Annals of Applied Biology ISSN 0003-4746

WAT E R U S E E F F I C I E N C Y

Long-term yield and water use efciency under various tillage systems in Mediterranean rainfed conditions
C. Cantero-Martnez1, P. Angas1 & J. Lampurlanes2
1 Departamento de Produccion Vegetal y Ciencia Forestal, Universitat de Lleida, Avda. Rovira Roure, Lleida, Spain 2 Departamento de Ingeniera Agroforestal, Universitat de Lleida, Avda. Rovira Roure, Lleida, Spain

Keywords Conservation tillage; no tillage; water use; water use efciency; winter cereal; winter crops. Correspondence C. Cantero-Martnez, Departamento de Produccion Vegetal y Ciencia Forestal, Universitat de Lleida, Avda. Rovira Roure, 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain. Email: carlos.cantero@pvcf.udl.es Received: 2 June 2006; revised version accepted: 16 April 2007. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7348.2007.00142.x

Abstract
Conservation tillage (CT) can be benecial for soil, water and soil organic matter conservation in Mediterranean areas that are prone to soil erosion and where water availability for crops is the main factor for sustainability. CT is the best option to protect the soil from erosion, improve inltration, reduce soil evaporation and so conserve rainwater to increase crop water use (WU) and also water use efciency (WUE). While CT can play an important role in reaching the stability and sustainability of these agricultural systems, performance depends upon the choice and adoption of an appropriate soil management (tillage) system. In rainfed areas of the Ebro Valley, winter cereals are the main crop sown. This paper presents the results of 15 years of research in different soil and climatic conditions of the area of CT on water conservation, WU and WUE. Long-term experiments, comparing different tillage systems, were established in 1987, 1990 and 1992, at three locations in the Ebro Valley, chosen according to their degree of aridity (Selvanera, Agramunt and El Canos). Results reveal that CT was most effective in increasing yield under the driest conditions at Agramunt (1015%), still effective with a smaller advantage under slightly wetter conditions at El Canos (510%) but ineffective at Selvanera, the wettest site. CT only increased WU in some years at Agramunt and never at the other two sites. The benets of CT to both increased yield at Agramunt and El Canos were determined by improved WUE arising from changes in the pattern of WU before and after anthesis.

Introduction
Efcient water use (WU) is the key issue in maintaining dryland agriculture in the Mediterranean region. This efciency is governed by soil management, crop choice, planting dates, fertiliser use and other agronomic techniques (Connor & Loomis, 1991; Rawitz & Hadas, 1994; Peterson & Westfall, 2004). Sustainable productivity of the crops under these water-limiting conditions involves maximising both water available for the crop (WU = precipitation received + soil water depletion during cropping season) and the water use efciency (WUE = crop yield/WU) (Peterson & Westfall, 2004). Reduced soil tillage is a prime technology available for max-

imising water capture and minimising soil water loss, both positively affecting WU and WUE. The region around the Mediterranean Sea is extensive and arid to semi-arid with water as the factor most limiting crop production and several other human activities. The climate is dened by low and variable rainfall and high evaporation during spring and summer months. In autumn and winter, rainfall exceeds evaporation so that water can be stored in the soil. In spring and summer, however, scarce rainfall, high rates of evaporation and high winds cause a large water decit for agricultural activity (Cooper et al., 1987). Soils are often shallow, stony, saline or alkaline, exacerbating general aridity and restricting fertility, to further limit crop growth (Lopez-Bellido, 1992).
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The interaction between rainfall distribution, temperature and soil type dictates choice from a range of winter crops that can meet their water requirements throughout the crop cycle from rainfall. The main crops are cereals, wheat and barley, while other options include grain and forage legumes and canola. To maximise the utility of this rainfall pattern, soil and water conservation is essential to the sustainability of the Mediterranean agriculture. Conservation tillage (CT) technologies from reduced tillage to no tillage (NT) have proven to be the best option for improving sustainability in many places worldwide (KASSA, 2006), especially in dryland farming systems (Unger & McCalla, 1980; Lal, 1989; Loomis & Connor, 1992; Unger, 1994; Farahani et al., 1998). Several shortterm and long-term studies have been conducted around the Mediterranean Basin in Spain, Morocco and Syria (Hernanz & Sanchez-Giron, 1988; Pelegrn et al., 1990; Lopez et al., 1996; Lopez-Bellido et al., 1996; Lopez & Ar rue, 1997; Mrabet, 2000; Pala et al., 2000; Lampurlanes et al., 2001; Cantero-Martnez et al., 2003; Cantero-Mar tnez & Gabina, 2004) to evaluate the applicability of CT technologies. Most of these studies demonstrate the opportunities for improving sustainability through soil protection, improvement in soil quality and increases in soil water accumulation through greater inltration into the soil and reduced soil water evaporation. However, in all cases, the role of increased WUE was not measured in long-term experiments in these Mediterranean conditions. Conservation tillage is a low-cost technique that farmers appreciate because they save fuel, machinery and timeconsuming operations (Cantero-Martnez & Gabina, 2004). Other environmental benets include soil organic matter (SOM) accumulation in the soil because more crop residue is retained and SOM mineralisation occurs slowly. CT uses less fuel and does not burn stubble, both contributing to reduced CO2 emissions so that CT has positive C sequestration (Lal, 1995; Kimble et al., 2002) Important factors for success of CT are the choice of tillage system, the timing of operations and crop residue management. Many CT practices have been developed in recent years (Unger et al., 1991), and as tillage affects soil and crops in different ways under different climates, such practices must be tested thoroughly in the eld (Cantero-Martnez & Gabina, 2004). Long-term studies are especially important in Mediterranean conditions, where the climate and, in particular, the low and unpredictable rainfall make crop production very unstable and complicate the task of recommending best agricultural practices (Connor & Loomis, 1991; Fereres et al., 1993; Rawitz & Hadas, 1994). This paper presents the results of an evaluation over more than 15 years of the benets of various forms of
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CT on yield, WU and WUE of cereal-based cropping systems under different soil and climatic conditions of the semi-arid Mediterranean area of the Ebro Valley in the north-east of Spain.

