Learning to See: The Visual Dharma Transmission of the Ajanta Caves.

Happy is the house where a man awakes. Blessed is his birth. Blessed is the teaching of the way. -The Buddha, The Dharmapada

FIG. 1. - Ajanta Cave 2. Seated Buddha in Dharmacakra Mudr. Photograph by Benoy Behl, (2005)

The paintings of Ajanta are profound visual documents that trace the evolution of Buddhist thought in India from its quiet Theravdan inceptions, through to its vibrant proto-Mahynan and Mahynan forms. Alongside accompanying doctrinal texts that may be garnered from the period stretching from around the 2nd century BCE up until the 7th century CE, the layered tapestries that unfold across the walls of Ajanta offer a rich and vivid exposition of the central themes, concepts and concerns of Buddhism as they occurred throughout its early diversification. As Sheila Wiener has acknowledged: To those concerned less with aesthetics and more with the evolution of Buddhism in India, the significance of Ajanta is overwhelming.1 Ajanta is perhaps the last of the remaining Buddhist monuments seen today in India that can be said to pre-date the incursion of esoteric influence, aligning itself as Weiner puts it, on the very threshold of Mahyna expression.2 Furthermore, when assessed alongside (then nascent) Mahyna doctrine, and more crystallized core concepts of the Theravda otherwise puzzling stylistic conventions that occur throughout Ajanta seem to fall neatly into place. This essay attempts to illustrate how some of these conventions relate to distinct philosophical themes and concepts present within early Buddhism. By the time work at the caves had finished between the 6th and 7th century A.D., the sites Theravda nucleus3 as Walter Spink calls it, had evolved into a veritable playground of Mahyna bodhisattvas, Buddhas, themes and ideas. Pertinent to this essay however, scholars such as Pramod Chandra have recently argued that the paintings of Ajanta cannot be neatly divided into Theravda and Mahyna,4 as has been done so often in the past. Chandra asserts how almost all of the narrative paintings at Ajanta are based on the vinaya of the Mlasarvstivdins, and the poems of Aryasura and Avaghosa, and therefore how the commonly accepted understanding of the caves as Mahyna is incorrect. Rather, Chandra states, it is the Sanskrit texts of the Theravda that are the source and inspiration for the painting at Ajanta, to the extent that it has been preserved.5 Given this alleged realignment of core assumptions about Ajanta therefore, and taking into account the undeniably abundant Mahyna iconography that manifests itself through this apparent Theravdan visual language; Ajanta in many

Weiner, Sheila L. (September - December 1976), Ajanta: Iconography and Chronology. East and West Vol. 26, No. 3/4, p. 343. 2 Ibid., p. 344. 3 Spink, Walter M. 2005. Ajanta: History and Development. Volume Five. Brill Leiden, Boston, p.9. 4 Chandra, Lokesh. Buddhism: Art and Values. 2007. International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi, p.9. 5 Ibid., p. 421.
1

ways presents a convenient accessibility for the art historian who wishes to view these paintings simply as Buddhist, in the faiths most unified sense. At their essence, according to Mittal and Agrawal, the Ajanta caves functioned as, art galleries to inspire the common man with the Buddhas message of love and compassion, morality, piety and concentration.6 Their spiritual purpose was to convey core Buddhist doctrines through painting in a way that was clear, concise, compelling and easily readable for native and foreign audiences alike; countless numbers of whom were travelling along the nexus of nearby trade routes. Their ultimate goal was to equip visitors with profound insights into the nature of reality through visual transmissions of the Buddha-dharma. Such a transmission (it was likely hoped), would shatter the mithya or illusion of the everyday material world, dispel avidy or ignorance, and awaken the viewers inherent Tathgatagarbh or Buddha Nature- a characteristically Mahyna concept that was to no doubt become increasingly important at the site in its later years. On top of this, the merit accumulated by simply creating a visually pleasing experience for the beholder was in itself, an action propelled by Dharma. As the treatise on painting entitled the Chitrasutra of the Vishnudharmottara Purana (ch.43) states: A painting cleanses and curbs anxiety, augments future good, causes unequalled and pure delight, [and] kills the evil spirits of bad dreams.7 Nonetheless, the paintings of Ajanta are didactic in nature, and reflect the education-driven heart of the Vinaya. 8 Indeed, it is no coincidence that (with the exception of Cave 7), the shrine images of the Buddha at Ajanta are pre-dominantly in Dharmacakra mudr.9 Furthermore, there are countless identifying inscriptions beneath many of the paintings, which narrate the themes, stories and individual painted figures presented to audiences who may not have been familiar with them; some even displaying entire Sanskrit verses relating to that particular story. Given this fact, and regardless of the accumulation of merit that was the ultimate end goal of many donors also leaving their own personal inscriptions; the

