I.

INTRODUCTION
In recent years, dcdc converters with steep voltage ratio are usually required in many industrial applications, e.g., the front-end stage for clean energy sources, the dc backup energy system for an uninterruptible power supply (UPS), high intensity discharge (HID) lamps for automobile headlamps, and the telecommunication industry. The conventional boost converters cannot provide such a high dc-voltage ratio due to the losses associated with the inductor, filter capacitor, main switch, and output diode. Even for an extreme duty cycle, it will result in serious reverse-recovery problems and increase the rating of the output diode. As a result, the conversion efficiency is degraded, and the electromagnetic interference (EMI) problem is severe under this situation. In order to increase the conversion efficiency and voltage gain, many modified boost-converter topologies have been investigated in the past decade. Many applications powered by batteries call for high performance, high step-up dc dc converters. As an example, for a high intensity discharge (HID) lamp ballast used in automotive headlamps in which the start-up voltage is up to 400 V the dcdc converter needs to boost the 12 V of the battery voltage up to 100 V during steady-state operation. Fig. 1(a) shows the diagram of HID ballast. Another example of a high step-up application is the front-end converter with dual inputs, as shown in Fig. 1(b). The convergence of computer and telecommunications industries makes the well-defined 48V battery plant a good choice for offering hours of reserve time during outages of the ac mains. Although both powered by the 48 V dc power plant, the dc-input converter is more efficient and less complex than the uninterruptible power supply (UPS). The dc-input converter must boost the 48 V of the dc bus voltage to about 380400 V. Generally speaking, the high step-up dcdc converters for these applications have the following common features. 1) High step-up voltage gain. Generally, about a tenfold step-up gain is required. 2) High efficiency. 3) No isolation is required.

Fig. 1. Applications of high step-up dcdc converters: (a) HID lamp ballast and (b) dualinput front-end converters. There are two major concerns related to the efficiency of a high step-up dcdc converter: large input current and high output voltage. The large input current results from low input voltage; therefore, low-voltage-rated devices with low RDSon are necessary in order to reduce the conduction loss. Another concern is the severe reverse-recovery problem that occurs in the output rectifier due to the high output voltage. The boost and buckboost converters are the simplest non-isolation topologies. Unfortunately, the switch sustaining the high output voltage has a high RDSon. Furthermore, the short pulse current with high amplitude that flows through the output rectifier due to extreme duty ratio induces a severe rectifier reverse-recovery problem. The high - of the switch and the severe rectifier reverse recovery problem limit the output power. The non-isolation converters can provide high step-up voltage gain without incurring extreme duty ratios. Although voltage-clamped techniques are manipulated in the converter design to overcome the severe reverse-recovery problem of the output diode in high-level voltage applications, there still exist overlarge switch-voltage stresses, and the voltage gain is limited by the turn-ON time of the auxiliary switch. A boost soft-single-switch converter,

which has only one single active switch is able to operate with soft switching in a pulse width modulation (PWM) way without high voltage and current stresses. Unfortunately, the voltage gain is limited below four in order to achieve the function of soft switching. Later, coupled inductors were employed to provide a high step-up ratio and to reduce the switch-voltage stress substantially, and the reverse-recovery problem of the output diode was also alleviated efficiently. In this case, the leakage energy of the coupled inductor is another problem as the main switch was turned OFF. It will result in a high-voltage ripple across the main switch due to the resonant phenomenon induced by the leakage current. In order to protect the switch devices, either a high-voltage-rated device with higher RDS(ON) or a snubber circuit is usually adopted to deplete the leakage energy. Consequently, the power-conversion efficiency will be degraded. Then, a family of high-efficiency high-stepup dcdc converters introduced by only adding one addition diode and a small capacitor. It can recycle the leakage energy and alleviate the reverse-recovery problem. However, a snubber circuit is still required in the output diode terminal with extra energy losses. The aim of this study is to design a high-efficiency voltage clamped dcdc converter with reduced reverse-recovery current and switch-voltage stress to provide a stable constant dc voltage. To achieve this goal, the manipulation of inductor and transformer is adopted to increase the voltage gain and to enhance the utility rate of the magnetic core. Moreover, the voltage-clamped technology is used for reducing the switch voltage stress and solving the reverse-recovery problem. In addition, the closed-loop control methodology can be utilized in the proposed converter to overcome the voltagedrift problem of power source under the variation of loads.

2. BOOST CONVERTER

Boost converter (step-up converter): is a power converter with an output dc voltage greater than its input dc voltage. It is a class of switching-mode power supply (SMPS) containing at least two semiconductor switches (a diode and a transistor) and at least one energy storage element. Filters made of inductor and capacitor combinations are often added to a converters output to improve performance.

This is the basic schematic of a boost converter. The switch is typically a MOSFET, IGBT or BJT.

2.1 Circuit analysis

Fig. 2.1: Boost converter schematic

Fig. 2.2: The two configurations of a boost converter, depending on the state of the switch S. Operating principle
The basic principle of a Boost converter consists in 2 distinct states (figure 2.2): in the On-state,

the switch S is closed, resulting in an increase in the inductor current; in the Off-state, the switch is open and the only path offered to inductor current is through the diode D, the capacitor C and the load R. This, results in transferring the energy accumulated during the On-state into the capacitor.