Materials and methods

Climate and soil gradient The Ebro Valley area has a temperate continental Mediterranean climate (Papadakis, 1966) and is representative of a wide area of the Mediterranean region. Annual rainfall is lower than 350 mm in the centre of the valley but reaches 650 mm near the surrounding mountains. On average, it is distributed bimodally with peaks in autumn and late spring and little rainfall in winter and summer. This pattern is, however, extremely variable such that there is a high probability (25%) of little rainfall in the spring. The soils vary greatly in depth, and hence, water-holding capacity depends on geology and topographical location. Shallow soils on low tablelands alternate with deeper soils in microvalleys. The combination of low rainfall and small water-holding capacity determines the aridity of individual sites. Experiments were established at three locations in the Ebro Valley. Sites from high to low water-holding capacity were selected at Selvanera (4149#N, 117#E, 480 m), El Canos (4141#N, 112#E, 410 m) and Agramunt (4148#N, 107#E, 330 m). The soils at these locations are Xerocrept uventic mesic, Xerochrept uventic mesic and Xerocrept typic, respectively (SSS, 1994). The soils at Selvanera, El Canos and Agramunt are, respectively, loam, ne loamy and clay silt loam; 150, 120 and 90 cm deep and with water-holding capacities of 328, 266, and 210 mm. The three sites have similar long-term average annual precipitation in the range 450382 mm (Zapater, 1995), but annual water decit [calculated as difference between evapotranspiration (ETo) and mean rainfall], imposed by high potential ETo, ranges from 350 mm in Selvanera to 423 mm in Agramunt (Table 1). These climatic conditions and the soil characteristics give

Table 1 Mean rainfall, reference evapotranspiration (ETo) and annual water decit for the three locations, Agramunt, El Canos and Selvanera (Zapater, 1995)a Annual Water Decit (mm) 423 415 350

Location Agramunt El Canos Selvanera

a

Mean Rainfall (mm) 432 382 450

ETo (mm) 855 797 800

Annual water decit was calculated as the difference between ETo and mean rainfall.

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a gradient of potential yield at the three locations, decreasing in the sequence Selvanera, El Canos and Agramunt. Experimental design and tillage systems Experimental plots were established in farmers elds in 1987 and 1990 in Selvanera and Agramunt, respectively, by the Extension Services of the Spanish Department of Agriculture. The study at El Canos was commenced in 1992 by the Agronomy Group, University of Lleida, that has managed all eld experiments from 1994 onwards. Each experiment was a randomised block design using three replications at Selvanera and four at El Canos and Agramunt. Plot size was (50 7 m) 350 m2 at Selvanera (30 6 m), 180 m2 at El Canos and (50 9 m) 450 m2 at Agramunt. Six tillage systems, mouldboard (Mb) plough, deep subsoiling to 50 cm (Sub-50), shallow subsoiling to 25 cm (Sub-25), chisel (Ch), minimum tillage (MT) and NT were compared across the sites. Intensive tillage (Mb) consisted of one Mb ploughing (3035 cm depth) plus one or two cultivator passes (15 cm depth) in September. Subsoilings (Sub-50 and Sub-25) were carried out in August to depths of 4050 and 2025 cm, respectively. Ch consisted of one pass with a chisel plough (20 cm depth) before sowing. All tillage systems were completed with a single cultivator pass when conditions were appropriate for sowing. MT comprised one cultivator pass (1015 cm depth) in the same soil moisture condition as the Sub-50 and Sub-25. In NT, crops were sown without tillage (direct drilling) after plots were sprayed with herbicide, 1.5 L ha21 of 36% glyphosate [(N-(phosphonomethyl)-glycine] plus 1 L of 40% MCPA [2-(4-chloro 2-methylphenoxy) acetic acid]. In some years, a roller was used to break clods and promote germination in all systems where some kind of tillage was being employed. Sowing was performed with a notill disc drill for Agramunt and with a no-till hoe drill in Selvanera and El Canos. The distribution of the six treatments across the three sites is summarised in Table 2. For these analyses, MT and NT are considered CT systems; the others are more intensive tillage treatments.

