10

CHAPTER 2 LITRATURE REVIEW

2.1

INTRODUCTION Modeling of high strength and abrasive wear resistance aluminium alloy based

casting composite material and its development via conventional casting (foundry method) require a wide rang of experimental data concerned with composition and mechanical properties (specially the strength and abrasive wear) data be available for optimum design and development of cast aluminium composite material. Therefore, the literature reviewed consist the following two main aspects: i. Development of aluminum composite materials using stir casting method, its chemical composition and the major factors which affect the strength and wear. ii. The other major part is concerned with artificial neural network modeling and its applications in the area of Materials Science and Engineering especially in cast composite material.

2.2

ALUMINUM METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES (AMMCS) Different authors have defined the composite materials in different ways; some

famous definitions include the following:

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Composite materials are combinations of two or more materials consist the matrix as the major phase in which the reinforcement is added called the reinforcement phase [Elgum 1999]. Composite materials are heterogeneous mixture of two or more phases which have been bonded together [Rohatgi 1991]. A composite material may be called, as a materials system of mixture of two or more micro or macro constituents that differ in the form of composition essentially is insoluble in each other. In composite each materials retains its original properties but when composited (combined) a superior properties of materials are obtained which could not have been obtained separately [Surappa 2003]. The aluminum metal matrix composites consists of the combinations of two or more elements in which one must be aluminum or aluminum alloy present in large volume in the form of matrix material. The other elements usually non-metallic and commonly ceramics such as SiC, Al2O3 and TiB2 are added in the continuous or discontinuous form usually referred as reinforcements [Surappa 2003]. Literature reveals that most of the engineering applications demand high strength light weight, high corrosion and wear resistance. Therefore, the philosophy behind the developments of aluminum metal matrix composite material is that aluminum and its alloys have good strength to weight ratio and also have good corrosion resistance but offers very poor wear resistance which can be improved by addition of various ceramic

12

particles in aluminum metal matrix materials [Suganuma 1989, Rohatgi 2001 and 1991, Chawla 1988, and Kunze and Bampton 2001]. The aluminum metal matrix composites possess the wide range of physical and mechanical properties such as high strength, stiffness, low density, high corrosion, wear resistance, good thermal properties and good damping capability as compared to the unreinforced aluminum matrix materials. These properties of AMCs depend upon many factors such as aluminum alloy matrix composition, processing method, and types of reinforcements, their nature, distribution and volume fractions [Surappa 2003 and Das 2004]. Surappa (2003) had explained the major advantages of AMCs compared to unreinforced materials. For example, by addition of 60 volume percent of reinforcement of fibers in aluminum matrix can enhance the modulus of elasticity from 70GPa to 240GPa and decrease in the coefficient of expansion from 24 ppm / 0C to 7 ppm/ 0C. The abrasive wear resistance of aluminum matrix composite contained 9 % Si and 20 volume % SiCp having better wear resistance than grey cast iron. Therefore it is possible to attain wide range of physical and mechanical properties in aluminum metal matrix composites which could not be obtained in monolithic material. Jokhio et al (2007) had also reported the similar advantages of using aluminum metal matrix for various structural, non-structural and functional purposes in different engineering sectors due to their good performance, economic and environmental benefits. The key benefits in transportation sectors are lower fuel consumption, less noise and lower airborne emissions and cost competitive as compared to other engineering

13

materials in weight and volume savings as reported by Hunft and Waren (2004), Surappa (2003), Das (2004) and Rohatgi (2001). The aluminum alloy composites are becoming potential engineering materials and offering excellent combination of properties such as high specific strength, high specific stiffness, and good electrical and thermal conductivities, low coefficient of thermal expansion and wear resistance [Das, 2004]. Aluminum matrix composites permit the achievements of new properties and controlled characteristics by addition of special materials (reinforcements) that are not soluble and do not react with aluminum and its alloys [Pollak, 1994]. Each phase of aluminum matrix and reinforcements, maintains its own characteristics, wheras the composites characteristics are unique, representing a combination of both constructs. According to the composite theory, the physical and mechanical properties of aluminum matrix composites can be tailored by changing the reinforcement type, shape and volume fraction [Gallister, 1997]. Due to their excellent combinations of properties, the aluminum metal matrix composites are being used in verities of applications in automobile, mixing and mineral, aerospace, defense and other related sectors due to their excellent combinations of properties. In automobile sector, aluminum composites are used in making various components such as brake drum, cylinder linners, pistons, drive shafts etc. In aerospace industries, composites are used essentially in structural applications such as helicopter

