Conventional casting & vitreous china

Conventional casting of vitreous china is currently the most widely used application within the sanitaryware industry, although fine fire clay and pressure casting production volumes are gaining ground. Imerys Ceramics has a strong track record of helping customers to optimise their plant yield and consequently, optimise their bottom line. Our kaolin products such as Remblend and Hycast VC in particular, from our ball clay range, have become industry standards. Quality products and technical expertise are integral to our success and we continue to invest into research & development to bring more value to our customers. Plant conditions are extremely important and can vary considerably from one plant to the next. For this reason we develop solutions tailored to the requirements of each customer's specific plant. Our dedicated technical support and technical sales teams work closely with customers to design the most compatible body formulation. Imerys Ceramics has a comprehensive range of products and the expertise to help sanitaryware manufacturers achieve performance and process improvements.

Equipment and process

Molten metal (known as hot metal in industry) is tapped into the ladle from furnaces. After undergoing any ladle treatments, such as alloying and degassing, and arriving at the correct temperature, the ladle is transported to the top of the casting machine. Usually the ladle sits in a slot on a rotating turret at the casting machine. One ladle is 'on cast' (feeding the casting machine) while the other is made ready, and is switched to the casting position when the first ladle is empty. From the ladle, the hot metal is transferred via a refractory shroud (pipe) to a holding bath called a tundish. The tundish allows a reservoir of metal to feed the casting machine while ladles are switched, thus acting as a buffer of hot metal, as well as smoothing out flow, regulating metal feed to the molds and cleaning the metal (see below). Metal is drained from the tundish through another shroud into the top of an open-base copper mold. The depth of the mold can range from 0.5 to 2 metres (20 to 79 in), depending on the casting speed and section size. The mold is water-cooled to solidify the hot metal directly in contact with it; this is the primary cooling process. It also oscillates vertically (or in a near vertical curved path) to prevent the metal sticking to the mold walls. A lubricant can also be added to the metal in the mold to prevent sticking, and to trap any slag particlesincluding oxide particles or scalethat may be present in the metal and bring them to the top of the pool to form a floating layer of slag. Often, the shroud is set so the hot metal exits it below the surface of the slag layer in the mold and is thus called a submerged entry nozzle (SEN). In some cases, shrouds may not be used between tundish and mold; in this case, interchangeable metering nozzles in the base of the tundish direct the metal into the moulds. Some continuous casting layouts feed several molds from the same tundish.

In the mold, a thin shell of metal next to the mold walls solidifies before the middle section, now called a strand, exits the base of the mold into a spray chamber. The bulk of metal within the walls of the strand is still molten. The strand is immediately supported by closely spaced, water cooled rollers which support the walls of the strand against the ferrostatic pressure (compare hydrostatic pressure) of the stillsolidifying liquid within the strand. To increase the rate of solidification, the strand is sprayed with large amounts of water as it passes through the spray-chamber; this is the secondary cooling process. Final solidification of the strand may take place after the strand has exited the spray-chamber.

Metal Casting Processes

Foundry Process Process Pros / Cons

Green Sand Molding

The green sand process utilizes a mold made of Advantages compressed or compacted moist sand packed around a wood or metal pattern. A metal frame Most ferrous / non-ferrous metals can or flask is placed over the pattern to produce a be used. cavity representing one half of the casting. The Low Pattern & Material costs. sand is compacted by either jolting or Almost no limit on size, shape or squeezing the mold. weight of part. Adaptable to large or small quantities The other half of the mold is produced in like Used best for light, bench molding for manner and the two flasks are positioned medium-sized castings or for use with together to form the complete mold. If the production molding machines. casting has hollow sections, cores consisting of hardened sand (baked or chemically hardened) Disadvantages are used. High-Density Molding (High Squeeze Pressure / Impact) Large air cylinders, hydraulics, and innovative explosive methods have improved the sand compaction around the pattern, improving the standards of accuracy and finish which can be achieved with certain types of castings. Low design complexity. Lower dimensional accuracy.