Cropping systems and crop operations Because the eld experiments commenced at different dates in each year and the yield potential of the sites was distinct, different crop sequences were maintained at individual sites throughout the study. These are shown in Table 3. In Selvanera, owing to its climatic conditions, canola was sufciently productive to be alternated with winter cereals (barley and wheat). At El Canos and Agramunt, growing canola is too risky so only cereals were grown. Barley was grown every year at El Canos, while at Agramunt, it was alternated with wheat from 1999 to 2000. For comparisons with barley and wheat, canola yields have been normalised by taking into account the yield obtained from several farms in the area over the past 30 years. Thus, for this study, cultivating cereals and canola does not affect the conclusions of tillage system comparisons concerning relative productivity. Cropping operations, apart from tillage, were similar in all areas. Crops were sown earlier at Selvanera (early October for barley and wheat and end of September for canola) than at El Canos and Agramunt (end of October to the end of November) because September rainfall there permits earlier soil preparation and weed control. At all locations, planting density ranged between 400 and 500 seeds m22 for barley and wheat and 100120 seeds m22 for canola in rows spaced 1719 cm apart. Fertilisation was performed according to crop requirements and soil tests. Cow manure (1015 t ha21) and pig slurry (1520 m3 ha21) were spread before sowing at

Table 3 Crops from 19872005 in three locations: Agramunt, El Canos and Selvanera Location Growing Season 19871988 19881989 19891990 19901991 19911992 19921993 19931994 19941995 19951996 19961997 19971998 19981999 19992000 20002001 20012002 20022003 20032004 20042005 Agramunt Barley Barley Barley Barley Barley Barley Barley Barley Barley Barley Wheat Barley Wheat Barley Wheat El Canos Barley Barley Barley Barley Barley Barley Barley Barley Barley Selvanera Barley Barley Barley Barley Barley Canola Wheat Barley Barley Canola Wheat Barley Wheat Canola Wheat Barley Wheat Canola

Table 2 The distribution of the six soil management treatments across the three sites (Agramunt, El Canos and Selvanera) during the experiment Location Agramunt El Canos Selvanera NT X X X MT X X Ch X X Sub-25 Sub-50 X X X Mb plough X

Ch, chisel; Mb, mouldboard; MT, minimum tillage; NT, no tillage; Sub-25, subsoiling to 25-cm depth; Sub-50, subsoiling to 50-cm depth.

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Selvanera and after crop tillering at Agramunt. At Selvanera, N mineral fertiliser (5060 kg N ha21) was spread on the soil surface before tillering. In El Canos, mineral fertiliser was applied, one-third before sowing using ammonium sulphate (21%) and two-thirds at the beginning of tillering using ammonium nitrate (33.5%). Additional fertilisers of P and K were applied before sowing following soil tests at El Canos. After the emergence of the crop and before tillering, grass and broadleaf weeds were controlled by herbicide. Products of the AAA category were applied only when necessary. No treatments were required for pests or diseases. Harvests were made with a standard medium size combine that chopped and spread straw at Agramunt but not at El Canos and Selvanera where it was removed because of the large amounts that were produced in some years. At these sites, however, stubble was cut higher than is practised by farmers. Measurements Rainfall and temperature were monitored at standard weather stations situated at or near the experimental elds. Soil cores were taken from 025, 2550, 5075 and 75100 cm depth at all locations before sowing, at end of tillering, at anthesis and after harvest. Water content was determined by the gravimetric method (Campbell & Mulla, 1990), after drying to constant weight in a forced-draft oven at 105C. Total dry matter of the above-ground biomass was measured by removing all plants from three randomly selected samples of 0.5 m2 in each plot at the growth stages of tillering, jointing, anthesis and maturity. Plant samples were dried to constant weight in a forced-draft oven at 65C. Water use, transpiration plus evaporation from the soil, was calculated as the amount of rainfall plus the change in soil water content to 1 m between consecutive measurements. There was no runoff from any site, and soil water measurements established negligible drainage below this soil depth. In this study, we refer to three terms of WU: WUpre is water used by the crops from sowing to anthesis; WUpost from anthesis to harvest and WUt from sowing to the harvest (WUpre + WUpost). Water use efciency, expressed as kg ha21 mm21, is the amount of above-ground biomass (WUEb) or grain dry weight (WUEy) per millimetre of water used. The two terms WUEpre and WUEpost refer to pre-anthesis and post-anthesis periods, respectively. Statistical analyses Linear regression and variance analyses were carried out using MIXED of the Statistical Analysis System (Littell
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et al., 2002) to test the main effects of the year (YEAR) and tillage system (TIL) and its interactions. Mean separations were expressed for signicant effects with LSD (least signicant difference) at P = 0.05. To assess the performance of tillage systems, the cumulative probability of yield, expressed as the probability of exceeding a determined yield, was calculated.