2.2 Continuous mode

When a boost converter operates in continuous mode, the current through the inductor (IL) never falls to zero. Figure 2.3 shows the typical waveforms of currents and voltages in a converter operating in this mode. The output voltage can be calculated as follows, in the case of an ideal converter (i.e. using components with an ideal behavior) operating in steady conditions:

Fig. 2.3: Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter operating in continuous mode. During the On-state, the switch S is closed, causing the current in the inductor to increase at a rate given by:

At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:

D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which the switch is On. Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on). During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through the load. If we consider zero voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for its voltage to remain constant, the evolution of IL is:

Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:

As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of energy stored in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the end of a commutation cycle. In particular, the energy stored in the inductor is given by:

Therefore, it is obvious that the inductor current has to be the same at the beginning and the end of the commutation cycle. This can be written as

Substituting

and

by their expressions yields:

This can be written as:

From the above expression it can be seen that the output voltage is always more than the input voltage (as the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that it increases with D, theoretically up to the infinite as D approaches 1. This is why this converter is sometimes referred to as a step-up converter.

2.3 Discontinuous mode

In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be transferred in a time smaller than the whole commutation period. In this case, the current through the inductor falls to zero during part of the period. The only difference in the principle described above is that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the commutation cycle (see waveforms in figure 2.4). Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on the output voltage equation. It can be calculated as follows:

Fig. 2.4: Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter operating in discontinuous mode.

As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum value t=D.T) is

(at

During the off-period, IL falls to zero after .T:

Using the two previous equations, is:

The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (ID). As can be seen on figure 4, the diode current is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore the output current can be written as:

Replacing ILmax and by their respective expressions yields: 8

Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as:

Compared to the expression of the output voltage for the continuous mode, this expression is much more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the output voltage not only depends on the duty cycle, but also on the inductor value, the input voltage, and the output current. Limit between continuous and discontinuous modes

Fig. 2.5: Evolution of the Normalized output voltage of an ideal Boost converter with the normalized output current. As told at the beginning of this section, the converter operates in discontinuous mode when low current is drawn by the load, and in continuous mode at higher load current levels. The limit between discontinuous and continuous modes is reached when the inductor current falls to zero exactly at the end of the commutation cycle. With the notations of figure 2.4, this corresponds to : D+=1

In this case, the output current Iolim (output current at the limit between continuous and discontinuous modes) is given by:

Replacing ILmax by the expression given in the discontinuous mode section yields:

As Iolim is the current at the limit between continuous and discontinuous modes of operations, it satisfies the expressions of both modes. Therefore, using the expression of the output voltage in continuous mode, the previous expression can be written as:

Let's now introduce two more notations:

The normalized voltage, defined by the converter;

. It corresponds to the gain in voltage of

The normalized current, defined by

. The term

is equal to the

maximum increase of the inductor current during a cycle, i.e the increase of the inductor current with a duty cycle D=1. So, in steady state operation of the converter, this means that deliver. Using these notations, we have: equals 0 for no output current, and 1 for the maximum current the converter can

in continuous mode,

in discontinuous mode,

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The current at the limit between continuous and discontinuous mode is

. Therefore, the locus of the limit

between continuous and discontinuous mode is given by: These expression have been plotted in figure 5. The difference in behavior between the continuous and discontinuous modes can be seen clearly. This is important from a control point of view. State Space Averaging Analysis

Fig. 2.6: Evolution of the output voltage of a boost converter with the duty cycle of the switch. The average model analysis is a method to calculate the average over time of the waveforms in a switching circuit. It consists in writing the corresponding equations in each working state of the converter (here, there are two states: on and off, as shown in figure 2), and then multiply them by the time the converter spends in each state. In the case of the boost converter, in the On-state, the rate of change in the inductor current is given by:

In the Off state, the voltage across the switch is equal to the output voltage (we assume zero voltage drop in the forward-biased diode): 11

Therefore, the averaged rate of change in the inductor current is obtained by multiplying the two previous equations by the time spent in the corresponding states (D.T in the onstate and (1-D)T in the off state, assuming the converter operates in continuous mode) and dividing by the switching period:

It is important to note that

represents the changes in inductor current at a timescale

slower than the switching frequency. For a converter operating in steady-state mode,

. Therefore the previous equation becomes: which can be rewritten as,

(same equation as above) The interest of this method is that it masks the switching behavior of the converter, allowing it to be analyzed with the classical AC or DC techniques.

2.4 Non-ideal circuit Effect of parasitic resistances

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Fig. 2.7: Evolution of the output voltage of a boost converter with the duty cycle when the parasitic resistance of the inductor increases. In the analysis above, no dissipative elements (resistor) have been considered. That means that the power is transmitted without losses from the input voltage source to the load. However, parasitic resistances exist in all circuits, due to the resistivity of the materials they are made from. Therefore, a fraction of the power managed by the converter is dissipated by these parasitic resistances. For the sake of simplicity, we consider here that the inductor is the only non-ideal component, and that it is equivalent to an inductor and a resistor in series. This assumption is acceptable because as an inductor is made of one long wound piece of wire, it is likely to exhibit a non-negligible parasitic resistance (RL). Furthermore, current flows through the inductor both in the on and the off states. Using the state-space averaging method, we can write:

where

and

are respectively the average voltage across the inductor and the switch

over the commutation cycle. If we consider that the converter operates in steady-state, the average current through the inductor is constant. The average voltage across the inductor is:

When the switch is in the on-state, VS=0. When it is off, the diode is forward biased (we consider the continuous mode operation), therefore VS=Vo. Therefore, the average voltage across the switch is:

The output current is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. The average inductor current is therefore:

Assuming the output current and voltage have negligible ripple, the load of the converter can be considered as purely resistive. If R is the resistance of the load, the above expression becomes:

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Using the previous equations, the input voltage becomes:

This can be written as:

If the inductor resistance is zero, the equation above becomes equal to the one of the ideal case. But as RL increases, the voltage gain of the converter decreases compared to the ideal case. Furthermore, the influence of RL increases with the duty cycle. This is summarized in figure.2.7

3. CONVERTER DESIGN AND ANALYSES

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A newly designed converter topology is depicted in Fig. 3.1, where it contains four parts including a dc-input circuit, a primary-side circuit, a secondary-side circuit and a dcoutput circuit. The major symbol representations are summarized as follows. Vi and Ii denote the dc-input voltage and current, and Ci is the input filter capacitor in the dc-input circuit. Lp represents the primary inductor of the transformer; L is the additional inductor in the primary-side circuit; and S is the main switch. Ls denotes the secondary inductor of the transformer; Cs and Cc are the balanced capacitor and clamped capacitor in the secondaryside circuit; and D1, D2, D3, and D4 are the rectifier diodes. Vo and Io describe the output voltage and current; Ro is the output load; Do, and Co are the output diode and filter capacitor in the output circuit, respectively. The equivalent circuit and state definition of the newly designed converter is depicted in Fig. 3.2, where the transformer is modeled as an ideal transformer with a secondary leakage inductor (Lk). The turns ratio of this ideal transformer is defined as n = N2/N1 where N1 and N2 are the primary and secondary winding turns. ----------- (1)

Fig. 3.1. System configuration of a high-efficiency voltage-clamped dcdc converter

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Fig. 3.2. Equivalent circuit. The additional inductor (L) is located in parallel with the primary side of the transformer. Moreover, the rectifier diodes (D1, D2, D3, and D4) are connected between the primary and secondary sides of the transformer. The voltages across the additional inductor, the main switch, the ideal transformer primary and secondary winding, the secondary leakage inductor, the balanced capacitor, and the output diode are vL, vDS, vLp,

vLs, vLk, vCs, and vDo, respectively. The clamped capacitor Cc is assumed to be large
enough to be viewed as a constant voltage source, VCc . The conductive voltage drops of the main switch (S) and all diodes (D1, D2, D3, D4, and Do) are neglected to simplify the circuit analyses. The characteristic waveforms of the proposed high efficiency converter are depicted in Fig. 3.3. In addition, Fig. 4 illustrates the operational modes in one switching cycle, and the detailed operation stages are described as follows. A. Mode 1 (t0 - t1) [Fig. 4(a)]

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At time t = t0, the main switch (S) is turned ON. At the same time, the diodes (D1 and D4) become conducted, and other diodes (D2, D3, and Do) are reverse biased. The additional inductor (L) and clamped capacitor (Cc) are linearly charged by the input-voltage source (Vi) through the transformer. Applying Kirchhoffs law [4], the voltages of vL, vLp,

vLs, and vLk during this period can be expressed as vL = vLp = Vi vLs = n Vi vLk = VCc n Vi - vCs .
---------------(2) ---------------(3) ---------------(4)

According to (2)(4), the rate of change of the additional inductor current (iL), the primaryside current (iLp), and the secondary-side current (iLs) of the transformer can be represented as diL/dt = Vi/L diLp/dt = (VCc - nVi vCs)/Lk + Vi/Lp diLs/dt = (VCc - nVi vCs)/Lk ---------------(5) ---------------(6) ---------------(7)

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B. Mode 2 (t1 - t2) [Fig. 4(b)]

At time t = t1, the main switch (S) is turned OFF. At this time, the diodes (D2, D3, and Do) become forward biased to start conducting, and other diodes (D1 and D4) are reverse biased. The stored energy of the additional inductor (L) and clamped capacitor (Cc) in Mode 1 is released to output loads. Moreover, the transformer can be operated at four quadrants to enhance the utility rate of the magnetic core and to keep the clamped voltage (VCc ), since the additional inductor (L) supplies energy to the output terminal by way of the transformer. Applying Kirchhoffs law [4], the voltage and current relations of each element during this mode can be described by

vL = vLp = Vi + VCc - Vo vLs = n (Vi + VCc - Vo) vDS = Vi - VL = Vo - VCc < Vo iDo = iL + iLp = iCc - iLs

-----------------(8) -----------------(9)

vLk = - VCc - vCs n (Vi + VCc - Vo) -----------------(10)

-----------------(11) -----------------(12)

where iDo is the current of the output diode Do; iCc is the current of the clamped capacitor Cc. According to (11), the cutoff voltage of the main switch (S) is clamped at Vo - VCc. Moreover, the main switch (S) with low-voltage-rated capacity can be selected since the