14

parts (parts of the body, support for rotor plates drive shafts) rotor vanes in compressors and in aero engine light weight body armor plate, track shoes of vehicles are also carried out for defense [Dos 2004]. The aluminum composites are classified to two major groups depending upon the aspect ratio of the reinforcements. In the first category, the aspect ratio (L/d L = length, d = diameter) varies in the range (100 -10,000) in which fibers are reinforced for structural applications. In the second category, the aspect ratio of the reinforcements is in the range of (1-5) in which the reinforcements are equiaxed in shape (particles / viskers). Such types of aluminum composites are important for tribological applications [Dos 2004, and Rohatgi 2001]. Classification of aluminum metal matrix composites depends on the type of reinforcements as reported by large numbers of investigators [Surappa 2003, Dos 2004, Rohatgi 2001, Lloyd 1999, Surappa and Rohatgi 1981, and Srivatsan et al 1991]. On the basis of types of reinforcements, the aluminum composites are classified as: Whisker-or short fibre-reinforced AMCs (SFAMCs) Continuous fibre-reinforced AMCs (CFAMCs) Mono filament-reinforced AMCs (MFAMCs) Hybrid AMCs Particulates-reinforced AMCs (PAMCs) Due to processing difficulties and economic factors consideration in design and development and applications of aluminum composites, it is well known that particulate

15

aluminum composite is competitive material meeting almost all objectives for engineering applications. Therefore, this type of aluminum metal matrix composites will be discussed in the subsequent sections.

2.2.1

Particulate Reinforced Aluminum Matrix Composites (PAMCS) Particulate reinforced aluminum matrix composites generally contain equiaxed

ceramic particles reinforcements. The aspect ratio of these particles should be less than 5. The various ceramics reinforcements such as Al2O3 SiC and TiB2 are generally used for structural and wear resistance applications. The volume fraction of these particles are less than 30 % for structural application and as high as 70 % reinforcement are used for packaging industries [ Surappa 2003]. Particle reinforced aluminum matrix composites (PAMCs) are usually manufactured either by solid state (PM processing) or liquid state (stir casting, infiltration and in-situ) processes [Strivatsan, et al 1991]. The major advantage of the use of PAMCs is that it is less expensive as compared with other types of composites. PAMCs possesses inferior mechanical properties as compared to whisker, short fibre, continuous fibre reinforced aluminum matrix composites. PAMC possesses the superior mechanical properties as compared to unreinforced aluminum alloys. Another major advantage of the PAMCs composites is that they are isotropic in nature. These PAMCs can be subject to a variety of further secondary forming operations such as rolling, forging and extrusion process [Surappa 2003].

16

The literature reveals that the performance of particulate aluminum composites depend upon the selection of matrix composition, selection of type of reinforcements, their size distributions, volume fractions and selection of processing methods. These factors will be discussed in the subsequent sections:

2.2.2

Processing of Aluminum Particulate Composites Many methods have been used for development and processing of aluminum

metal matrix particulate composites to optimize the microstructure and mechanical properties of particulate reinforced metal-matrix composites [Ibrahim, Mohamed, and Lavernia 1991, and Strivatsan et al 1991]. For examples Rohatgi (2001) reported that aluminum metal matrix could be classified in to two major categories on the basis of the state of the processing materials such as solid state processing and liquid state processing. Other investigators reported that aluminum metal matrix could be classified in to the following three major categories on the basis of processing temperatures [Surappa, and Rohatgi 1981, Srivatsan et al 1991, Ejiofor and Reddy 1997, Elaisson, and Sandstorms1995, Hoover 1994, and Surappa 2003]: i. ii. iii. Solid state processing (such as powder metallurgy) and diffusion bonding Two phase processing (such as spray and rehocasting and compocasting) Liquid phase processing casting (such as mixing particles into liquid melt (stir casting), infiltration of liquid matrix in to the reinforcements and in situ processes)

17

o Choice of the primary manufacturing process for the fabrication of any MMC is dictated by many factors, the most important of which are: o Preservation of reinforcement strength o Minimization of reinforcement damage o Promotion of wetting and bonding between the matrix and reinforcement o Flexibility that allows proper backing, spacing and orientation of the reinforcements within the matrix

2.2.2 Liquid Phase Processing Liquid phase processing includes various processing technique such as infiltration, spray casting, in situ (reactive) processing and stir casting or compocasting process. However the selection of the processing route depends on many factors which include the types of reinforcements, volume fraction of reinforcement, the type of loading and the degree of microstructural integrity desired in the final product [Surappa 2003]. In liquid state processing the stir casting is the simplest and most commercially used technique also known as vortex technique for production of aluminum metal matrix composites.