No-Bake Molding

Chemical binders (furan or urethane) are mixed Advantages with sand and placed in mold boxes surrounding the pattern halves. At room Most ferrous / non-ferrous metals can temperature, the molds become rigid with the be used. help of catalysts. The pattern halves are Adaptable to large or small quantities removed and the mold is assembled with or High strength mold without cores. Better as-cast surfaces. Improved dimensional repeatability Less skill and labor required then in conventional sand molding. Better dimensional control. Disadvantages Resin-bonded silica sand is placed onto a heated pattern, forming shell-like mold halves. Pattern halves are bonded together with or without cores. Sand temperatures critical. Patterns require additional maintenance.

Advantages Adaptable to large or medium quantities Most ferrous / non-ferrous metals can be used.

Resin Shell Molding

Probably the earliest, most automated and most rapid of mold (and coremaking) processes was the heat-curing technique known as the shell process.

Rapid production rate. Good dimensional casting detail and accuracy. Shell molds are lightweight and may be stored almost indefinitely.

Disadvantages Ejector pins enable the mold to be released from the pattern and the entire cycle is completed in seconds depending upon the shell Since the tooling requires heat to cure thickness desired. The two halves of the mold, the mold, pattern costs and pattern wear suitably cored, are glued and clamped together can be higher. prior to the pouring of the metal. Shell molds Energy costs are higher. may be stored for long periods if Material costs are higher than those for desired. Because of pattern costs, this method is green sand molding. best suited to higher volume production. Permanent molds consist of mold cavities machined into metal die blocks and designed for repetitive use. Currently, molds are usually made of cast iron or steel, although graphite, copper and aluminum have been used. Permanent mold castings can be produced from all of the metals including iron and copper alloys, but are usually light metals such as zincbase, magnesium and aluminum. Advantages Superior mechanical properties. Produces dense, uniform castings with high dimensional accuracy. Excellent surface finish and grain structure. The process lends itself very well to the use of expendable cores and makes possible the production of parts that are not suitable for the pressure diecasting process. Repeated use of molds. Rapid production rate with low scrap loss.

Permanent Mold

Gravity Permanent Mold -The flow of metal into a permanent mold using gravity only is referred to as a gravity permanent mold. There are two techniques in use: static pouring, where metal is introduced into the top of the mold through downsprues similar to sand casting; Disadvantages and tilt pouring, where metal is poured into a basin while the mold is in a horizontal position Higher cost of tooling requires a higher and flows into the cavity as the mold is volume of castings. gradually tilted to a vertical position. The process is generally limited to the production of somewhat small castings Normally, gravity molding is used because it is of simple exterior design, although more accurate than shell molding. It is preferred complex castings such as aluminum almost exclusively to shell molding for light engine blocks and heads are now alloy components. commonplace. Low-Pressure Permanent Mold - Lowpressure permanent mold is a method of producing a casting by using a minimal amount of pressure (usually 5-15 lb/sq in.) to fill the die. It is a casting process that helps to further bridge the gap between sand and pressure diecasting.

Die Casting

This process is used for producing large volumes of zinc, aluminum and magnesium castings of intricate shapes. The essential feature of diecasting is the use of permanent

Advantages Cost of castings is relatively low with

metal dies into which the molten metal is injected under high pressure (normally 5000 psi or more). The rate of production of diecasting depends largely on the complexity of design, the section thickness of the casting, and the properties of the cast metal. Great care must be taken with the design and gating of the mold to avoid highpressure porosity to which this process is prone.

high volumes. High degree of design complexity and accuracy. Excellent smooth surface finish. Suitable for relatively low melting point metals (1600F/871C) like lead, zinc, aluminum, magnesium and some copper alloys. High production rates.

Disadvantages Investment Casting is the process of completely investing a three-dimensional pattern in all of its dimensions to produce a one-piece destructible mold into which molten metal will be poured. A refractory slurry flows around the wax pattern, providing excellent detail. The wax patterns are assembled on a "tree" and invested with a ceramic slurry. The tree is then immersed into a fluidized bed of refractory particles to form the first layer of the ceramic shell. The mold is allowed to dry and the process repeated with coarser material until sufficient thickness has been built up to withstand the impact of hot metal. When the slurry hardens, the wax pattern is melted out and recovered and the mold or ceramic shell is oven cured prior to casting. Most materials can be cast by this process but the economics indicate that fairly high volume is necessary and the shape and complexity of the castings should be such that savings are made by eliminating machining. Limits on the size of castings - most suitable for small castings up to about 75 lb. Equipment and die costs are high.