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switch-voltage stress (vDS) is smaller than the output voltage (Vo). The selection of a lowvoltage rated device with lower RDS(ON) is useful for improving the conversion efficiency. Referring to (8)(10), the rate of change of iL, iLp and iLs is given by diL/dt = (Vi + VCc Vo) / L diLs/dt = [-VCc - vCs - n(Vi + VCc - Vo)] / Lk ------------(13) ------------(15)

diLp/dt = [-VCc - vCs - n(Vi + VCc - Vo) / Lk ] + (Vi + VCc Vo) / Lp ------------(14)

C. Mode 3 (t2 - t3) [Fig. 4(c)]

At time t = t2, the residual energy of the clamped capacitor (Cc) is discharged entirely, i.e., iCc (t2) = 0. Immediately, the clamped capacitor (Cc) is charged by the energy of the additional inductor (L) through the transformer, and the rate of change of the clamped-capacitor current (iCc ) can be denoted as diCc/dt = (Vi + VCc Vo)/L + (Vi + VCc Vo)/Lp + 2[-VCc - vCs - n(Vi + VCc - Vo)/Lk ] --------------- (16)

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Moreover, the stored energy of the additional inductor (L) is released continuously to the output terminal by way of the transformer. The rate of charge of iDo is given by diDo/dt = (Vi + VCc Vo)/L + (Vi + VCc Vo)/Lp + [-VCc - vCs - n(Vi + VCc - Vo)]/Lk -----------------(17) D. Mode 4 (t3 - t4) [Fig. 4(d)] At time t = t3, the clamped-capacitor current (iCc) equals to the secondary-side

current (iLs) of the transformer, and the output diode current (iDo) decays to 0, i.e., iDo(t3) = 0. During this period, the voltage of the output diode (vDo) maintains the zero status until the main switch (S) is turned ON. Moreover, the magnitude of the additional inductor current (iL) is equal to the one of the primary-side current (iLp). According to (13) and (14), the rate of change of iLp and iLs can be represented as diLp/dt = - diL/dt = -(Vi + VCc Vo)/L diLs/dt = -(Vi + VCc Vo)/L (Vi + VCc Vo)/Lp ---------------(18) --------------- (19)

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Since the secondary leakage inductor (Lk) and the change rate of iLs in the transformer are very small, the voltage of the secondary leakage inductor (vLk ) can be neglected. According to the concept of the zero average voltage across the inductor over one period [4], the voltages of vCs , VCc , and Vo for steady state operation can be described via (2), (4), (8), and (10) as vCs = [nVi(2d - 1)]/[2(1 - d)] VCc = nVi/[2(1 - d)] Vo = [(2 + n)/(2(1 - d))]Vi -----------------(20) -----------------(21) -----------------(22)

where d is the duty cycle of the main switch (S). Continuously, the main switch (S) is turned ON at time t = t4 to begin the next switching cycle. Since the voltage difference may be caused by the secondary inductor of the transformer, as d 0.5, the major function of the balanced capacitor (Cc) is used for keeping the cutoff voltages of the rectifier diodes (D1, D2, D3, and D4) balanced. Moreover, it also can avoid the overlarge current that passed through the rectifier diodes. According to (22), the voltage gain can be tuned by regulating the turns ratio (n) in the transformer to overcome the boost-ratio limitation of the conventional converter. In addition, the switch-voltage stress (vDS) can be calculated via (11), (21), and (22) as vDS = Vi/(1 - d) According to (22) and (23), one can obtain vDS = 2Vo/(2 + n) ---------------- (24) ---------------- (23)

By analyzing (24), the switch-voltage stress (vDS) is not related to the dc-input voltage (Vi) and duty cycle (d) if the values of the output voltage (Vo) and the turns ratio (n) are fixed. Thus, it can ensure that the sustainable voltage of the main switch (S) is constant. As long as the dc-input voltage is not higher than the rated voltage of the main switch, the high-efficiency voltage clamped dcdc converter can be applied well to the low-voltage power sources even with large voltage variations, e.g., fuel cell, solar cell, etc.

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Fig. 3.3. Characteristic waveforms.

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4. DESIGN OF COMPONENTS
4.1 Transformer Design
Area product: The high frequency transformers are largely used in inverter and converter applications. The Switched Mode Power Supplies require high frequency transformers, if it has to maintain a significant power/unit volume advantage over the Linear Power Supplies. Here we shall mainly deal with transformer designs for SMPS, through the general principles hold good designing high frequency transformer for any application. The size of a power transformer is generally designed by a parameter is called area product, Ap, as given by the following equation, Ap = cross sectional area of the core (Ac) * window area (Aw) Primary and secondary turns are given by N1 = and N2 = -------------- (1)

Current can be expressed in terms of current density as follows: I = J awire Where J = current density awire = area of the conductor cross section through which current is flowing. As N1 turns of the primary has a cross section area of a1 and N2 turns of the secondary has a cross section area of a2, the total copper area that is to be made available for winding is N1a1+N2a2. This theoretically should fit in the window area Aw. However, in practice the window area has to be accommodated not only the bare ware, but the wire insulation, coil former, insulation paper used between windings etc. if Kw denotes this factor called window utilization factor, then, KwAw = N1a1 + N2a2 Substituting for awire using eq.(2), we have KwAwJ = N1I1 + N2I2 Where I1 and I2 are primary and secondary currents. 23 ---------------- (4) ---------------- (3) -------------- (2)

Substituting for N1 and N2 from eq.(1) in eq.(4) , we get KwAwJ = i.e. Ap = AcAw =