Results
Rainfall and crop growth Fig. 1 shows that, in 70 % of occurrences, the probability to receive more rainfall in the interval 345570 mm is lower in El Canos and is higher in Selvanera, meaning less available water for the crop at the end of the growing season. Regarding individual years, the 199697 season was the wettest in all locations, and the 198889 and 200405 seasons were the driest (Fig. 2). Vegetative growth of the crops occurs from October November to February, owering around mid-April, while grain lling occupies a period of 4045 days in May depending on temperatures. The water accumulated in the soil during autumn and the beginning of winter (SeptemberJanuary) provides the available water for crop growth during the vegetative and reproductive periods. In the Mediterranean area, crop yields

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

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Figure 1 Probability of exceedence of rainfall (1-percentile probability) (A) for years with available weather information and (B) for cropping years at Agramunt (19752005 versus 19902005), El Canos (1987 2005 versus 19902000) and Selvanera (19812005 versus 19872005).

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July to June rainfall (mm)

700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

87 88 88 -8 89 9 90 90 91 91 92 92 93 93 94 94 95 95 -9 96 6 97 97 98 98 -9 99 9 00 00 01 01 -0 02 2 03 03 -0 04 4 -0 5

Agramunt El Cans Selvanera

are well related to the amount of water storage that varies widely between seasons and locations depending on rainfall and soil type. The rst 20 days of May are critical to the grain-lling period, and rainfall in these days can overcome the disadvantages of shallow soils or years of dry autumn, to determine the nal success of the crop. Grain yield and above-ground total biomass

Cropping year
Figure 2 Rainfall from July of the sowing year to June of the harvest year during the cropping years at Agramunt, El Canos and Selvanera sequence.

Yield varied considerably between seasons and across locations. The minimum yield was 1000 kg ha21 at Agramunt in 200405 and the maximum 7000 kg ha21 at Selvanera in 198788 (Fig. 3). Consistent with yield potential and climatic conditions, the mean yield was

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Figure 3 Yields in the different cropping years at Agramunt, El Canos and Selvanera for various tillage systems. Within each crop season, different letters indicate signicant differences at 0.05 probability level. Ch, chisel; Mb, mouldboard; MT, minimum tillage; NT, no tillage; Sub-25, subsoiling to 25-cm depth; Sub-50, subsoiling to 50-cm depth.

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greater at Selvanera (3679 kg ha21) than at El Canos (2951 kg ha21), with the smallest at Agramunt (2554 kg ha21) (Table 4). Crop growth (biomass) and grain yield responded to tillage systems, but with differences between locations and at locations between years. Tillage affected yield signicantly at Agramunt (P < 0.0142) and El Canos (P < 0.073) but not at Selvanera (Table 4). At Agramunt, treatments NT and Sub-50 produced the greatest yield, while Ch and Mb produced the smallest yield. At El Canos, NT and MT performed better than the deep subsoiling treatment (Sub-50) (Table 4). Tillage had a signicant effect on above-ground total biomass at harvest [dry matter at harvest (DMh)] at Agra munt but not at El Canos or Selvanera. At Agramunt, consistent with grain yield, NT and Sub-50 produced greater DMh (Table 4). Tillage system and year (TIL*YEAR) interacted signicantly in all places for yield and only for dry matter at anthesis (DMa) and DMh at Agramunt. The years with signicant yield differences between tillage systems are shown in Fig. 3. The probabilities of higher yield for the different tillage systems (Fig. 4) at Agramunt and at El Canos revealed that NT is the system that produces the best results. At Agramunt, intensive tillage with Mb plough had the lowest yield probability while subsoiling and Ch were lower than NT. Whereas at El Canos, MT performed better than intensive subsoiling (Sub-50). At Selvanera, there was little difference except within the 45 t ha21 range, where NT and MT had higher yield probabilities than Sub-25 and Sub-50 (Fig. 4).

