Warm-Up 12/13/11

If a population has the following genotype frequencies AA = 0.42, Aa = 0.46, and aa = 0.12 what are the allele frequencies?
A = 0.42 a =0.12 A =0.6 a = 0.4 A = 0.65 a = 0.35 A = 0.76 a = 0.24 A = 0.88 a = 0.12

Chapter 21 Genes Within Populations

21.1 Genes vary in natural populations 21.2 Why do allele frequencies change in populations? 21.3 Selection can act on traits affected by many genes.

Natural Selection

18.1 MICROEVOLUTION
Population -- all the members of a single species
Evolution that occurs within a population = microevolution

Population genetics studies variations in gene pools

Gene pool total of all the alleles in the population

Alleles chromosome sections that code for specific proteins traits Examples: Humans have alleles for blue eyes / brown eyes /green eyes curly/straight hair blood type A / B / O / AB

Hardy-Weinberg Principle
Why do allele frequencies change in populations?
They wont as long as the following assumptions are met.
The population size is very large Random mating is occurring No mutation takes place No genes are input from other sources (no immigration takes place) No selection occurs

Hardy-Weinberg Equation
(p + q) 2 = p2 + 2pq + q2 p2 = individuals homozygous for the dom allele 2pq = individuals heterozygous q2 = individuals homozygous for the rec allele

5 Factors that alter proportions enough to deviate from Hardy-Weinburg

1. Mutation 2. Gene Flow (immigration into and emigration out of a population) 3. Non-random mating 4. Genetic drift (random change in allele frequencies) 5. Selection

1. Mutation
Generally so low that they DO NOT effect Hardy-Weinburg 1 in 100,000 cells mutates Ultimate source of genetic variation

2. Gene Flow
1) movement of alleles from one population to another, by migration 2) Increases variation 3) Continued gene flow decreases diversity, gene pools become more similar 4) Can prevent speciation from occurring

Example of GENE FLOW

Each rat snake represents a separate population of snakes These snake remain similar and can interbreed This keeps their gene pools somewhat similar They are considered subspecies

Figure 18.3

3. Nonrandom Mating
1. Nonrandom mating individuals of certain genotypes mate with one another more commonly than would be expected on a random basis
2. Inbreeding is mating between relatives to a greater extent than by chance. a. Inbreeding does not change the allele frequencies. b. However, inbreeding decreases the proportion of heterozygotes.

3. Assortative mating occurs when individuals mate with those that have the same phenotype. 5. Sexual selection occurs when males compete for the right to reproduce and the female selects males of a particular phenotype. (guppies, lions)

4. GENETIC DRIFT
In a small population
particular alleles change drastically by chance alone.

Occurs when founders start a new population or after a bottleneck

Bottleneck Effect caused by a severe reduction in population, reduces overall diversity. Ex Cheetah

FOUNDER EFFECT
The founder effect is an example of genetic drift where rare alleles or combinations occur in higher frequency in a population isolated from the general population. Dwarfism in Amish communities Polydactylism in Amish communities

5. Selection
Artificial Selection
Traits are selected

Natural Selection
Environment determines which individuals will produce the most offspring

3 Conditions for Natural Selection

1. Variation must exist among individuals in a population 2. Variation among individuals results in differences in the number of offspring surviving in the next generation 3. Variation must be genetically inherited

Measuring Fitness
Fitness The number of surviving offspring left in the next generation.
Most fit phenotype is assigned a fitness value of 1

Relative fitness compares the fitness of one phenotype to another

Frequency-Dependent Selection
The fitness of a phenotype depends on its frequency within a population
Negative Frequency-Dependent
Rare phenotype is favored by selection
Promotes variation

Positive Frequency-Dependent
Common phenotype is favored by selection
Eliminates variation

Heterozygous Advantage

Forms of Selection
1. Directional Selection One phenotype is favored over another Causes a shift in the overall appearance of the species Ex: horses get larger

2. STABILIZING SELECTION
occurs when extreme phenotypes are eliminated and the intermediate phenotype is favored.

Human babies have an average size Too big and they can't get through birth canal

Too small and they have low survivability

DISRUPTIVE SELECTION -- occurs when extreme

phenotypes are favored and can lead to more than one distinct form.

CAN LEAD TO SPECIATION

Imagine this scenario....

Sleebos come in many sizes, the most common Sleebo is 4 inches long, but some can be 10 inches and others can be as small as 1 inch. A new predator is introduced to the Sleebo island. Small sleebos are able to hide under rocks and avoid being eaten. Large sleebos are too big for the predator to eat. What will happen to the Sleebo population?

Types of Selection

MACROEVOLUTION
Evolutionary change above the species level Speciation the splitting of one species into two or more species

speciation is the final result of changes in gene pool

What is a Species? A group of actually or potentially interbreeding populations (isolated from other groups) Gene flow can occur between populations of the same species

Hybrids occur when members of different species produce offspring... Lion + Tiger = Liger Tiger + Lion = Tigon

Biochemical genetics uses DNA hybridization techniques to determine relatedness of organisms; the phylogenetic species concept uses DNA/DNA comparisons

Hyenas are now placed with the cat family due to DNA sequencing.

SPECIATION

Flycatcher species
Empidonax minimus Empidonax virescens Empidonax tralli What stops these species from mating with each other?

Figure 18.10a

Figure 18.10b

Figure 18.10c

B. REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATING MECHANISMS

PREZYGOTIC Habitat Isolation Temporal Isolation Behavioral Isolation Mechanical Isolation

Gamete isolation

Damselfly penises

B. REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATING MECHANISMS

POSTZYGOTIC Zygote mortality Hybrid sterility F2 fitness

TEMPORAL ISOLATION

MODES OF SPECIATION

Allopatric Speciation

Populations separated geographically Variations accumulate Reproductive isolation

separates the population

SYMPATRIC SPECIATION
Sympatric speciation would occur when members of a single population develop a difference without geographic isolation Ex. Apple Maggot flies choosing a particular type of apple (Sympatric Speciation) Ex. Mate preference

Sympatric vs Allopatric

ADAPTIVE RADIATION
A single ancestral species become several different species

Speciation

Evolutionary Pace

WORD ATTACK!
1. Phyletic Speciation / Divergent Speciation 2. Mechanical Incompatibility 3. Gamete Incompatibility 4. Hybrid Inviability 5. Behavioral / Temporal / Habitat / Geographic Isolation 6. Adaptive Radiation 7. Fitness / Relative Fitness 8. Premating Isolation / Postmating Isolation 9. *Allopatric / Sympatric Speciation 10. Disruptive / Directional / Stabilizing Selection 11. Polymorphism 12. Sexual Selection / Nonrandom Mating / Assortive Mating 13. Gene Pool / Gene Flow / Genetic Drift 14. Microevolution / Macroevolution 15. Founder Effect / Bottleneck Effect