uncertain fates. Now that Argentina has a new government, the relatives of these kidnapped or disappeared children are trying desperately to find them. Many of the relatives are women whose children were murdered and who are now seeking their missing grandchildren. DNA testing has established the identities of dozens of formerly missing children, allowing them to be reunited with their relatives. "Genes of War" (Discover, October 1990, p. 4652) is a story about the work of Dr. Mary-Claire King, the scientist who has been instrumental in helping the Argentinian families find their lost relatives. Dr. King used mitochondrial DNA (see the introduction to chapter 24) in her analyses. Because the parents of the lost children had often been murdered, DNA from more distant suspected relatives was usually the only evidence available for comparison. Since mitochondrial DNA is passed on through the females in a family lineage, a child's mitochondrial DNA profile exactly matches the profile from her mother's mother, all of her mother's siblings, and the children of her mother's sisters.

Gel electrophoresis refers to using a gel as an anticonvective medium and or sieving medium during electrophoresis. Gel electrophoresis is most commonly used for separation of biological macromolecules such as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA), or protein; however, gel electrophoresis can be used for separation of nanoparticles.

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The main goals of the Human Genome Project were to provide a complete and accurate sequence of the 3 billion DNA base pairs that make up the human genome and to find all of the estimated 20,000 to 25,000 human genes. The Project also aimed to sequence the genomes of several other organisms that are important to medical research, such as the mouse and the fruit fly.
To publish the first human genome graph of all the DNA. Cloning is creating an exact copy of one thing. It is done by taking only the mom part of a fertizled egg and keeping it in the egg and taking out the dad part.

Stem Cells are cells that are found in multicellular organisms There are many differnet stem cells.