2.2.2.1 Stir Casting Stir casting involves incorporation of ceramic particulates by mixing into liquid aluminum melt and allowing the mixture to solidify in to the required size and shape. The

18

most important step in this process is to create good wetting between the particulate reinforcement and the liquid aluminum alloy matrix. The vortex technique involves the introduction of pre-treated ceramic particles into the vortex of molten alloy created by the rotating impeller made of steel or refractory materials. Lloyd (1999) reports that vortex-mixing technique for the preparation of ceramic particle dispersed aluminum matrix composites was originally developed by Surappa and Rohatgi (1981) at the Indian Institute of Science. Later on several aluminum companies further refined and modified the process which is currently used for production of variety of aluminum composites on commercial scale. The particles agglomeration and sedimentation in the melt and as well as during the solidification were also reported in stir casting. This problem may arise due to microstructural inhomogeneties. Inhomogeneity in reinforcement distribution in these cast composites are the main problem as a result of interaction between suspended ceramic particles and moving solid liquid interface during solidification process. Surappa (2003) reported that it is possible to incorporate upto 30% ceramic particles in the size ranging from 5 to 100 m in a variety of molten aluminum alloys. The meltceramic particle slurry may be transferred directly to a shaped mould prior to complete solidification or it may be allowed to solidify in the form of billets. The cast billet can be further reheated to the slurry form for further processing such as die casting, and investment casting. Compocasting have the small variation as compared to stir

19

casting process. In compocasting the ceramic particles are incorporated into the alloy in the semi solid state. The stir casing method is shown in Fig: 2.1.

Fig: 2.1. Flow chart highlights typical liquid blending and fabrication techniques [Srivatsan et al 1991].

2.3

PROPERTIES OF STIR CASTING OF AUMINIUM COMPOSITES The early research on the development of highest strength performance material

was based on aluminum and titanium matrix composites using continuous fibers. These materials were hindered due to high cost processing difficulties such as production of near shape, size and volume of production [Srivatsan et al 1991, and Azim et al 1995]. Therefore, aluminum particulate composite material using stir casting method was developed which possesses the wide range of physical, mechanical properties, processing requirements and considered as most economical route for production of aluminum composites. The development of high strength and wear resistance aluminum alloy based casting composite materials for engineering applications requires the consideration of

20

various design factors which affect the performance of the aluminum composites. The performance of aluminum alloy based casting composites materials depends upon mechanical and metallurgical factors. However the cost factors are also to be considered in the design and development stages. The literature reveals that the main objectives for development of particulate aluminum cast composite materials using stir casting method were aimed to meet the combination of properties such as strength, abrasive wear, ductility, hardness, and low cost materials are the requirements of the most automobile and are space applications as reported by numbers of investigators [Jokhio et al 2007, Taha 2001, Eijofor and Reddy 1997 Rohatgi 2001, 1991, Herling et al 2001]. Jokhio et al (2007), had reported that the performance of any materials depends upon both metallurgical factors such as composition, processing method and presence of microstructural constituents, their type and distribution etc. The mechanical factors include the type of loadings, stresses and their magnitudes. These factors are interrelated with each other and must be considered and controlled at all stages during designing and development of any alloy systems. Taha (2001) had explained various issues concerned with industrialization of cast aluminum composites which would help in the designing of cast composite material at large scale. Rohatgi (1991) reviewed the historical perspective of cast composites and discussed the possible effects of matrix and reinforcement on the property motivation of using cast composites and also explained past present and future states of cast metal matrix composites in consideration of performance as well as cost factors.