Advantages Excellent accuracy and flexibility of design. Useful for casting alloys that are difficult to machine. Exceptionally fine finish. Suitable for large or small quantities of parts. Almost unlimited intricacy. Suitable for most ferrous / non-ferrous metals. No flash to be removed or parting line tolerances.

Investment Casting (Lost Wax)

Disadvantages Limitations on size of casting. Higher casting costs make it important to take full advantage of the process to eliminate all machining operations.

Expandable Pattern Casting (Lost Foam)

Also known as Expanded Polystyrene Molding Advantages or Full Mold Process, the EPC or Lost Foam process is an economical method for producing No cores are required. complex, close-tolerance castings using an Reduction in capital investment and expandable polystyrene pattern and unbonded operating costs. sand. Closer tolerances and walls as thin as 0.120 in. The EPC process involves attaching expandable No binders or other additives are polystyrene patterns to an expandable required for the sand, which is reusable. polystyrene gating system and applying a

refractory coating to the entire assembly. After the coating has dried, the foam pattern assembly is positioned on several inches of loose dry sand in a vented flask. Additional sand is then added while the flask is vibrated until the pattern assembly is completely embedded in sand.

A suitable downsprue is located above the gating system and sand is again added until it is level to the top of the sprue. Molten metal is poured into the sprue, vaporizing the foam Disadvantages polystyrene, perfectly reproducing the pattern. Gases formed from the vaporized pattern The pattern coating process is timepermeate through the coating on the pattern, the consuming, and pattern handling sand and finally through the flask vents. requires great care. Good process control is required as a In this process, a pattern refers to the scrapped casting means replacement not expandable polystyrene or foamed polystyrene only of the mold but the pattern as well. part that is vaporized by the molten metal. A pattern is required for each casting. This adaptation of vacuum forming permits molds to be made out of free-flowing, dry, unbonded sand without using high-pressure squeezing, jolting, slinging or blowing as a means of compaction. The V-process is dimensionally consistent, economical, environmentally and ecologically acceptable, energy thrifty, versatile and clean. Advantages

Flasks for containing the mold assembly are inexpensive, and shakeout of the castings in unbonded sand is simplified and do not require the heavy shakeout machinery required for other sand casting methods. Need for skilled labor is greatly reduced. Casting cleaning is minimized since there are no parting lines or core fins.

Superb finishes.
Good dimensional accuracy. No defects from gas holes. All sizes and shapes of castings are possible Most ferrous / non-ferrous metals can be used.

Vacuum ("V") Process Molding

The molding medium is clean, dry, unbonded silica sand, which is consolidated through application of a vacuum or negative pressure to Disadvantages the body of the sand. The patterns must be The V-process requires plated pattern mounted on plates or boards and each board is equipment. perforated with vent holes connected to a vacuum chamber behind the board. A preheated sheet of highly flexible plastic material is draped over the pattern and board. When the vacuum is applied, the sheet clings closely to the pattern contours. Each part of the molding box is furnished with its own vacuum chamber connected to a series of hollow perforated flask bars. The pattern is stripped from the mold and the two halves assembled and cast with the vacuum on.

Centrifugal Molding

The Centrifugal Casting process consists of a Advantages metal or graphite mold that is rotated in the horizonal or vertical plane during solidification Rapid production rate. of the casting. Centrifugal force shapes and Suitable for Ferrous / Non-ferrous parts. feeds the molten metal into the designed Good soundness and cleanliness of crevices and details of the mold. The castings. centrifugal force improves both homogeneity Ability to produce extremely large

and accuracy of the casting. This method is ideally suited to the casting of cylindrical shapes, but the outer shape may be modified with the use of special techniques.

cylindrical parts. Disadvantages Limitations on shape of castings. Normally restricted to the production of cylindrical geometric shapes.