Mittal, Kewap Krishan and Agrawal, Ashvini, eds. 1993. Buddhist Art and Thought. Harman Publishing House New Delhi, p. 16. Trans. Kramrisch, Stella in Behl, Benoy K. 2005. The Ajanta Caves: Ancient Paintings of Buddhist India. Thames & Hudson, p. 12. 8 Dehejia, Vidya. 1997. Discourse in Early Buddhist Art: Visual Narratives of India. Munishiram Monoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, p. 211. 9 Weiner, Sheila L. Ajanta: Its Place in Buddhist Art. 1977. University of California Press, p. 349.
6 7

paintings of Ajanta are clearly didactic tools of spiritual transmission. Importantly also, whilst the commentarial inscriptions may have been efficient didactic tools to an extent; it is likely that monks were also present in the caves to act as tour-guides for visitors; illuminating different scenes one by one with the light of a small butter lamp and helping to decode apparently jumbled narratives. As I posit however, much of the spiritual art of Ajanta is visually decipherable on its own, and merely needs a pair of eyes and an open heart to comprehend. As is well known, at Ajanta the Jtakas (the stories of the Buddhas previous lives) achieved a central role in the transmission of Buddhist values and concepts. As Sangitika Nigam puts it, the Jtakas persuade us, through the exemplary and inspiring lives led by the Bodhisattva, to follow a life of virtue and compassion in this world.10 The Visvantara Jtaka for example is concerned with the virtues of selfless charity, the Vidhurapandita Jtaka with the theme of wisdom, and the Shaddanta Jtaka with that of absolute generosity. Whilst some of the Jtakas had clear Brahmanical sources, they were always tactfully chiselled into Buddhist transmissions. The scene depicted below (See FIG. 2.) presents a crucial moment in the Mahajanaka Jtaka, when Mahajanaka, the newly crowned (though deeply unfulfilled) King of Mithila, takes his abhiseka or ritual bath before renouncing his kingdom in order to pursue a spiritual life spent meditating upon truth in the Himalayas.

10

Nigam, Sangitika. Behl, Benoy K. 2005. The Ajanta Caves: Ancient Paintings of Buddhist India. Thames & Hudson, p. 59.

FIG. 2. - Ajanta Cave 1. King of Mithila, taking abhiseka, Mahajanaka Jtaka. Photograph by Benoy Behl, (2005) Its beholders would most likely never have seen the interior life of a king depicted so candidly as it is in the Mahajanaka Jtaka, and given the theme of ultimately unsatisfactory kingship seen throughout this cave, it is surprising that commentators such as Walter Spink have insisted that Cave 1 is Emperor Harisenas cave.11 Indeed, the Jtakas themselves seem positively anti-kingship; perhaps in order to impress upon their beholders the fact that Buddhism is an all-inclusive, humanistic creed without restrictions, rank or bias. One might also note in the Mahajanaka Jtaka, that the artists of Ajanta achieved the impressive feat of mastering a complex range of tones and depth with a simple palette of only five colours; even conveying sculptured modelling through use of colour. As Stella Kramrisch notes, the Ajanta artists use of colour, makes crystal-cold the rock, blood-warm the human figure, turgidly cool the plants.12 Without a doubt,

11 12

Dehejia, op cit., p. 231. Kramrisch, Stella. 1937. A Survey of Painting in the Deccan. The India Society, London, p. 28.

this vividness of colour and form creates a fertile atmosphere for inspiring a spiritual connection with the spectator. Whilst commentators such as Dehejia and Sanyal have gone to great lengths to compartmentalize the paintings of Ajanta into broad categories or modes of narrative, this task realistically speaking, seems too monumental to ever be conclusively achieved. Indeed, one only needs to look to the areas behind Avalokitevara Padmapani in Cave 1 to see how space is overwhelmingly full of forms, shapes and figures at Ajanta, without a single empty patch of space remaining that might be perceived as connoting the infinite. (See FIG. 3+4).