21

Literature also revealed that the development of high strength and abrasive wear resistance aluminum alloy based casting composite material and its over all performance depend upon the selection of matrix composition, reinforcements, their interfacings (wetting ability), controlling of porosity, heat treatment and many other metallurgical factors which effect the performance. The metallurgical factors largely control the mechanical properties of aluminum cast composites. The response of the material under loading conditions determines its mechanical properties. The aluminum cast composite material possesses the wide range of mechanical properties such as strength, ductility, hardness and wear. The strength and ductility are much related with each other and wear is largely depending upon the hardness [Jokhio et al 2006]. In structural applications, strength is the most important property. For bending and torsional loading, ductility of the material plays important role in aluminum composite, whereas for high abrasive wear, hardness is the most important property of aluminum composites. These properties are discussed in detail in subsequent sections: 2.3.1 Strength The strength has prime importance in engineering design such as yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and modulus of elasticity. The most of these properties are determined by using ASTM standardized testing method which includes the procedure and sample geometries as shown in Fig: 2.2. The various strength properties of a metallic material can be calculated using stress strain diagram as shown in Fig: 2.2-2.4.

22

Force

Grip

ASTM Standard Specimen

Gauge Length

Moving Cross Head

Grip

Fig: 2.2. Determine of strength properties using tensile test method. B.S T.S
Strain Hardening
Non Uniform deformation

Stress

Y.S

Plastic Strain after Fracture

E = Modulus of Elasticity

e
Plastic Region
Elastic Region

Strain Fig: 2.3 Stress-strain diagram

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The possible behavior of ductile and non ductile metals is shown in Fig 2.4.
Non Ductile Ductile

Stress

Strain

Fig: 2.4 Ductile and non ductile behavior of metallic materials

The aluminum and its composites show both behaviors but in case of cast
aluminum in composites the yield strength is not so visible. The strength properties of metallic materials are usually computed from the following formula. The elastic modulus or youngs modulus E or stiffness is the most important strength parameter in engineering design and determined from the slope of elastic region

E=

(2.1)

Where is change in stress and is change in strain. The tensile strength T =

F max A0
Fyield A0

(2.2)

The tensile yield strength y =

(2.3)

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The youngs modulus of aluminum cast composites depend upon matrix and ceramic particulate volume fractions. Therefore, the rule of mixture is used for calculation of modulus of elasticity E
Ec = EmVm + Er (Vr + 1) ErVm + Em(Vr + 1)

(2.4)

Where Ec is modulus of elasticity of cast aluminum particulate composite V is volume fraction. The subscripts c m r represents composite, matrix and reinforcements [Gupta and Surappa 1995]. Another equation known as Halpin Tsai equation which can also be used to compute the modulus of elasticity

Ec =

Em (1 + 2 sqvr ) 1 qvr
(2.5)

Where q can be represented as:

Er / Em 1 q = Er / Em + 2 S

(2.6)

Whereas s is the aspect ratio of the reinforcing phase. The value of Er for SiC or Al2O3 particles can be identified from the literature. However the value of Er = 450 GPa and Em = 68.9GPa for SiC and 68.9GPa for 6061 aluminum alloy has been reported by Gupta and Surappa (1995). They had used the rule of mixture equation and HalpinTasi equation for calculations, but Halpin Tasi equation gives best result. The plastic properties such as yield strength (Y.S) can be calculated using theoretical computation of 0.2 % Y.S value as follow:

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cy = Vrm + Vmm

S 4

(2.7)

cy = m Vr ( S + 2 ) + Vm 2

(2.8)

Where cy & m

represent the yield strength of composite and matrix material

respectively. Above investigators further reported that the former equation (2.7) fails to predict the strengthening due to disposed of ceramic particles (SiC). However the latter equation (2.8) underestimates 0.2% Y.S value. It is generally accepted that the strength properties of aluminum metal matrix composite is largely controlled by matrix composition. Therefore, most of the researchers used 2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx aluminum matrix for high strength properties [Taha 2001, Ibrahim et al 1991, and Baifeng et al 2007]. Recently Baifeng al (2007) investigated the microstructure and mechanical properties of high strength Al 6061 reinforced with Al2O3 particle. They used extrusion techniques and concluded that the tensile strength, yield strength and elongation properties were improved in aluminum composites after hot extrusion. The increase in strength properties were due to dispersion strengthening, subgrain boundary strengthening, precipitation induced by heat treatment both after casting and after extrusion. However they did not develop the high strength material using conventional stir casting method. They also suggested that the strength contribution of composite material can be calculated using the following equations.