Crop water use Total water use (WUt) was, on average, greatest at Selvanera (369 mm) followed by Agramunt (335 mm) and El Canos (299 mm) (Table 5). The seasonal pattern of WU was, however, distinct. The proportion of WUt in the post-anthesis period was 41% at Selvanera (106 mm) and El Canos (125 mm), both greater than at Agramunt (30%, i.e.103 mm). Tillage did not affect WU, but some signicant interactions were found (Table 5). At Selvanera, WUpre and WUt were about 59 mm lower under NT system than under other treatments in 199798 (P < 0.0002, data not shown). At El Canos, WUpre and WUt were about 28 mm higher under NT system than under intensive treatments in 199394 (P < 0.03, data not shown). At Agramunt, WUt of NT system was lower than that of other treatments by 23, 24 and 37 mm in 199596, 199798 and 19992000, respectively (P < 0.02, 0.02 and 0.0002, data not shown), but was 43 mm higher in 200304 (P < 0.0001, data not shown). Water use efciency Average WUE for above-ground biomass and yield, taken across all treatments, was higher at Selvanera than at El Canos and lowest at Agramunt (Table 6). At Agramunt and Selvanera, WUE during pre-anthesis was less than in post-anthesis period, while the reverse was true at El Canos. Tillage system only had signicant effect on WUE at Agramunt where NT had highest WUEb and WUEy (Table 6). At Selvanera and El Canos, without signicant

Table 4 ANOVA table and general and tillage means for DMa and DMh and yield in Agramunt, El Canos and Selvaneraa Agramunt DMa (kg ha21) ANOVA table YEAR TIL TIL*YEAR General means Tillage means NT MT Ch Sub-25 Sub-50 Mb plough Pr > F <0.0001 NS 0.0126 7353 7932 6895 7548 7036 NS DMh (kg ha21) <0.0001 0.0203 0.0221 9718 10681 a 9034 b 9777 ab 9381 b 0.0203 Yield (kg ha21) <0.0001 0.0142 <0.0001 2554 2697 a 2497 bc 2611 ab 2411 c 0.0142 9145 NS 12503 NS 2812 b 0.0073 11590 12794 NS 21569 22657 NS 3917 3876 NS El Canos DMa (kg ha21) <0.0001 NS NS 9117 8920 9285 DMh (kg ha21) <0.0001 NS NS 12477 12630 12297 Yield (kg ha21) <0.0001 0.0073 0.0002 2951 3071 a 2970 a Selvanera DMa (kg ha21) <0.0001 NS NS 12108 12371 11677 DMh (kg ha21) <0.0001 NS NS 21125 20707 19568 Yield (kg ha21) <0.0001 NS <0.0001 3923 3961 3937

ANOVA, analysis of variance; Ch, chisel; DMa, dry matter at anthesis; DMh, dry matter at harvest; Mb, mouldboard; MT, minimum tillage; NS, nonsignicant at 0.05 probability level; NT, no tillage; Pr > F, probability that a random value of F will be greater than the calculated F; Sub-25, subsoiling to 25-cm depth; Sub-50, subsoiling to 50-cm depth; TIL, tillage system; YEAR, growing year. a Means followed with different letter within a column are statistically different (P < 0.05).

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Probabtiliy of exceedence

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WUE, between 300 and 350 mm at Selvanera and between 350 and 400 mm at El Canos and Agramunt.

Discussion
Crop growth and yield

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Figure 4 Probability of exceedence of yield (1-percentile probability) at Agramunt, El Canos and Selvanera for different tillage systems. Ch, chisel; Mb, mouldboard; MT, minimum tillage; NT, no tillage; Sub-25, subsoiling to 25-cm depth; Sub-50, subsoiling to 50-cm depth.

differences, NT and MT showed a slight advantage over the intensive tillage systems. YEAR*TIL was signicant for WUEy at all locations (Table 6). At El Canos and Selvanera, no general pattern for this interaction was found, whereas at Agramunt in drier years, NT, Ch and subsoiling were better than Mb (Fig. 5). Tillage system had no effect on WUEpre and WUEpost at all locations. TIL*YEAR interaction was observed at Agramunt for WUEpre and WUEpost and at Selvanera for WUEpre (Table 6). The relationship between yield and WUt is presented for the three sites in Fig. 6. This presentation reveals an optimum WU that maximises yield, and consequently