For the sine wave, the secondary VA, Po2, is given by Po2 = E2I2 --------------- (5) Where E2 is the (rms) secondary induced voltage and the primary VA, Po1 is given by Po1 = E1I1 = --------------- (6)

Where E1 is the rms primary induced voltage and is the efficiency of the transformer. Thus, = AcAw = Where Po2 = secondary VA Kf = form factor (1 for square wave, 1.1 for sine wave) Bm = allowed maximum flux density in Tesla J = current density in A/m2 Kw = window utilization factor f = frequency of the operation in Hz --------------- (7)

Design calculations:
This converter is fundamentally a single-ended boost converter. The power components in the core converter consist of a power transformer, power switch, inductor and output capacitor. The design of the boost converter will progress in the order below. Design Specifications: Output voltage V0 = 200V Output ripple 1% of V0 Output current, I0 = 1.65A Switching frequency fs = 100KHZ Supply voltage, Vin = 30V 10% (Normal Mode)

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Therefore, Vinmin = 27V, Vinmax = 33V Before, we going to design, we shall look into the choice of some design parameters which will affect the design of the transformers. The following discussion will be valid for all the design examples in this chapter. The converter diodes in the secondary of the transformer will show a significant drop as they are carrying high currents. The diode drops may be as high as 1.5V for fast recovery diodes. It is safe to design for the worst case of VD = 1.5V. Another practical problem is the drops due to the winding resistances of the inductor and transformer. It has been found that Vrl=10% of V0 is a safe choice generally. At high frequencies, usually the core material choice is ferrite. It has a saturating flux density, Bm of 0.3 T, so the maximum allowable flux density in the core should be 0.2 T or less (Bm= 0.2 T). Another important design parameter is the current density J. If the current density J is chosen very low, then for a given current a very large conductor cross section is required (thereby demanding a large window area), which means that the resistance presented to the current flow will be low. One should not thereby choose a very low current density with the idea of reducing the conductor resistance because at high frequencies the skin effect comes into picture and whatever be the thickness of the gauge, there is no significant change in the conductor resistance. A current density between 2 and 5 A/mm2 is found to be a good compromise between conductor resistance and window area. We shall use a value of J = 3 A/mm2 in this project. The maximum duty cycle in isolated converters should not exceed 50% to avoid core saturation. So we shall design for Dmax = 0.45 i.e. 45%.The window utilization factor K w= 0.4 and the efficiency of the transformer, , is taken to be 0.8. Duty Ratio: The maximum duty cycle in isolated converters should not exceed 50% to avoid core saturation. So we shall design for Dmax = 0.45 i.e. 45%. Area product = 7734 mm4

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Choose the suitable core which has an Ap greater than the value calculated above. ETD 34/17/11 core is a proper choice (Ac = 91.6 mm2, Ap = 11175.2 mm4) Number of turns: The equations for calculating the primary and secondary number of turns are given by N1 = N2 = Substituting the values for the variables, we have N1 = 4.5 (say 5) and N2 = 27.29 (say 28) Wire gauge selection: The rms values of the currents are given by I2 = Io I1 = (N2/N1) I2 Substituting the values for the variables, we have I2 = 1.1068A I1 = 5.98A The wire cross sectional area can now be calculated by, a1 = I1/J and a2 = I2/J Substituting the values, we have a1 = 1.99mm2 Choose a wire gauge whose cross section is greater than that calculated above. Instead of taking single large gauze wire bundled two SWG 18 wires in to one is a proper choice which nullify skin effect. And a2 = 0.3689mm2 Choose a wire gauge whose cross section is greater than that calculated above. SWG 22 is the proper choice for the secondary. Cross Check: Now check for the inequality, 26 and

 Using the actual values of the cross section area, we have, = 19.913 mm2 AwKw = 48.8 mm2 So, the inequality is satisfied, which means that the winding will fit in the available window area.

4.2 Inductor Design:

Area Product: The energy and area product calculations are as follows. The energy stored in the inductor is

----------------------------- (4.6) Where Im = peak value of inductor current

Area product is given by

---------------------------- (4.7) Kc = crest factor =1(square wave) We should choose a suitable core from available core material based on area product. Number of turns: The equation for the number of turns is given by

----------------------------- (4.8)

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Wire Gauge: The gauge of the wire can be calculated from the equation below a= I J ----------------------------- (4.9)

J = current density=3A/mm2 and I = peak current a = r 2 ---------------------------- (4.10) Wire gauge is calculated based on diameter of wire based on above two formulae. Cross check: The inequality AwKw > aN has to be checked If the crosscheck condition is not satisfied, we have repeated the design again. Calculations: Area Product:

Where L = 5.9 H and Im = 21A Substituting values in the above equation, we get, E = 0.0013J Area product is given by

Substituting values in the above equation, we get, Ap = 10800mm4 Choose the suitable core which has an Ap greater than the value calculated above. ETD 34/17/11 core is a proper choice (Ac = 91.6 mm2, Ap = 11175.2 mm4) Number of turns: The equation for the number of turns is given by

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Put the valves of the variables, and then the value of N is 6.76 turns (say 7). Wire Gauge: The gauge of the wire can be calculated from the equation below a= I J