FIG. 3. - Ajanta Cave 1. Avalokitevara Padmapani. Reproduction by Lady Herringham, plate x, (1910)

FIG. 4. - Ajanta Cave 1. Illustration of Avalokitevara Padmapani, from Sanyal, (1984) Juxtaposed against a rocky landscape that houses restless monkeys, shrilling peacocks, and a variety of mythical beings; the (resoundingly effeminate) bodhisattva Padmapani appears admirably detached, conveying perfect indifference and perfect compassion, both existing simultaneously13; both key qualities of this bodhisattva as is doctrinally stated in Mahyna texts such as the Saddharmapundarikasutra and the Karandavyuha.14 (See FIG. 5.).

Sanyal, Narayan. 1984. Ajanta: A Guide Book as well as critical analyses of the murals and other artworks of Ajanta in the perspective of Indian Art. New Central Book Agency Ltd, Calcutta, p. 33. 14 Schlingloff, Dieter. 1988. Studies in the Ajanta Paintings: Identifications and Interpretations. Ajanta Publications, Delhi, p. 175.
13

FIG. 5. - Ajanta Cave 1. Detail of Bodhisattva Padmapani. Photograph by Benoy Behl, (2005) Indeed, Padmapani and likewise; his fellow bodhisattva Vajrapani who appears on the opposite wall (See FIG. 6.), showcase transcendent expressions which are markedly unclassifiable within the language of bhavas conventionally used in Indian painting of the time. Their soft glow almost melts the surrounding chaos into the delicate formations of clouds in the sky.

FIG. 6. - Ajanta Cave 1. Detail of Bodhisattva Vajrapani. Photograph by Benoy Behl, (2005) Another deeply compelling visual meditation on the virtues of naiskramya or non-attachment, can be found in the serene inward-looking gaze of the Buddha on the left of the antechamber of Cave 1, as he transcends all the temptations of Mara that attempt to engulf him. (See FIG. 7.).

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FIG. 7. - Ajanta Cave 1. Maravijaya Jtaka, or, The Assault and temptation of Mara on the eve of Enlightenment. Photograph by Benoy Behl, (2005) A profoundly potent image throughout historical Buddhism, this scene depicts kyamuni sitting beneath the Bodhi tree (as represented by a branch with three leaves on it) at his pivotal moment of ultimate awakening. Mara, lord of the sensual world, seen here on the right hand side as a princely figure adorned with sumptuous jewellery, tries his best to stop kyamuni from achieving this aim; sending fearsome demons, aggressive warriors, tempting offerings and even his seductive daughters to distract him. The epitome of the virtues of a calm, mindful state of mind; the bodhisattva here remains still and unmoved. With a nimbus around his head and his right hand extended pointing to the ground in Bhumisparsa mudr, he summons the goddess of the earth (standing on his right-hand side) to testify to his virtue.

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FIG. 8. - Ajanta Cave 1. Illustration of Maravijaya Jtaka, from Sanyal, (1984) Even though the fresco we are now discussing is heavily damaged, one can feel how powerful it must have appeared in its prime. Indeed, a reproduction by John Griffiths (See FIG. 9) helps us begin to understand not only the wealth of iconographic significance conveyed in this scene, but also its visually powerful (perhaps even mandalic) qualities of perspective, tone and composition.