It is very characteristic in Mediterranean conditions that differences in growing season precipitation contribute to different yield. Cornish (1950) and French & Shultz (1984) stated that rainfall of the winter months is more effective in producing good yields in dryland conditions of Australia. In our study area, 70% of the variation of the winter cereal yield is associated with the variability of the SeptemberMay rainfall (Austin et al., 1998), whereas more than 50% is associated with the September January rainfall. Our three areas represented different climatic conditions because of rainfall distribution and effectiveness more than that of total rainfall. Selvanera has the highest yield not only because it has higher rainfall than the other sites but also because September and October precipitations are higher and more effective. Yield and biomass at El Canos are higher than at Agramunt because higher effective rainfall because of higher soil water-holding capacity and accumulation. In the Mediterranean area, yield according to tillage systems vary depending on weather conditions in different growing seasons (Mrabet, 2000). In our results, no relationship was found between yield depending on the tillage system and the total rainfall of the year. However, the best yields were obtained with NT and MT in the three sites, with much more signicance at the driest site of Agramunt (Table 3). Biomass production under NT and MT systems is higher and promotes more crop residue accumulation that is convenient for increasing inltration and reducing evaporation. In our study, more biomass was produced at harvest (DMh) at Agramunt under NT system (Table 3), and more crop residue was obtained because they were chopped and left on the soil after harvest. At El Canos, crop residue was removed, but long stubble was left after harvest, and consequently, low differences were found between NT and MT and intensive tillage with subsoiling. Lampurlanes et al. (2002), who studied the effect of water accumulation on fallow at El Canos, concluded that the more crop residue was left the more water was accumulated in the soil. At Selvanera, crop residue was removed and long stubble was left, but there were no high yield and biomass differences between tillage systems. This is because differences in soil water accumulation and availability for the crop are less critical in wetter locations. In Morocco, experiments by Mrabet et al. (1993) and Mrabet (2000) obtained better yields from NT, Ch and subsoiling
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Table 5 ANOVA table and general and tillage means for WUpre, WUpost and WUt in Agramunt, El Canos and Selvanera Agramunt WUpre (mm) ANOVA table YEAR TIL TIL*YEAR General means Tillage means NT MT Ch Sub-25 Sub-50 Mb plough Pr > F <0.0001 NS <0.0001 233 231 231 235 236 NS WUpost (mm) <0.0001 NS 0.0106 103 105 104 106 97 NS WUt (mm) <0.0001 NS <0.0001 336 336 335 341 333 NS 172 NS 128 NS 300 NS 256 257 NS 105 105 NS 361 362 NS El Canos WUpre (mm) <0.0001 NS NS 174 179 170 WUpost (mm) <0.0001 NS NS 125 123 125 WUt (mm) <0.0001 NS 0.0117 299 302 295 Selvanera WUpre (mm) <0.0001 NS <0.0001 255 249 256 WUpost (mm) <0.0001 NS NS 106 109 106 WUt (mm) <0.0001 NS 0.0395 361 358 362

ANOVA, analysis of variance; Ch, chisel; Mb, mouldboard; MT, minimum tillage; NS, non-signicant at 0.05 probability level; NT, no tillage; Pr > F, probability that a random value of F will be greater than the calculated F; Sub-25, subsoiling to 25-cm depth; Sub-50, subsoiling to 50-cm depth; TIL, tillage system; YEAR, growing year; WUpost, water use post-anthesis; Wupre, water use pre-anthesis; WUt, total water use.

because of better soil moisture conditions. Small differences for NT were caused by crop residue accumulation, but he recognised that it is possible to extract part of them without increasing evaporation if the crop residue and stubble are well distributed on soil surface. In other areas of clay soils of Morocco, sweep tillage was better than NT (Kacemi et al., 1995). Finally, Mrabet (2000) stated that yield related to tillage in these conditions was soil specic. In southern Spain (Andalusia), in a longterm experiment, tillage effect on yield was signicant for dry years under NT (Lopez-Bellido et al., 1996). These results were obtained based on the leaving crop residue, which allows the CT systems to provide more water to the crop. In four locations of the Ebro Valley in north east Spain, 2-year studies by Lopez & Arrue (1997) pointed out that conventional intensive tillage was better or equal to reduced tillage or NT. These areas are drier than those of our study, and fallow crop is the traditional cropping system. In this case, low results from NT were associated with soil strength by soil compaction and by the very low production of crop residue that remains on the soil in these conditions. Water use and water use efciency It is normally stated, in water-limiting conditions, that higher the WU the higher the crop yield. However, we should note that this relation is highly variable because we considered WU as the evaporation from the soil plus the transpiration from the crop, and only the transpired water is effective on crop yield. Secondly, other factors like pests, diseases, weeds, etc. can affect nal yield and cause variation to this relation.
300

In our study, higher WU increased yield to an optimum for each site (Fig. 6). However, differences between them were observed. At Selvanera, the coolest and wettest location, WU was higher than at El Canos and Agramunt, but lower yields were obtained in the 400500 mm WU range than in the 300400 mm one. This can be associated with pests, diseases (normally crop is not sprayed) and weeds, all together affecting the nal yield. In this area, there is more rainfall and therefore some run-off and drainage could happen at the wet years. At El Canos, higher yields with lower WU than at Agramunt were noted, so higher WUE was obtained. At Agramunt, which had the driest conditions, more evaporation from soil could be the reason for the lower WUE obtained. French & Shultz (1984) observed in dryland conditions that with more than 150 mm of total rainfall, the inefciencies of WU led to more evaporation losses than when total rainfall was low. What is expected in CT systems (NT and MT) is a higher WU and WUE than in intensively cultivated soil because crop residue effect on water conservation. However, these advantages are important in medium- or low-rainfall ranges (Nielsen, 2002). Also, crop residue management is very important for improving the benets of these systems in soil water accumulation (Unger & McCalla, 1980; Fisher, 1987; Lal, 1989). Lopez & Arrue (1997) found lower WUE in NT than in intensive tillage systems because of very low crop residue in NT. In our case, signicant differences for NT were found in WU some years (TIL*YEAR P < 0.0001, Table 4) and WUE (TIL P < 0.0453, Table 5) at Agramunt, the driest area, and where the crop residue was maintained on the surface of the soil. Cantero-Martnez et al. (2005)