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The yield strength contribution of Al2O3 particles are obtained from the following equation:

P =
Where P

0.8Gb D

(2.9)

is the Y.S of the extruded composites, G is the shear modulus, b is

the burger vector which is equal to 0.286 E-9, and D is the particle spacing. The value of D can be calculated from

D=d

6f

(2.10)

Where d is average size of Al2O3 particles and f is the volume fraction of the oxide. For G value it can be obtained approximately from the following equation: E = Voxide Eoxide + VAl . EAl
(2.11)

Where Eoxide is the elastic modulus of Al2O3 which is 345 GPa and EAl is elastic modulus of aluminum matrix which is 68.9 G.Pa. The given boundary strengthening is achieved by fine grains or sub grains and can be calculated using Halpetch equation:

g = 0 + K .t 1 / 2

(2.12)

Where g is the Y.S of extruded composite contributed by grain size, 0 is the friction of crystal lattice which is equal to 50 Mpa, K is a constant which is equal to 40 MPa and t is the average size of the grains.

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Baifeng et al (2007) further suggested that the analysis of Y.S of extruded a composite which is contributed by the matrix (nearly 56 Mpa) dislocation, grain size oxide particles and precipitates as follow:

extruded=matrix+dislocate grain+particles Precipitatte + +

(2.13)

The effect of heat treatment which increases the strength is estimated from the literature as 150 (= 270-120) MPa. They reported that using these equations for calculation show good agreements between the experimental and calculated results. Literature reveals that the strength properties depend upon type of reinforcement, volume fractions, particle size and their distribution in matrix. Literature also reveals that the interface bonding between matrix and ceramics such as wetting of ceramics particles with matrix is essential for development of high strength cast composite material. Another factor which has strong influence on the strength properties is the response of the matrix to the heat treatment. Strength of aluminum cast composite materials can be increased with the artificial age hardening process such as solution treatment and aging treatment. However the mechanical working operation such as rolling, forging, extruding or other strain hardening operations also increase the strength properties of aluminum cast composites [Srivatsan and Lewanowski 2006]. Taha (2001) reported that the selection of matrix composition is important issue for achieving the high strength in those aluminum cast composites which are capable to give response to heat treatment. Post processing influence of the matrix provides the additional improvements in mechanical properties such as elastic modulus and yield

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strength. Tensile strength seems to be important when designing materials for structural applications for strength and wear purpose. Srivatsan et al (1991) and Ibrahim et al (1991) had reported that using 2xxx and 7xxx series of aluminum alloy would increase 50 % elastic modulus and reduced 10 % weight saving in structural application for strength. The high strength of aluminum cast composite can be produced by using strong matrix [Gupta and Meenai 2005] Chen and Chao (2000) studied the effect of particle size distribution on strength properties of high volume fraction of SiCpAl-Based composite using squeeze casting method. They concluded that the youngs modulus increases with increasing SiCp volume fraction but is independent of particle size distribution and squeeze pressure where as the bonding strength increases with increasing the particle size and squeeze pressure. The yield strength and tensile strength can be improved by reducing the porosity contents. Increasing the porosity will be detrimental for high strength properties of aluminum composites [Pai et al 1993, Hashim, Loony, and Hashmi 1999] Srivatsan (1996) had reported that 15-40 % increase in strength and 30 to 50% increase in stiffness is achieved in particulate reinforced aluminum metal matrix composites but he did not specify the processing method. Rupa (2005) investigated the mechanical behavior of Al-Cu alloy based composite using stir casting method and concluded that the strength properties of composite reinforced with SiC particle had negative effect as compared to matrix alloy.

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Redsten et al (1995) investigated mechanical properties of cast oxide dispersion strengthened aluminum and reported that tensile strength increases with increase in Al2O3 particle contents upto 25 volume percent. They used infiltration and extrusion technique. Kok (2005) reported that the strength properties of aluminum cast composites increase with decrease in particles size and with increasing weight fraction of particles. The strengthening of particulate aluminum metal matrix composite were due to different mechanism such as Orwan strengthening , grain and sub grain strengthening, quenching and work hardening mechanism [Talat 1994, Redster et al 1995, Ibrahim et al 1991]. From the above review of the literature it is concluded that the modulus of elasticity, yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of aluminum cast composite materials is largely controlled by the selection of strong matrix composition, smaller particles size, increasing volume friction of particles and tempered (Heat treatment conditions). Further improvements in mechanical properties in aluminum alloy based casting composite can be achieved by modifying the process parameters metal treatment, the bonding between the dispersiods and matrix and also reducing micro porosities in the casting [Pai et al 1993].