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FIG. 9. - Ajanta Cave 1. Maravijaya Jtaka, or, The Assault and temptation of Mara on the eve of Enlightenment. Reproduction by John Griffiths and students from the Bombay School of Art, India, 1875-1876. Victoria & Albert Museum, London. Museum number IS.13-1885 As demonstrated through the images presented so far, life and action within the paintings of Ajanta erupt from every inch of its walls panoramically, and with unprecedented vivacity; without ever allowing blankness to creep in. Indeed, as Ghosh states: Like collective living, these are collective paintings where no area has been left alone, each depending on the other and partaking of the whole.15 Indeed, far from beings some sort of horror vacui on the behalf of the artists, I posit that this overlapping, interweaving, tapestry-like compositional style used throughout Ajanta may in fact be a visual transmission of a core doctrinal concept that holds every Buddhist teaching together from Theravda to Dzogchen, to the extinct schools; that of prattyasamutpda, also known as Mutual Causality or Dependent Arising.

15

Ghosh, A. Eds. Ajanta Murals. An album of eighty-five reproductions in colour. 1967. Archaeological Survey of Indian, New Delhi, p. 12.

13

As perhaps the core metaphysical corner stone of Buddhism, the concept of prattyasamutpda presents the world as a causally governed, endless wheel of becoming, whereby phenomena are sustained only so long as their sustaining factors, nidnas or aggregates remain. These twelve aggregates are: ignorance (avidy), impressions (samskra), consciousness (vijna), mind-body frame work (nmarpa), six organs of sense (sadyatana), contact (spara), feeling (vedan), desire (trsn), grasping or clinging (updna), will to be (bhva), birth (jti), and old age and death (jarmaraa).16 Essentially, according to prattyasamutpda; all beings ultimately exist in a state of perpetual interdependence. Furthermore, due to the law-like behavior of causation, prattyasamutpda gives rise to every other doctrine in Buddhism (be it in the Mahyna or Theravda form) including rebirth, samsra, dukkha or sunyata. 17 This causal relationship is expressed in its most general form as follows. When this exists, that comes to be. With the arising of this, that arises. When this does not exist, that does not come to be.18 In examining the mechanism of prattyasamutpda at Ajanta, it is perhaps best to look provisionally at one of its most significant, yet surprisingly overlooked features; the bhavacakra or Wheel of Life, which appears on the left of the veranda inside the vihara of Cave 17. (See FIG. 9.).

Mittal and Agrawal, op cit., p. 155. Williams, Paul. 2000. Buddhist Thought. Routledge, p. 125. 18 Assutav Sutta. 20052011. Trans. Thanissaro Bhikkhu, 20052011
16 17

14

FIG. 10. - Ajanta Cave 17. Wheel of Life. Courtesy of: www.flickr.com Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/prasp/248917908/ The wheel itself (although now highly deteriorated) functioned as a comprehendible diagram of the cyclical, yet causal nature of reality. It visually expounds the mechanisms of prattyasamutpda through seven different causally connected sections that signify: ignorance, karma, samsara, the twelve nidnas, impermanence, liberation, and, the Buddha. The significance of this wheel in transmitting core Buddhist doctrine cannot be stressed enough. In fact, walking into any Lamaistic temple today one is likely to discover an almost identical depiction of the Wheel of Life as the one at Ajanta, located in exactly the same position as it is in Cave 17. After recognizing the clear importance of the concept of prattyasamutpda at Ajanta, we find visual expressions of it occurring repeatedly within a breadth of different caves. One area where we witness the concept manifested surprisingly vividly, is upon the often-overlooked ceilings of caves such as Cave 1. (See FIG. 11.).

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FIG. 11. - Ajanta Cave 1. Ceiling decoration. Photograph by Benoy Behl, (2005) Indeed, whilst the vast majority of modern commentators of Ajanta have focused their investigations almost exclusively towards more narratively tangible visual occurrences such as the Jtakas, Buddhas life story and the serene bodhisattvas; the critically important concept of prattyasamutpda can perhaps most vividly be seen in the ostensibly decorative marginal areas of Ajanta. On this panel from the ceiling of Cave 1, a creature that is (or was, or is becoming) a bull can be seen merging into the curving lines of the surrounding flora. With the arising of the bull, the flora comes to be; and with the existence of the bull, the flora comes to be. This phenomenon could also be read in reverse, whereby the fauna is evolving itself into the form of a bull. Either way it is a perfect visual transmission of the interconnected, causally governed, fluid-like chain of becoming that is prattyasamutpda.