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ANOVA, analysis of variance; Ch, chisel; Mb, mouldboard; MT, minimum tillage; NS, non-signicant at 0.05 probability level; NT, no tillage; Pr > F, probability that a random value of F will be greater than the calculated F; Sub-25, subsoiling to 25-cm depth; Sub-50, subsoiling to 50-cm depth; TIL, tillage system; YEAR, growing year; WUEb, total (pre- + post-anthesis) water use efciency for biomass; WUEy, water use efciency for yield; WUEpost, water use efciency post-anthesis; WUEpre, water use efciency pre-anthesis. a Means followed with different letter within a column are statistically different (P < 0.05).

showed that more water was accumulated in the soil at Agramunt during the SeptemberJanuary period because more crop residue was left on the soil surface. At Selvanera and El Canos, WU and WUE are signicant only some years (TIL*YEAR signicant interaction) but without general advantages for any tillage system on WU. At theses sites, a tendency was noted, and a better WUE in NT and MT than in more intensive tillage systems was obtained. At these sites only long stubble was left and less crop residue was kept on the soil surface. There is no clear explanation for any relation between WU and yield under NT and MT. Fig. 6 shows that for all areas, CT systems are slightly more efcient in WU than intensive tillage under low ranges of WU. A rst explanation for higher differences at Agramunt could also be because of the fact that NT was only present at Agramunt, whereas NT and MT were present at El Canos and Selvanera. A second explanation is based on the rst two paragraphs of this discussion that stated that WU under eld conditions normally account for direct evaporation from soil and transpiration from the crop, which hide the real effect from the effective WU to the yield. Mrabet (2000) found little or no difference in WU because of tillage systems. The WUE was higher at Selvanera than at other sites, but differences were very low compared with the yield potential for this site. Lower evaporation (not measured) at Selvanera could explain the lower than expected WUE. Losses of soil water by deep percolation could also explain this lower WUE; however, deep percolation is usually negligible as was observed in a study in the area (CanteroMartnez et al., 2003). At Selvanera, higher and faster canopy development may have enhanced more transpi ration than direct soil evaporation than at El Canos and Agramunt, resulting in higher WUE. At Agramunt, lower WUE than at El Canos were because of more soil evaporation and less consumption of WU in transpiration. The WUE for grain yield ranged from 2.5 kg ha21 mm21 in Mb at Agramunt to 24 kg ha21 mm21 in NT at Selvanera, with the tillage system only had a signicant effect at Agramunt, where NT obtained the best results. Our results are consistent with those obtained by other authors in similar conditions. Lopez & Arrue (1997) obtained lower results from 0.7 to 17 kg ha21 mm21; Mrabet (2000), in Morocco, obtained results from 2.5 to 19 kg ha21 mm21 and French & Shultz (1984) reported results in Australia of between 4 and 19 kg ha21 mm21. At Agramunt, the driest environment, better performance of NT and MT is obtained and can also be expected in the driest years at any location. However, this is not a complete general pattern, and in some dry years, WUE is not higher under CT systems, even at Agramunt. In our environment, late and occasional rainfall in the last
301

WUEy (kg ha21 mm21)

<0.0001 NS <0.0001 12.5

11.8 12.5 66.5 68.0 120.9 139.0 48.4 55.9 10.7 41.7 34.4 53.8 8.3 b 31.1 26.6 b 30.1

12.7 12.8

WUEb (kg ha21 mm21)

<0.0001 NS NS 64.1

64.6 57.1

0.0003 NS NS 110.3

WUEpost (kg ha21 mm21)

95.1 86.1

Selvanera

WUEpre (kg ha21 mm21)

<0.0001 NS 0.0278 52.7

54.9 51.7

Table 6 ANOVA table and general and tillage means for WUEpre, WUEpost and WUEb and WUEy in Agramunt, El Canos and Selvaneraa

WUEy (kg ha21 mm21)

<0.0001 NS <0.0001 11.0

11.0 11.3

WUEb (kg ha21 mm21)

<0.0001 NS NS 41.9

41.8 42.2

WUEpost (kg ha21 mm21)

0.0077 NS NS 33.8

34.6 32.3

El Canos

WUEpre (kg ha21 mm21)

<0.0001 NS NS 53.5

50.6 56.0

WUEy (kg ha21 mm21)

<0.0001 0.0453 <0.0001 8.7

WUEb (kg ha21 mm21)

<0.0001 0.0172 0.0297 29.0

WUEpost (kg ha21 mm21)

0.0003 NS 0.0232 47.6

49.3

Agramunt

WUEpre (kg ha21 mm21)

<0.0001 NS 0.0002 31.7

34.5

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ANOVA table YEAR TIL TIL*YEAR General means Tillage means NT MT Ch Sub-25 Sub-50 Mb plough Pr > F

31.8 30.2 NS

57.2 52.7 NS

28.6 b 28.5 b 0.0172

32.3 a

8.9 ab 8.4 b 0.0453

9.3 a

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

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C. Cantero-Martnez et al.

