ELECTRONIC AIDS TO NAVIGATION.

(1) In addition to the traditional methods of navigation a number of sophisticated electronic devices have been developed to help the navigator. These include the echo sounder, radar and various types of radio navigation equipment. THE ECHO SOUNDER. The echo sounder, an older instrumentation system for indirectly determining ocean floor depth. Echo sounding is based on the principle that water is an excellent medium for the transmission of sound waves and that a sound pulse will bounce off a reflecting layer, returning to its source as an echo. The time interval between the initiation of a sound pulse and echo returned from the bottom can be used to determine the depth of the bottom. An echo-sounding system consists of a transmitter, a receiver that picks up the reflected echo, electronic timing and amplification equipment, and an indicator or graphic recorder. The first patent for an echo-sounding device was granted in 1907. The Fathometer, a registered trademark often loosely applied to all depth-sounding gear, was developed (1914) as a result of research by the Canadian engineer R. A. Fessenden in the application of echo-sounding principles to iceberg detection. Application of echo-sounding principles to submarine detection during World War II resulted in the development of equipment to sound all ocean depths. In 1954 an advanced, highly accurate echo sounder called the precision depth recorder (PDR) was developed. By the early 1960s, the U.S. Navy used the new technique of Sonar Array Survey System (SASS). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has recently used an unclassified version of SASS, Sea Beam, to map more detailed representations of the seafloor. Sea Beam employs an array of sound transducers across the hull of the survey vessel which radiate sound, thereby allowing a wide region of the seafloor to be mapped. This type of mapping technology is now the norm for seafloor mapping. Another sonar instrument called SeaMARC uses a torpedo-shaped "fish" to measure the strength of sound signals, rather than the elapsed time of the returning signals, and covers larger areas of the ocean floor.

1. READING COMPREHENSION. Answer the following questions according to the information in the text above. 1. How can we establish the depth of the bottom? By the time interval between the initiation of a sound pulse and echo returned from the bottom. 2. What characteristic of water makes the echo sounder work properly? Water is an excellent medium for the transmission of sound waves. 3. When were echo-sounding principles first applied to iceberg detection? In 1914, by the Canadian engineer R. A. Fessenden. 4. What were echo-sounding principles applied to during World War II? To submarine detection. 5. What does SASS stand for? Sonar Array Survey System 6. How larger areas of the seabed can be covered? By using another sonar instrument called SeaMARC . 7. What is the main characteristic of the SeaMARC? That it measure the strength of sound signals, rather than the elapsed time of the returning signals.

2. DEFINITIONS. Find words in the previous text that match the following definitions. determining the location of something by measuring the time it takes for an echo to return from it a thickness of some material laid on or spread over a surface. A usually horizontal deposit or expanse. An electronic device that generates and amplifies a carrier wave, modulates it with a meaningful signal derived from speech or other sources, and radiates the resulting signal from an antenna. A pointing or directing device, as a pointer on the dial of an instrument to show pressure, temperature, speed, volume, or the like. An instrument that indicates the condition of a machine or the like. An instrument for measuring and recording variations of pressure in the cylinder of an engine.

Echo sounding

Layer

transmitter

indicator

Patent

The exclusive right granted by a government to an inventor to manufacture, use, or sell an invention for a certain number of years. a person trained and skilled in the design, construction, and use of engines or machines, or in any of various branches of engineering. Accepted or professed rules of action or conduct. Fundamental, primary, or general laws from which others are derived. The solid surface underlying a sea or an ocean. The bottom of a sea or ocean. Order or arrangement, as of troops drawn up for battle. Military force, esp. a body of troops. A large and impressive grouping or organization of things. Regular order or arrangement; series. An arrangement of interrelated objects or items of equipment for accomplishing a particular task. Devices that receive a signal in the form of one type of energy and convert it to a signal in another form. It describes the equipment and techniques used to prepare, analyze, and distribute maps of all kinds. This can include satellites used to obtain high resolution and multispectral data; software to enhance or classify digital images; global positioning system (GPS) satellites; and geographic information systems (GIS).

engineer

principles

seafloor

array

transducers

Mapping Technology

ELECTRONIC AIDS TO NAVIGATION. (2) 3. FILLING GAPS. Use the following words to fill the gaps of the two following paragraphs. By (7) From (2) For (4) Back RADAR The radar is the system or technique for detecting the position, movement, and nature of a remote object by means of radio waves reflected from its surface. Although most radar units use microwave frequencies, the principle of radar is not confined to any particular frequency range. There are some radar units that operate on frequencies well below 100 megahertz (megacycles) and others that operate in the infrared range and above. The term radar, an acronym for radio detection and ranging, is also used to denote the apparatus for implementing the technique. Up Over On Below With In (3) Of (2) To (3) Although Than At (2) As Into