2.3.2 Ductility Ductility refers to the ability of material to accept plastic deformation or strain. Strain is the elongation per unit length
= L L

(2.14)

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Ductile material shows considerable elongation while the brittle materials do not show considerable elongation. The ductility is measured in percent elongation and reduction in area as follow % El = L f L0 L0 x100 (2.15)

Where as Lf is the fracture length and L0 is the original gauge length of last specimen RA = A0 A f A0 100 (2.16)

Where Af is the area after fracture and A0 is the original cross sectional area of the test sample. The measure of the ductility in stress strain diagram also represents the materials toughness which is important property needed for composite materials [Lindbergh 2005]. Literature reveals that as the strength of the composite material increases the ductility (toughness) decreases [Gupta and Surappa 1995]. Park et al (2001) reported that both ductility and toughness decrease with an increase in volume fraction of particles in aluminum matrix composites in as cast and extruded T6 conditions. Stefanas and Skolianos (1996) investigated the mechanical behavior of cast SiCp reinforced in Al-4.5% Cu and 1.5Mg alloy and concluded that the ductility of composite material decreases with increase in volume fraction of particle using squeeze casting technique. Rupa (2005) reported that Al-Cu alloy based composite does not decrease the ductility and depends upon matrix composition. Ductility of 2024 aluminum cast composite reinforced with Al2O3 particle decreases with increase in volume fraction as investigated by Azim et al (1995). Similarly Taha (2001) reported that the ductility of

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cast aluminium matrix composite is generally lower than aluminum matrix material. However, the ductility can be improved upon suitable heat treatment process. Ejifore and Reddy (1997) reported that Cu increases strength but reduce ductility of the matrix materials. The improvements in the ductility can be achieved through the control of porosity, mechanical working deformation processes, reducing the particle size and increasing the uniformly distribution of particle in aluminum composites. The ductility of composite in simple tension loading is dependent on strength of metal matrix and the microstructural constituents [Srivatsan and Lewandowski 2006]. Aqida, Ghazali and Hashim (2004) had reported that the ductility of discontinuously reinforced metal matrix composites relies on the strain rate at which the damage nucleate and growth to cause the failure. This can be improved by minimizing the porosity content in MMC. Because fracture takes place at matrix particles interface. The presence of porosity facilitates the voids coalescence which results in reduction of ductility of composites. Das (2004) investigated light metal (LM) series of aluminum cast composites and reported that aluminum cast composites exhibits better combinations of ductility (toughness) and strength. Rupa and Meenai (2005) investigated high stress 7xxx series aluminum composite these authers were of the viewed that the good ductility can be achieved in 7xxx alloys through uniformly distributed fine particles by an aging process.

2.3.3 Hardness Hardness may be defined as resistance to penetration, scratching and abrasion [Askin and Charles 1993]. Hardness of aluminum alloy based casting composite material

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depends upon matrix composition, reinforcements, their types, distribution and volume fraction. Heat treatment also has a significant effect on hardness of those aluminum composite which give response to the solution treated and aging [Park et al 2001, Gupta and Surappa 1995] The strong matrix such as 2xxx 7xxx 6xxx has high hardness which further improves upon addition of ceramic particles and applying heat treatment [Taha 2001]. The work hardening is the another factor which increase hardness as a result deformation process which reduces the porosity in increase the bonding strength between matrix and ceramic particles [Hashim et al 1991, Srivatsan and Lewandowski 2006] Increasing the Cu and Si content in aluminum matrix increases the hardness of the composite material [Muzafar and Zeren 2005]. Surappa, (2003), Rohatgi (1981) have reported that hardness of aluminum matrix reinforced with Al2O3 particles increases with addition of such particles. Huseyin Sevikcan and Kurnaz (2006) investigated properties of alumina particles reinforced in aluminum produced by pressure die casting. They had reported that the hardness of alloy was improved by 43% due to reinforcement of Al2O3 particles and this increase in hardness was due to the attributes that small particles had more surface area in the matrix. Rupa and Dasgupta (2005) conducted a comparative study of Al-Cu alloy base casting composite using stir casting method and concluded that composite after age hardening and as in cast condition have high hardness.