Therefore a = 7mm2 Choose a wire gauge whose cross section is greater than that calculated above. Instead of taking single large gauze wire bundled five SWG 18 wires in to one is a proper choice which nullify skin effect. Cross Check: Now check for the inequality, Using the actual values of the cross section area, we have, = 40.845 mm2 AwKw = 48.8 mm2 So, the inequality is satisfied, which means that the winding will fit in the available window area. Air gap, lg: The air gap length lg, is given by the equation lg = (0N2Ac)/L From the above equation the air gap length obtained is lg = 0.956 mm

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4.3. PULSE WIDTH MODULATOR (3525)

The SG3525A, SG3527A pulse width modulator control circuits offer improved performance and lower external parts count when implemented for controlling all types of switching power supplies. The onchip +5.1 V reference is trimmed to 1% and the error amplifier has an input commonmode voltage range that includes the reference voltage, thus eliminating the need for external divider resistors. A sync input to the oscillator enables multiple units to be slaved or a single unit to be synchronized to an external system clock. A wide range of dead time can be programmed by a single resistor connected between the CT and Discharge pins. These devices also feature builtin softstart circuitry, requiring only an external timing capacitor. A shutdown pin controls both the softstart circuitry and the output stages, providing instantaneous turn off through the PWM latch with pulsed shutdown, as well as softstart recycle with longer shutdown commands. The under voltage lockout inhibits the outputs and the changing of the softstart capacitor when VCC is below nominal. The output stages are totempole design capable of sinking and sourcing in excess of 200 mA. The output stage of the SG3525A features NOR logic resulting in a low output for an offstate while the SG3527A utilized OR logic which gives a high output when off. 8.0 V to 35 V Operations 5.1 V 1.0% Trimmed Reference 100 Hz to 400 kHz Oscillator Range Separate Oscillator Sync Pin Adjustable Dead time Control Input Under voltage Lockout Latching PWM to Prevent Multiple Pulses PulsebyPulse Shutdown Dual Source/Sink Outputs: 400 mA Peak

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OPEN LOOP CONTROL OF A FLYBACK CONVERTER

APPLICATION INFORMATION

Shutdown Options
Since both the compensation and softstart terminals (Pins 9 and 8) have current source pullups, either can readily accept a pulldown signal which only has to sink a maximum of 100 mA to turn off the outputs. This is subject to the added requirement of 32

discharging whatever external capacitance may be attached to these pins. An alternate approach is the use of the shutdown circuitry of Pin 10 which has been improved to enhance the available shutdown options. Activating this circuit by applying a positive signal on Pin 10 performs two functions: the PWM latch is immediately set providing the fastest turnoff signal to the outputs; and a 150 mA current sink begins to discharge the external softstart capacitor. If the shutdown command is short, the PWM signal is terminated without significant discharge of the softstart capacitor, thus, allowing, for example, a convenient implementation of pulsebypulse current limiting. Holding Pin 10 high for a longer duration, however, will ultimately discharge this external capacitor, recycling slow turnon upon release. Pin 10 should not be left floating as noise pickup could conceivably interrupt normal operation.

MATLAB SIMULINK INTRODUCTION

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Simulink is a graphical extension to MATLAB for the modeling and simulation of systems. In Simulink, systems are drawn on screen as block diagrams. Many elements of block diagrams are available (such as transfer functions, summing junctions, etc.), as well as virtual input devices (such as function generators) and output devices (such as oscilloscopes). Simulink is integrated with MATLAB and data can be easily transferred between the programs. In this tutorial, we will introduce the basics of using Simulink to model and simulate a system. Simulink is supported on Unix, Macintosh, and Windows environments, and it is included in the student version of MATLAB for personal computers. For more information on Simulink, contact the MathWorks. The idea behind these tutorials is that you can view them in one window while running Simulink in another window. Do not confuse the windows, icons, and menus in the tutorials for your actual Simulink windows. Most images in these tutorials are not live they simply display what you should see in your own Simulink windows. All Simulink operations should be done in your Simulink windows.

STARTING SIMULINK
Simulink is started from the MATLAB command prompt by entering the following command: simulink Alternatively, you can click on the "Simulink Library Browser" button at the top of the MATLAB command window as shown below:

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The Simulink Library Browser window should now appear on the screen. Most of the blocks needed for modeling basic systems can be found in the subfolders of the main "Simulink" folder (opened by clicking on the "+" in front of "Simulink"). Once the "Simulink" folder has been opened, the Library Browser window should look like:

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Basic Elements There are two major classes of elements in Simulink: blocks and lines. Blocks are used to generate, modify, combine, output, and display signals. Lines are used to transfer signals from one block to another. Blocks The subfolders underneath the "Simulink" folder indicate the general classes of blocks available for us to use: Continuous: Linear, continuous-time system elements (integrators, transfer functions, state-space models, etc.) Discrete: Linear, discrete-time system elements (integrators, transfer functions, statespace models, etc.)

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 Functions & Tables: User-defined functions and tables for interpolating function values Math: Mathematical operators (sum, gain, dot product, etc.) Nonlinear: Nonlinear operators (coulomb/viscous friction, switches, relays, etc.) Signals & Systems: Blocks for controlling/monitoring signal(s) and for creating subsystems Sinks: Used to output or display signals (displays, scopes, graphs, etc.) Sources: Used to generate various signals (step, ramp, sinusoidal, etc.) Blocks have zero to several input terminals and zero to several output terminals. Unused input terminals are indicated by a small open triangle. Unused output terminals are indicated by a small triangular point. The block shown below has an unused input terminal on the left and an unused output terminal on the right.