Principles of Radar. Radar involves the transmission of pulses of electromagnetic waves by means of a directional antenna; some of the pulses are reflected by objects that intercept them. The reflections are picked up by a receiver, processed electronically, and converted into visible form by means of a cathode-ray tube. The range of the object is determined by measuring the time it takes for the radar signal to reach the object and return. The object's location with respect to the radar unit is determined from the direction in which the pulse was received. In most radar units the beam of pulses is continuously rotated at a constant speed, or it is scanned (swung back and forth) over a sector, also at a constant rate. The velocity of the object is measured by applying the Doppler principle: if the object is approaching the radar unit, the frequency of the returned signal is greater than the frequency of the transmitted signal; if the object is receding from the radar unit, the returned frequency is less; and if the object is not moving relative to the radar unit, the return signal will have the same frequency as the transmitted signal. Applications of Radar The information secured by radar includes the position and velocity of the object with respect to the radar unit. In some advanced systems the shape of the object may also be determined. Commercial airliners are equipped with radar devices that warn of obstacles in or approaching their path and give accurate altitude readings. Planes can land in fog at airports equipped with radar-assisted ground-controlled approach (GCA) systems, in which the plane's flight is observed on radar screens while operators radio landing directions to the pilot. A ground-based radar system for guiding and landing aircraft by remote control was developed in 1960. Radar is also used to measure distances and map geographical areas (shoran) and to navigate and fix positions at sea. It is now common for ships, including trawlers, tugs and ferries, to be fitted with radar to help them navigate near land. High frequency radio beams are sent out and received by a rotating radar scanner on the ship. These signals are then converted into images on a screen. The ship is shown on the centre of the screen and nearby ships are shown in relation to it. On the screen moving objects leave a short trail to indicate their direction and speed. But radar is only an aid to navigation. It is the correct interpretation of the picture on the screen which ensures the safe passage of the ship.

4. READING COMPREHENSION. Answer the following questions according to the information in the text RADAR.

1. How could we define the radar? The radar is the system or technique for detecting the position, movement, and nature of a remote object by means of radio waves reflected from its surface.

2. According to the text, why all radar units use microwave frequencies? Although most radar units use microwave frequencies, the principle of radar is not confined to any particular frequency range. 3. What is the origin of the word radar? The term radar is an acronym for radio detection and ranging. 4. Which devices or apparatus are of vital importance in a radar system? 1. A directional antenna 2. A receiver and 3. A cathode-ray tube. 5. How can we find out the range of an object when using a radar? By measuring the time it takes for the radar signal to reach the object and return. 6. What is the Doppler principle useful for? It allows us to know the velocity of the object scanned by the radar. 7. Which kind of information about an object can radar provide? The position and velocity of the object with respect to the radar unit. In some advanced systems the shape of the object may also be determined. 8. Do you think that radar are useful for aircraft? Yes, I do. Airplanes are equipped with radar devices that warn of obstacles in or approaching their path and give accurate altitude readings. They also can land in fog at airports equipped with radar-assisted ground-controlled approach (GCA) systems. 9. How does an onboard rotating radar scanner work? High frequency radio beams must be sent out and received by the rotating radar scanner on the ship. 10. How does the radar operator know the direction and speed of other vessels? By observing the short trail that is left on the screen by moving objects.

PAY ATTENTION. Look at this sentence from the text: It is the correct interpretation of the picture on the screen which ensures the safe passage of the ship.

HEIGHT (Noun) + -EN = TO HEIGHTEN DEEP (Adjective) + -EN = TO DEEPEN Sometimes, the suffix EN is placed at the beginning of the word: SURE (Adjective) + -EN = TO ENSURE

5. WORD FORMATION. Complete the following sentences using a verb from the word given. Use a dictionary if necessary.

1. The carpenter shorten the plank.

Short

2. During the night, the gap between the two vessels widened.

Wide

3. You need to sharp your pencil before doing chart work.

Sharp

4. Constant pressure weakens a spring.

Weak

5. Speed was reduced to lighten the load on the engine.

Light

6. The ropes had to be lengthened because they would not reach.

Long

7. They had great difficulty in loosening the nut.

Loose

8. Adding carbon to steel hardens it.

Hard

9. Reducing the carbon content softens it.

Soft

10. The hole had to be enlarged before the bolt would fit.

Large