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2.3.4 Abrasive Wear Resistance The abrasive wear resistance is one of the most important property of the material needed to resist the damage or progressively loss of surfaces or sub surface of material working under gritty environmental conditions. [Jokhio et al 2006]. However, the wear is considered as system property rather than a material property [Talat 1994.] The abrasive wear of metal matrix materials depends upon the wearing conditions where as the tribological properties of aluminum alloy based casting composite increase with increases in particle size, volume fraction and also depend upon the type of matrix material [Shen and Lin 1996], [Nesarikar, Tewani and Graham, 1991]. Literature reveals that as the hardness increases the abrasive wear resistance is also increases and depends upon the morphology of the microstructural constituents [Jokhio 1996]. The high abrasive wear resistance of aluminum metal matrix cast composites (AMMCC) also depends upon proper interfacing, bonding between matrix phase and reinforcements. Proper wetting is necessary for high abrasive wear resistance. The interfacial reaction between matrix and reinforcement and formation of brittle phase be avoided that will decrease the abrasive wear resistance. Several other factors such as porosity, matrix composition, and heat treatment have strong influence on abrasive wear resistance. The abrasive wear of resistance aluminum matrix composite is excellent as compared to monolithic metals due to presence of hard particles. The abrasive wear resistance of 2024 aluminum composites at the load of 1Kg is 6 time greater than the abrasive wear of the same alloy containing upto 20 % SiC. A

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Toyota Piston made from aluminum 2024 composite had greater advantage and impressing abrasive wear even better than cast iron [Gibbon 1988]. Much research work has been conducted to investigate the abrasive wear behavior of aluminum cast composite materials using different matrix and mostly SiC and AL2O3 particles were used. For example Shen and Lin (1996) investigate the particle size effects on the abrasive wear containing 20% SiC reinforced in 7075 aluminum composites using powder metallurgical process. They concluded that abrasive wear resistance is much better than matrix materials. The room temperature wear characteristic of aluminum matrix reinforced with Al2O3 particles was investigated by Nesarikar, Tewani and Graham (1991). They were of the view that wear is caused by abrasion of softer surface matrix material. A dry sliding wear test under the load 5-20 N, was conducted on aluminum composite. Composites were prepared using Vortex and squeeze casting method and reinforced with Al2O3 particles by Huseyin et al (2006). They concluded that wear rate of composite and unreinforced alloy decreased with increasing load. Wear rate decreased with increase in volume fraction and particle size 125 m. The wear surface appearance showed plastic deformation at matrix alloy when the composites wear was caused by abrasion. They further conclude that the abrasive wear of Al2O3 particles reinforced in 2024 aluminum alloy composite fabricated by vortex method was increased. Kok (2006) conducted the abrasive wear using pin on disc method. The experimental result reported that wear properties of 2024 alloy wear were considerably

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improved with addition of Al2O3 particles and the wear resistance of composite was much higher than matrix alloy. The wear rate of composite increased with increase of particle size and volume friction. The abrasive wear properties of Al-Cu base composite materials have been evaluated by a large number of investigators [Rupa 2005; Kok 2005]. In most of the cases the abrasive wear resistance of aluminum composites increased due to control of alloy and the degree of improvement in abrasive wear resistance depend upon the large extend on experimental conditions and testing pressure of microstructural constituents. Improper formations of composite leads to decrease the abrasive wear by diluted heat of dispersiods particles by the matrix material. This means that wear resistance of composites depends both on reinforced size, and distribution volume friction. The matrix strengthening has significant effect on wear properties. Rupa (2005) concluded that Al-Cu composite have high abrasive wear resistance due to it high hardness. However, he pointed out the adverse effect on tensile strength. The similar matrix alloy 2024 reinforced with Al2O3 using vortex method was investigated by Kok and Ozdin (2007). He found that abrasive wear resistance of aluminum cast composite was increased as compared to alloy matrix. The abrasive wear resistance increases with increase in volume friction (Upto 20%) and particle (Al2O3) size. However, they have reported that the abrasive wear resistance decreases with increasing the sliding distance, wear load and abrasive grit size. They also concluded that the effect of excellent abrasive wear resistance was mainly dependent on the effective resistance of Al2O3 particles to penetration; cutting and grinding by SiC emery papers.