16

FIG. 12. - Ajanta Cave 1. Ceiling decoration. Photograph by Benoy Behl, (2005) Particularly intriguing in this panel also, is the green bull on the right (See Fig. 12.), whose entire physical form is composed of negative space, or, in the Buddhist context, nyat, voidness or emptiness. Indeed, within this green bull, we find a perfect visual counterpart to Buddhas words to riputra in the Prajpramit Hrdaya Sutra, or Heart Sutra: Form is emptiness and the very emptiness is form; emptiness does not differ from form, form does not differ from emptiness; whatever is form, that is emptiness, whatever is emptiness, that is form [] all dharmas are marked with emptiness; they are not produced or stopped, not defiled or immaculate, not deficient or complete.19 Pertinently, without the green emptiness of the bull to juxtapose it with, there would be no delineated physical form to the fauna that surrounds it. This of course applies vice versa. As Stella Kramrisch notes of this characteristic phenomenon of Ajanta, space is form [and] as space penetrates into form, form is space.20 We find this visual phenomenon occurring in many other forms at Ajanta, be they human, plant or animal. Indeed, an understanding of both the early doctrine of prattyasamutpda and the Mahynan Prajpramit Hrdaya Sutra reminds the spectator of Ajanta to constantly read a figure in relation to those that surround it.

19 20

The Prajpramit Hrdaya Sutra or Heart Sutra. Accessed at: http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/heartstr.htm Kramrisch, op cit., p. 5.

17

Similar to the example of the floral bulls of Cave 1, prattyasamutpda is also depicted within the birds heads that emerge from the makara mouths at the throne-backs of the Buddhas in the scenes in Cave 2, as well as another scene in Cave 2 (See FIG. 13.), where the delicate, cloud like forms of lotus flowers seem to visually evolve into geese as ones eyes pan up the scene; artfully suggesting the doctrine of rebirth.

FIG. 13. - Ajanta Cave 2. Lotus Lake with Hunters and Wild Geese. Reproduction by Lady Herringham, plate xxxiii, (1910) We can also find profound expressions of prattyasamutpda in earlier Theravdan caves such the Saddanta Jtaka in Cave 10. (See FIG. 14.). Throughout its rhythmic narrative, (as helpfully illustrated by Sanyal in FIG. 15.), we find bodies all interlaced in a dynamic net-work of repetition; as Kramrisch notes, each of them doubly connected with the other one, caught within the web of rhythms which they uphold.21 As Kramrisch later adds, while they move in it, they knit its meshes.22

21 22

Kramrisch, op cit., p. 32. Kramrisch, op cit. p. 5.

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FIG. 14. - Ajanta Cave 10. Scene from the Saddanta Jtaka. Reproduction by John Griffiths and students from the Bombay School of Art, India, 1881-1883. Victoria & Albert Museum, London. Museum number IS.13-1885

FIG. 15. - Ajanta Cave 1. Illustration of scene from the Saddanta Jtaka, from Sanyal, (1984) Indeed, one of the mysteries about the paintings of Ajanta has always been, according to Ghosh, their power to captivate the eye and hold it on to the wall, yet not allowing it to rest still at a spot but multiplying the focal points along with the continuous moving lines.
23

With an established

understanding of prattyasamutpda, one might be better armed to decode the dynamic narratives of Ajanta.

23

Ghosh, op cit., p. 12.