25

Agramunt WUEy (kgha-1mm-1)

20 NT CH Sub-50 MB aaa b

15

a b b cc c

10

a bb

a bb c a a bb c

a aa b bb

a aa bb a a b c

El Cans WUEy (kgha-1mm-1)

20 NT MT Sub-50 a b 10 b b

15

a a b aa b

Selvanera WUEy (kgha-1mm-1)

20 NT MT Sub-25 Sub-50 a b b bb c

aa

15

10

a aa bb b

a aa bb b

0
92 -9 3 93 -9 4 94 -9 5 95 -9 6 96 -9 7 97 -9 8 98 -9 9 99 -0 0 00 -0 1 01 -0 2 02 -0 3 03 -0 4 04 -0 5

Cropping year
Figure 5 WUEy in the different cropping years at Agramunt, El Canos and Selvanera for different tillage systems. Within each crop season, different letters indicate signicant differences at 0.05 probability level. Ch, chisel; Mb, mouldboard; MT, minimum tillage; NT, no tillage; Sub-25, subsoiling to 25-cm depth; Sub-50, subsoiling to 50-cm depth; WUEy, water use efciency for yield.

15 days of May is common during the grain-lling period. The total amount of these rainfalls can vary from 10 to 40 mm divided in several different low rainfall events. In this period, a rainfall day is alternated with a high isolation and high evaporation one. Thus, during this short period, under NT and MT, most of the rainfall is intercepted by the biomass and crop residue and then evaporated directly into the atmosphere without reaching the soil. Under intensive tillage systems, with less biomass and less crop residue, the rain can ltrate into the soil and can be
302

absorbed by the crop, allowing a recovery in the yield and increasing WUE. A better WUE for NT could also be explained by the observations of Lampurlanes et al. (2001) who found higher root length density under NT and MT than in intensive tillage at El Canos at the post-anthesis period. This facilitated more water uptake by the crop, and higher WUEy was obtained. High variability in yield and WUE was found in this long-term analysis. The results do not show a complete

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4500 4000 Agramunt 3500

Yiled (kg/ha)

3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 8000 7000 R2 = 0.41 NT R2 = 0.46 Ch R2 = 0.47 Sub-50 R2 = 0.38 Mb

El Cans
R2 = 0.51 NT R2 = 0.35 MT R2 = 0.38 Sub-50

Yiled (kg/ha)

Selvanera

R2 = 0.62 NT R2 = 0.62 MT R2 = 0.58 Sub-25 R2 = 0.45 Sub-50

Yiled (kg/ha)

6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

100

200

300

400

500

600

WUt (mm)
NT NT MT MT Ch Ch Sub-25 Sub-25 Sub-50 Sub-50 Mb Mb

Figure 6 Yield versus water use at Agramunt, El Canos and Selvanera for different tillage systems. Lines indicate the adjusted second-order polynomial function. Ch, chisel; Mb, mouldboard; MT, minimum tillage; NT, no tillage; Sub-25, subsoiling to 25-cm depth; Sub-50, subsoiling to 50-cm depth.

clear picture of the advantages of NT and MT at Selvanera and at El Canos. At Selvanera, there are tendencies of higher WUE and yield but no clear advantage. In this site, benets from CT can mean less expense for farmers by reducing tillage operations and by other environmental benets in soil quality. At El Canos, tendencies are stronger, and yield is 510% better under CT which also indicates better WUE; although, a better use of crop residue could improve the benets from rainfall. At Agramunt, the benets are clear. Between 10 and 15% more yields are obtained in NT and MT, and higher WUE indicates the advantages of using this limited resource under arid and semi-arid areas. Over all three locations, in terms of WU, there are no clear advantages of the conservative systems; however, clear benets for yield and WUE are observed,

specically in drier conditions. The benets of CT to increased yield were determined by improved WUE and could arise from changes in the pattern of WU before and after anthesis.

Acknowledgements
This work was funded by the Comision Interministerial de Ciencia y Tecnologa, AGR91-312, AGF94-198, AGF98 261-C02 and AGL2004-7763-C02 projects. We also thank the farmers who collaborated in the development project, Josep Maria Besora, Josep Gabernet and Jaume Ramon. Acknowledgement is also for Jaume Gregori for his technical support during these years. This manuscript was corrected by Ms Sinead P. Kelly, BA (Hons). Special
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acknowledgement to Prof. David Connor for his valuable scientic additions and for editing this article.

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