Einfhrung iE Forms of development

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Development as fundamental or structural change for example, an increase in income Development as an intervention and action, aimed at improvement, regardless of whether betterment is, in fact, actually achieved Development as improvement, with good as the outcome Development as the platform for improvement encompassing changes that will facilitate development in the future

Advantages of development Economic growth National progress Modernization along Western lines Improvement of basic needs Creation of sustainable growth Improved governance

Disadvantages of development Dependent and subordinate process Creating and widening inequalities Undermines local cultures and values Poverty, poor working and living conditions Environmentally unsustainable Undermines human rights and democracy

Colonialism Direct political control and administration of an overseas territory by a foreign state New colonial or neo-colonial role by Truman within the newly independent countries that were emerging from the process of decolonization. He was encouraging the so-called underdeveloped nations to recognize their condition and to turn to the USA for long-term assistance. Modernism Defined as the belief that development is all about transforming traditional countries into modern, westernized nations. The genesis of much modern(ist) development theory and practice lay in the period between 1945 and 1955 Trusteeship Defined as the holding of property on behalf of another person or group, with the belief that the latter will better be able to look after it themselves at some time in the future. There was little recognition that many traditional societies might in fact have been content with the ways of life they already led. Indeed, development strategist often tried to persuade them otherwise. Other writers recognize that the origins of modern development lay in an earlier period linked with the rise of rationalism and humanism in the 18s and 19s century. During this period, the simple definition of Carina Autengruber

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development as change became transformed into what was seen as a more directed and logical form of evolution. The period when these changes took place is known as the enlightenment. In general it refers to a period of European intellectual history that continued through most the 18s century. Enlightenment thinking stressed the belief that science and rational thinking could progress human groups from barbarism to civilization. Enlightenment thinking Empiricism (Gaining knowledge through observation) Concept of universal science and reason Idea of orderly progress Championing of new freedoms Ethic of secularism (the belief that religion should not be involved in the organization of society, education etc.) Notion that all human being are essentially the same

Those who could not adapt to such views came to be thought of as traditional and backward. As an example of this, the Australian Aborigines were denied any rights to the land they occupied by the invading British in 1788 because they did not organize and farm it in a systematic, rational way that is in what was construed as a Western manner. Der 14. Juli ist Frankreichs Nationalfeiertag. Gefeiert wird der Beginn der Revolution von 1789, der das Land vom Feudalismus befreite und letztlich trotz vieler Rckschlge den Menschenrechten und der Demokratie zum Durchbruch verhalf. Der Sturm auf die Bastille, Symbol der Unterdrckung und Entrechtung, wurde das Fanal, auf das hin im ganzen Land der Aufstand gegen das verhasste Zwangssystem losbrach. Darwinism began to associate development with evolution. When combined with the rationality of Enlightenment thinking, the result became a narrower but correct way of development, one based on Western social theory. Progress was held to be typified by the unregulated chaos of pure capitalist industrialization. Development was representative of Christian order, modernization and responsibility. robbing people of different cultures of the opportunity to define the terms of their social life Esteva Conventional development: authoritative intervention Truman speech of 1949 a handicap and threat both to them and more prosperous areas greater production is the key to prosperity and peace. And the key to greater production is a wider and more vigorous application of modern scientific and technical knowledge. (((1949: Teilung Deutschlands wird besiegelt. Salazar gewinnt die Wahlen in Portugal. Brgerkrieg in China endet, der kommunistische Mao Tse-tung kommt an die Macht.))) Carina Autengruber

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Authoritative intervention: the provision of advice and aid programmes Post colonial theory

Arthur Lewis interpreted the modernizing mission it should be noted that our subject matter is growth and not distribution. In other words, increasing incomes and material wealth were seen as being of far more importance than making sure that such income was fairly or equitably spread within society. The earliest and for many still the most convenient way of quantifying underdevelopment has been through the lever of Gross National Product (GNP) per capita pertaining to a nation or territory. GNP per capita is a measured by the total domestic and foreign value added of a nation divided by its total population. The real problem with this measure is that it gives no indication of the distribution of national wealth between different groups within the population. Seers suggested the use of three criteria to measure comparative development: poverty, unemployment and inequality. Later on social indicators were broadened to incorporate measure of gender inequality, environmental quality and political and human rights. Critics for example, how