Lines Lines transmit signals in the direction indicated by the arrow. Lines must always transmit signals from the output terminal of one block to the input terminal of another block. One exception to this is that a line can tap off of another line. This sends the original signal to each of two (or more) destination blocks, as shown below:

Lines can never inject a signal into another line; lines must be combined through the use of a block such as a summing junction. A signal can be either a scalar signal or a vector signal. For Single-Input, Single-Output systems, scalar signals are generally used. For Multi-Input, Multi-Output systems, vector signals are often used, consisting of two or more scalar signals. The lines used to transmit

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scalar and vector signals are identical. The type of signal carried by a line is determined by the blocks on either end of the line. Building a System To demonstrate how a system is represented using Simulink, we will build the block diagram for a simple model consisting of a sinusoidal input multiplied by a constant gain, which is shown below:

This model will consist of three blocks: Sine Wave, Gain, and Scope. The Sine Wave is a Source Block from which a sinusoidal input signal originates. This signal is transferred through a line in the direction indicated by the arrow to the Gain Math Block. The Gain block modifies its input signal (multiplies it by a constant value) and outputs a new signal through a line to the Scope block. The Scope is a Sink Block used to display a signal (much like an oscilloscope). We begin building our system by bringing up a new model window in which to create the block diagram. This is done by clicking on the "New Model" button in the toolbar of the Simulink Library Browser (looks like a blank page). Building the system model is then accomplished through a series of steps: 1. The necessary blocks are gathered from the Library Browser and placed in the model window. 2. The parameters of the blocks are then modified to correspond with the system we are modelling.

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3. Finally, the blocks are connected with lines to complete the model. Each of these steps will be explained in detail using our example system. Once a system is built, simulations are run to analyze its behavior. Gathering Blocks Each of the blocks we will use in our example model will be taken from the Simulink Library Browser. To place the Sine Wave block into the model window, follow these steps: 1. Click on the "+" in front of "Sources" (this is a subfolder beneath the "Simulink" folder) to display the various source blocks available for us to use. 2. Scroll down until you see the "Sine Wave" block. Clicking on this will display a short explanation of what that block does in the space below the folder list:

3. To insert a Sine Wave block into your model window, click on it in the Library Browser and drag the block into your workspace.

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The same method can be used to place the Gain and Scope blocks in the model window. The "Gain" block can be found in the "Math" subfolder and the "Scope" block is located in the "Sink" subfolder. Arrange the three blocks in the workspace (done by selecting and dragging an individual block to a new location) so that they look similar to the following:

Modifying the Blocks Simulink allows us to modify the blocks in our model so that they accurately reflect the characteristics of the system we are analyzing. For example, we can modify the Sine Wave block by double-clicking on it. Doing so will cause the following window to appear:

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This window allows us to adjust the amplitude, frequency, and phase shift of the sinusoidal input. The "Sample time" value indicates the time interval between successive readings of the signal. Setting this value to 0 indicates the signal is sampled continuously. Let us assume that our system's sinusoidal input has: Amplitude = 2 Frequency = pi Phase = pi/2 Enter these values into the appropriate fields (leave the "Sample time" set to 0) and click "OK" to accept them and exit the window. Note that the frequency and phase for our system contain 'pi' (3.1415...). These values can be entered into Simulink just as they have been shown. Next, we modify the Gain block by double-clicking on it in the model window. The following window will then appear:

Note that Simulink gives a brief explanation of the block's function in the top portion of this window. In the case of the Gain block, the signal input to the block (u) is multiplied by a constant (k) to create the block's output signal (y). Changing the "Gain" parameter in this window changes the value of k. For our system, we will let k = 5. Enter this value in the "Gain" field, and click "OK" to close the window. The Scope block simply plots its input signal as a function of time, and thus there are no system parameters that we can change for it. We will look at the Scope block in more detail after we have run our simulation.

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Connecting the Blocks For a block diagram to accurately reflect the system we are modeling, the Simulink blocks must be properly connected. In our example system, the signal output by the Sine Wave block is transmitted to the Gain block. The Gain block amplifies this signal and outputs its new value to the Scope block, which graphs the signal as a function of time. Thus, we need to draw lines from the output of the Sine Wave block to the input of the Gain block, and from the output of the Gain block to the input of the Scope block. Lines are drawn by dragging the mouse from where a signal starts (output terminal of a block) to where it ends (input terminal of another block). When drawing lines, it is important to make sure that the signal reaches each of its intended terminals. Simulink will turn the mouse pointer into a crosshair when it is close enough to an output terminal to begin drawing a line, and the pointer will change into a double crosshair when it is close enough to snap to an input terminal. A signal is properly connected if its arrowhead is filled in. If the arrowhead is open, it means the signal is not connected to both blocks. To fix an open signal, you can treat the open arrowhead as an output terminal and continue drawing the line to an input terminal in the same manner as explained below

Properly Connected Signal

Open Signal

When drawing lines, you do not need to worry about the path you follow. The lines will route themselves automatically. Once blocks are connected, they can be repositioned for a

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neater appearance. This is done by clicking on and dragging each block to its desired location (signals will stay properly connected and will re-route themselves). After drawing in the lines and repositioning the blocks, the example system model should look like:

In some models, it will be necessary to branch a signal so that it is transmitted to two or more different input terminals. This is done by first placing the mouse cursor at the location where the signal is to branch. Then, using either the CTRL key in conjunction with the left mouse button or just the right mouse button, drag the new line to its intended destination. This method was used to construct the branch in the Sine Wave output signal shown below:

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The routing of lines and the location of branches can be changed by dragging them to their desired new position. To delete an incorrectly drawn line, simply click on it to select it, and hit the DELETE key.