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FIG. 16. - Ajanta Cave 17. Yasodhar and Rahula before the Buddha. Photograph by Benoy Behl, (2005) As if often noted, logical notions of time, space and perspective are regularly inverted, scrambled, and in many cases, completely ignored at Ajanta. Indeed, as in both Theravda and Mahyna Buddhist ontology, time and space are mere forms of sensibility interweaving with each other in a dynamic tapestry. Therefore when they are transcended, it could be said that there is no time. In Cave 17 we witness one of these rare occasions within the Ajanta murals, where a figure (in this case the Buddha) could be said to have successfully transcended both. (See FIG. 16.) Indeed, the ethereally black empty space surrounding the border of his frame may be read as his breaking away from the boundaries of worldly space and time. However, his wife, Yasodhar and his son, Rahula still appear to be a part of this realm, as demonstrated by the way the line and colour of their forms overlap with the background behind them. Whilst Yasodhar directs her son forward towards Siddhartha (the man she once recognized as her husband) with her left hand, she pulls him back in fear of losing him the same way she lost Siddhartha with her right. The young boy is frozen in awe; inevitably soon to become one of the Buddhas most devoted disciples.

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The final concept that I wish to discuss in the context of Ajanta is that of anicca or impermanence; one of the three marks of existence posited in all forms of Buddhism alongside duhkha (unsatisfactoriness) and antman (non-selfhood); and furthermore, how it may relate to a curiously consistent convention followed in many of the paintings at Ajanta whereby rocky surfaces appear in puzzling geometric patterns, usually, beneath the feet of characters within a scene. (See FIG. 17+18.)

FIG. 17. - Ajanta Cave 17. Detail of unstable surfaces. Photograph by Benoy Behl, (2005)

FIG. 18. - Ajanta Cave 1. Detail of unstable surfaces in Mahajanaka Jtaka. Photograph by Benoy Behl, (2005)

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Indeed, as part of the trilaksana the Buddha stressed that all manifested things or phenomena are inseparable from anitya or change. All things arise and pass away,24 he boldly stated. It seems a logical interpretation therefore, to view these rocky foundations upon which so much of Ajanta rests as constant reminders of the ultimately unstable nature of the manifest world. Through close examination of its paintings, one understands the tremendous role Ajanta has played; not only in spreading the Dharma across an incredible trajectory throughout Asia, but also in inventing a veritable glossary of Buddhist visual language that was to be harnessed countless times, and in countless foreign lands, no doubt beyond the scope of its early progenitors collective imaginations. As illustrated through a relatively fractional handful of specific examples, this essay has discussed the broad extent to which the cave paintings at Ajanta served as rich visual transmissions of Buddhist thought, concepts and doctrine. Through the form, composition and iconography of the surviving paintings we witness a clear attempt by the Ajanta artists to forge a profound spiritual connection with the spectator through a visual language that is born distinctly out of Buddhist concepts and ontology. Beyond loftier ideas of Buddhist transmission and legacy however; the paintings of Ajanta function quite simply, as a means of brightening a flame that lies dormant within each and every sentient being- a flame of insight, transcendence and compassion.

24

The Dhammapada: The Saying of the Buddha. 2008. Trans. Byron, Thomas. Rider & Co, London, Impurity.

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Bibliography Anand, Mulk Raj. 1971. Ajanta. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd. Bombay. Behl, Benoy K. 2005. The Ajanta Caves: Ancient Paintings of Buddhist India. Thames & Hudson.

Chicarelli, Charles F. 2004. Buddhist Art: An Illustrated Introduction. Silkworm Books, Chiang Mai, Thailand. Chandra, Lokesh. Buddhism: Art and Values. 2007. International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi. Chandra, Lokesh. Buddhism: Art and Values. 2007. International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi. Dehejia, Vidya. 1997. Discourse in Early Buddhist Art: Visual Narratives of India. Munishiram Monoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi. Ghosh, A. Eds. Ajanta Murals. An album of eighty-five reproductions in colour. 1967. Archaeological Survey of Indian, New Delhi. Herringham, Lady Christiana. 1998. Ajanta Frescoes: Edited and compiled by members of the Indian Society. Aryan Books International, New Delhi. Kail, Owen C. 1975. Buddhist Cave Temples of India. D.B. Taraporevala Sons and Co. Private Ltd, Bombay. Kramrisch, Stella. 1937. A Survey of Painting in the Deccan. The India Society, London. Mittal, Kewap Krishan and Agrawal, Ashvini, eds. 1993. Buddhist Art and Thought. Harman Publishing House New Delhi. Nagar, Shanti Lal. Jatakas in Indian Art. 1993. Parimal Publications, Delhi. Chicarelli, Charles F. 2004. Buddhist Art: An Illustrated Introduction. Silkworm Books, Chiang Mai, Thailand. Sanyal, Narayan. 1984. Ajanta: A Guide Book as well as critical analyses of the murals and other artworks of Ajanta in the perspective of Indian Art. New Central Book Agency Ltd, Calcutta. Schlingloff, Dieter. 1988. Studies in the Ajanta Paintings: Identifications and Interpretations. Ajanta Publications, Delhi. Spink, Walter M. 2005. Ajanta: History and Development. Volume One. Brill Leiden, Boston. The China-India Friendship Association, eds. 1955. Murals of Ajanta, India. The Peoples Fine Art Publishing House. Peking. Vazirani, Gulab, eds. 1984. Rock-Art of India: Paintings and Engraving. K.K. Chakravarty Bhopal. Weiner, Sheila L. Ajanta: Its Place in Buddhist Art. 1977. University of California Press. Williams, Paul. 2000. Buddhist Thought. Routledge.