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does one measure human rights when cultural interpretations are not consistent (Drakakis-Smith, 1997) UNDP Human Development Index (HDI) HDI was introduced and developed by the United Nations. It measures the overall achievements in a country in three basic dimensions of human development: longevity, knowledge and a decent standard of living. How the HDI is calculated:

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Nobel prizewinner Douglas North seeks to confirm The modern western world provides abundant evidence of markets that work and even approximate the neo-classical ideal Third World countries are poor because the institutional constraints define a set of payrolls to political/economic activity that do not encourage productive activity. Amartya Sen was awarded for the Nobel Memorial Prize for Economic Science. He argues that development consists of the removal of various types of unfreedoms that leave people with little choice and little opportunity for exercising their reasoned agency. Sens focus is very much upon instrumental freedoms, that is those which allow us to live lives free from starvation, undernourishment, escapable morbidity, premature mortality, illiteracy and innumeracy. Being able to enjoy political participation and free speech are further vital freedoms. Sen critics that women are not enjoying the same substantive freedoms as men. They suffer from unfair food sharing and health care within household, and have little voice. Political freedoms: right to vote, existence of economic opportunities, social facilities, transparency within the society, protective security Eurocentricity (European Orientation): It is an economic development theory Eurocentricity criticism: Denigration (unfair criticism) of other people and places Ideological biases Lack of sensitivity to cultural variation Setting of ethical norms Stereotyping of other people and places Tendency towards deterministic (the belief that people are not free to choose what they are like or how they behave, because these things are decided by their surroundings and other things over which they have no control) formulations Tendency towards empiricism in analysis Tendency towards male orientation (sexism) Tendency towards reductionism (the belief that complicated things can be explained by considering them as a combination of simple parts) Tendency towards the building of grand theories Underlying tones of racial superiority Unilinearity Universalism

Ultimately development: Improvement of life chances of people.

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Development as economic growth and development as enhancing freedoms

Anti-developmentalism: is based on the criticism that development is a Western construction in which the economic, social and political parameters of development are set by the West and are imposed on other countries in a neo-colonial mission to normalize and develop them in the image of the West. Social movement: territorially bases action, operating outside the formal political system, with the objective of defending or challenging the provisions of urban services against the interests and values of the dominant groups in society. Urban social movements (USMs): essentially local and non-political in origins, their effectiveness in improving the quality of life is strongly influenced by the broader social, political and economic contexts in which they are situated, not only at the urban level but at the regional, national and international levels as well. (Case study p. 17/18) Postmodernism: the cultural logic of late capitalism, effectively representing the new conservatism preoccupied with commodification, commercialization and cheap commercialization denies that history can be examined in a process of progression to higher levels of civilization. It sees history as a contingent succession of events, so that it is difficult to think in terms of goals. Spatialising development: the Third World/Developing World/Global South/Poor Countries: In the Cold War politics of the immediate post-war years, this notion of a third way was revived initially by the French Left, which was seeking a non-aligned path between Moscow and Washington. It is this concept of non-alignment that was seized upon by the newly independent states in the 1950s, led in particular by India, Yugoslavia and Egypt, and culminating in the first major conference of non-aligned nations held in Bandung in Indonesia in 1955. Indeed, at one point Bandungia appeared to be a possibility for their collective title. (LA countries were not present in Carina Autengruber

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Bandung.) Friedmann claim that as a result of this meeting the Third World was an invention of the non-western world. Peter Worsely played a major role in the popularization of the term Third World. For him the term was essentially political, labeling a group of nations with a colonial heritage from which they had recently escaped and to which they had no desire to return within the ambit of new forms of colonialism, or neo-colonialism. More over Bandung and Worsley excluded the communist countries. In the mid 1980s, before the collapse of the Second World, Thrift and Forbes listed the attributes of a socialist government as follows: One-party rule Egalitarian goals High or increasing degree of state ownership of industry and agriculture Collectivization of agriculture Centralized economic control

The socialist Third World in the 1980s

The 1970s: Rise of price for petrol by OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) conceived as a political weapon against the West for its support of Israel, the price rise had a much greater effect on the non-oil-producing countries of the developing world. Capital investment via multinational corporations and financial institutions poured out of Europe and North America in search of industrial investment opportunities in developing countries (four Asian tigers plus Mexico and Brazil).