Running Simulations
Now that our model has been constructed, we are ready to simulate the system. To do this, go to the Simulation menu and click on Start, or just click on the "Start/Pause Simulation" button in the model window toolbar (looks like the "Play" button on a VCR). Because our example is a relatively simple model, its simulation runs almost instantaneously. With more complicated systems, however, you will be able to see the progress of the simulation by observing its running time in the the lower box of the model window. Double-click the Scope block to view the output of the Gain block for the simulation as a function of time. Once the Scope window appears, click the "Autoscale" button in its toolbar (looks like a pair of binoculars) to scale the graph to better fit the window. Having done this, you should see the following:

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Note that the output of our system appears as a cosine curve with a period of 2 seconds and amplitude equal to 10. Does this result agree with the system parameters we set? Its amplitude makes sense when we consider that the amplitude of the input signal was 2 and the constant gain of the system was 5 (2 x 5 = 10). The output's period should be the same as that of the input signal, and this value is a function of the frequency we entered for the Sine Wave block (which was set equal to pi). Finally, the output's shape as a cosine curve is due to the phase value of pi/2 we set for the input (sine and cosine graphs differ by a phase shift of pi/2). What if we were to modify the gain of the system to be 0.5? How would this affect the output of the Gain block as observed by the Scope? Make this change by double-clicking on the Gain block and changing the gain value to 0.5. Then, re-run the simulation and view the Scope (the Scope graph will not change unless the simulation is re-run, even though the gain value has been modified). The Scope graph should now look like the following:

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Note that the only difference between this output and the one from our original system is the amplitude of the cosine curve. In the second case, the amplitude is equal to 1, or 1/10th of 10, which is a result of the gain value being 1/10th as large as it originally was.

6. CIRCUIT AND WAVEFORMS

5.1. SIMULATION CIRCUIT:

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6. CONCLUSION
This project has developed a voltage-clamped dcdc converter with reduced reverse recovery current and switch-voltage stress, with a power quality of low voltage and high current. The newly designed converter circuit has the following improvements compared to the previous work. 1) It can select the main switch with lower sustainable voltage for alleviating the switch conduction loss due to the utilization of voltage-clamped technique. 2) All diodes in this circuit topology are Schottky diodes with the reduction of switching and conduction losses. 47

3) The additional inductor is used for providing the reverse current path of the transformer to raise the utility rate of the magnetic core. 4) Additional snubber circuits for absorbing the voltage spikes in the diodes are not required to further cut down the manufacture cost. This new converter topology provides designers with an alternative choice to convert renewable energy efficiently, and it also can be extended easily to other powerconversion systems for satisfying high-voltage demands.

APPENDIX
IRF540N

VDSS = 100V RDS(on) = 44m. ID = 33A 48

Advanced Process Technology Ultra Low On-Resistance Dynamic dv/dt Rating 175C Operating Temperature Fast Switching Fully Avalanche Rated

MBR20100CT

This series uses the Schottky Barrier principle with a platinum barrier metal. These stateof-the-art devices have the following features: Features 20 A Total (10 A Per Diode Leg) Guard-Ring for Stress Protection Low Forward Voltage 175C Operating Junction Temperature Epoxy Meets UL 94 V-0 @ 0.125 in Low Power Loss/High Efficiency High Surge Capacity Low Stored Charge Majority Carrier Conduction Shipped 50 units per plastic tube Pb-Free Packages are Available* 49

Mechanical Characteristics: Case: Epoxy, Molded Weight: 1.9 grams (approximately) Finish: All External Surfaces Corrosion Resistant and Terminal Leads are Readily Solderable Lead Temperature for Soldering Purposes: 260C Max. for 10 Seconds

BIBLIOGRAPY
[1] N. Mohan, T. M. Undeland, and W. P. Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design. New York: Wiley, 1995. [2] M. M. Jovanovic and Y. Jang, A new soft-switched boost converter with isolated active snubber, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 496502, Mar./Apr. 1999. [3] C. M. C. Duarte and I. Barbi, An improved family of ZVS-PWM active-clamping DCto-DC converters, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 17, Jan. 2002. [4] E. S. da Silva, L. dos Reis Barbosa, J. B. Vieira, L. C. de Freitas, and V. J. Farias, An improved boost PWM soft-single-switched converter with low voltage and current stresses, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 48, no. 6, pp. 11741179, Dec. 2001. 50

[5] C. W. Roh, S. H. Han, and M. J. Youn, Dual coupled inductor fed isolated boost converter for low input voltage applications, Electron. Lett., vol. 35, no. 21, pp. 17911792, Oct. 1999. [6] Q. Zhao and F. C. Lee, High-efficiency, high step-up dcdc converters, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 6573, Jan. 2003.

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