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Buddhist Texts Assutav Sutta. 20052011. Trans. Thanissaro Bhikkhu. (Accessed at: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn12/sn12.061.than.html) The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha. 1995. Trans. Bhikkhu aa. Namoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi. Wisdom Publications: Boston. The Heart Sutra. 2006. Trans. Red Pine. Avalon Group; New Ed edition. The Dhammapada: The Saying of the Buddha. 2008. Trans. Byron, Thomas. Rider & Co, London. The Prajpramit Hdaya Sutra or Heart Sutra. Accessed at: http://www.buddhanet.net/elearning/heartstr.htm

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Kramrisch, Stella. (1969), Reviewed work(s): Ajanta to Ellora by Walter Spink. Artibus Asiae Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 327-329. Published by: Artibus Asiae Publishers. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3249343 Leese, Marilyn. (Autumn, 1978), Reviewed work(s): Ajanta: Its Place in Buddhist Art. by Weiner, Sheila L. Pacific Affairs . Vol. 51, No. 3 (Autumn, 1978), pp. 525-526. Published by: Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia.

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Majewski, Lawrence J. (Winter, 1975-1976), Report on Examination of Murals of Ajanta Caves in India. Bulletin of the American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works Vol. 16, No. 1 pp. 57-59. Published by: The American Institute for Conservation of Historic & Artistic Works. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3179348

M. K. Dhavalikar. (1968), New Inscriptions from Ajant. Ars Orientalis . Vol. 7, pp. 147-153. Published by: Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution and Department of the History of Art, University of Michigan Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4629245

M. K. Dhavalikar. (1969), r Yugadhara: A Master-Artist of Ajanta, Artibus Asiae Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 301-305+307-308, Published by: Artibus Asiae Publishers. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3249338

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Schastok, Sara Weisblat. (2000), Short Chronologies at Arm's Length: Ajanta and Beyond. Ars Orientalis, Vol. 30, Supplement 1. Chchj: Professor Walter M. Spink Felicitation Volume (2000), pp. 7-14 Published by: Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution and Department of the History of Art, University of Michigan. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4629563

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Schlingloff, Dieter. (1976), Kalynakrin's Adventures. The Identification of an Ajanta Painting. Artibus Asiae .Vol. 38, No. 1 (1976), pp. 5-28. Published by: Artibus Asiae Publishers. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3250094

Spink, Walter M. (1985), Ajanta's Chronology: Solstitial Evidence. Ars Orientalis Vol. 15, pp. 97-119. Published by: Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution and Department of the History of Art, University of Michigan. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4543048

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Spink, Walter M. (1968), Ajanta's Chronology: The Problem of Cave Eleven. Ars Orientalis Vol. 7, (1968), pp. 155-168. Published by: Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution and Department of the History of Art, University of Michigan. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4629246

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Weiner, Sheila L. (September - December 1976), Ajant Iconography and Chronology. East and West Vol. 26, No. 3/4, pp. 343-358. Published by: Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO) Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/29756316.

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