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Newsweek identified four worlds, the Third world comprised those developing countries significant economic potential and the Fourth World consisted of the hardship cases. Time magazine, 5-world classification in which the Third world contained those states with important natural resources, the Fourth World were the newly industrializing countries (NICs) and the Fifth World comprised what were clearly regarded as the basket cases. The term Fourth World was also used to describe underdeveloped regions within developed nations (ex. Aborigines, Inuit)

The 1980s: the lost decade for development in the Third world Developed countries were classified by their dominant mode of industrial production. Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union were politically identified as centrally planned Non-oil-exporting developing countries were divided on the basis of wealth into low- and middle-income states. Lord Bauer expressed it like this the Third World is the creation of foreign aid; without foreign aid there is no Third World. In the eyes of Marxists there were only two worlds, those of capitalism and Marxian socialism. North-South labeling received and enormous boost with the publication of the Brandt Report (criticism: wealthy developed part and another underdeveloped bottom half; lacked explanatory power). Core and periphery model by Wallerstein; Semi-periphery gives another division of the world into three sections that are still bound together by the overarching operations of capitalism The World Bank, the IMF and the regional banks began to impose what are referred to as structural adjustment programmes (SAPs economic austerity packages for countries who wanted financial loans and aid) on the Third World.

Models in the 1980s: North and South; core, periphery and semi-periphery

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Einfhrung iE The 1990s

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The emergence of regional economic blocs in the image of the European Union, such a NAFTA (North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement) and APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) to protect their member states, cut across the traditional boundaries of the three worlds Sachs stated that the scrapyard (Schrottplatz) of history now awaits the category Third World to be dumped. Corbridge joined with others in questioning the current validity of the term the Third World Friedmann also rejected the term in favor of a focus on people rather than places

Progress in development from the 1970s to the 2000s Increased life expectancy Less illiteracy Higher income More human freedom

An unequal world In 1960 the ratio of the income of the worlds richest 20 per cent of the population to the income of the worlds poorest 20 per cent stood at 30:1. By 1980 this ratio had widened considerably to 45:1. In 1960, East Asia and the Pacific, South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa and the least developed countries all had average per capita incomes that amounted to around one-ninth to one-tenth of those of the high-income countries of the OECD. Between 1960 and 1998, East Asia experienced a major improvement in incomes, increasing over the period to nearly one-fifth of OECD levels. During the 1980s and 1990s, the average income pertaining to South Asia improved significantly, having shown relative declines earlier, staying at an average income level of around one-tenth that of the OECD nations. The average incomes of East Asian and Pacific nations have shown convergence (narrow) on those of the rich nations, divergence (wide) in average incomes has been true of sub-Saharan Africa and the least developed nations Despite a reduction in the relative differences between many countries, absolute gaps in per capita income have increased during the period 1960 1998. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 2000 2015: poverty development and the future The MDGs were formally adopted at the General Assembly of the UN held in NY on 18 September 2000. The eight overarching goals, each to be achieved by 2015:

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In respect of the majority of targets viewed by continental division (some 100 out of 160), the outcome looks set to be negative by 2015, judging by present progress. The biggest number of missed targets are likely to be encountered namely in sub-Saharan Africa, followed by Oceania, commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Asia and Western Asia. Development and anti-development are extremely important concepts for they exist in a global context where differences in wealth, opportunity and choice appear to be widening at their extremes rather than narrowing. Aftermath of the events of 11 September 2001, Bill Clinton argued that we in the wealthy countries have to spread the benefits of the 21st century world and reduce the risks so we can make more partners and fewer terrorists in the future. Clinton observes that over half the world are excluded from the benefits of the new global economy and he asks what kind of economy leaves half the people behind?

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Concluding issues: geography, development and distant others: McGee emphasizes globalization as a variable geometry of production or consumption, labor, capital management and information a geometry that denies the specific meaning of places outside its position in a network whose shape changes relentlessly. Alvin Toffler argues for the end of geography as there are increased flows of people, goods and information that serve to dissolve difference and distinctions. Richard OBrien claimed an end to geography on the basis that location matters much less for economic development than it has done in the past. Allen and Hamnett: Although the recent development of technologies does challenge conventional notions of distance, boundaries and movement geography matters . Because global relations construct unevenness in their wake and operate through the pattern of uneven development laid down. Massey and Jess: The place is more fundamental than ever, since the realities of development within the Third World are represented by unevenness and by constantly shifting fusion and conflict between the global and local.

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