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Yilnaz and Buytoz (2001) investigated abrasive wear of Al2O3 particulate reinforce in aluminum based MMCs. They used compocasting technique for manufacturing of composites. The abrasive wear was conducted using pin on disc with different grade of SiC emery papers. They concluded that has increasing porosity, decreasing particle size and increasing grit size of emery paper decreases the abrasive wear resistance. However the aluminum cast composite shows high abrasive wear resistance upto 15 % Al2O3 as compared to matrix alloy. The abrasive wear resistance of A357, A339 and A6061 aluminum matrixes reinforced with Al2O3 particles, were investigated using compositing techniques by Garcia et al (1996). They used different particle size and volume friction. The abrasive results were compared with casting of grey cast iron. They concluded that SiC in aluminum composite is more effective than Al2O3 particles. This might be due to different shape of SiC. They reported that abrasive wear increase with increasing particle volume friction and size. They also found that abrasive wear resistance depends upon the matrix bonding with ceramic particles. The strength is relevant property as for as the wear performance is concerned but not toughness as suggested by other authors. Suresh et al (2003) investigated the effect of various oxide based ceramics particle on abrasive wear of gravity cast and squeeze cast aluminum composite. They were of the view that abrasive wear resistance increases with oxide ceramic particles content but better wear resistance is achieved in case of squeeze casting or the gravity casting of aluminum composites.

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Al 5Mg alloy matrix reinforced with different % age of Al2O3 (60m) particulate composite was prepared using vertex method by Daud, et al (2003). The composites were cold rolled (deformation) with different reduction rates. They concluded that Al2O3 after deformation increases abrasive wear resistance of Al 5 Mg composites. From the above literature review it is clear that abrasive wear resistance depend upon matrix composition, type of reinforcements, their size, distribution as well as micro structural characteristics, porosity, wetting and interfacing bonding between the matrix and ceramics. Presence of Cu, Zn, Si along with Mg contents has beneficial effect which increase wear abrasive resistance of aluminum cast composites.

2.4

FACTORS AFFECTING THE STRENGTH AND ABRASIVE WEAR OF CAST COMPOSITES Various major factors which affect the strength and abrasive wear resistance of

aluminum cast composites includes the matrix composition, type of reinforcements, heat treatments, microstructural constituents, interfacing (wetting and bonding) density, porosity in aluminum casting composites. Theses major factors include the matrix composition, heat treatment, Al2O3 particles, microstructure, interfacing (wetting) and porosity. Theses factors will be discussed in the subsequent sections

2.4.1

Effect of Matrix Composition As discussed above, that mechanical properties such as strength, ductility

(toughness) hardness and abrasive wear resistance of aluminum alloy base casting composite materials depend up various factors such as reinforcements type, distribution,

38

size, shape and volume fraction, heat treatment, porosity, wetting and bonding between ceramic particles and chemical composition of matrix material. From the above literature one thing is clear that matrix composition plays an important role in controlling the strength and wear resistance of aluminum cast composites. Composite material refers to both matrix alloy and ceramics. Some research in aluminum cast composite is based upon the investigation of the effect of various matrix composition and particles. For example, the effect of eight different matrix compositions in mechanical properties was investigated by Maxim et al (1998). They conducted research on Al 4.5% Cu and used advanced infiltration casting technique. The effect of Si and Mg content in matrix alloy on tensile strength and toughness was investigated. They concluded that Si and Mg addition has positive effect on tensile strength of the aluminum composites. The Mg is a much more effective addition since in the presence of Cu it take part in formation of S phase (Al2 Cu Mg which is very potent to age hardening precipitates. Presence of Mg makes aluminum Al2O3 particle stronger interfacing. They further concluded that Mg content 1.5% increases tensile strength by 10% without decreasing the toughness. Both Si and Mg combined effect increases 25% tensile strength, whereas the Si content decreases toughness of the composites. Zn has greater solubility in aluminum depending upon the matrix phase composition and has strong influence on the tensile strength [Frindlyender 2003, Elmas 2002]. Increasing Zn content will also increase fracture toughness (ductility) and abrasive wear resistance of the composite material [Rupa and Meenia 2005].

39

The addition of Mg and Zr upto 1 in aluminum cast composites increases strength and toughness by increasing the wetting ability between ceramics and matrix [Gupta and Surrappa 1995]. The presence of Al2O3 particles in aluminum matrix has the major advantage that it has high chemical inertness as compared to SiC. Moreover high strength and modulus of about twice that of aluminum can be obtained [Taha 2001]. Literature reveals various matrixes compositions but the popular matrix composition is based on age hardenable alloy such as 2xxx 6xxx and 7xxx series [Srivatsan and Vasudevan 2006]. Mostly the pervious matrixes investigated for strength were 2xxx and 6xxx series aluminum alloys [Baifeng 2007, Ejifor and Reddy 1997]. However, some information is available in case of 7xxx aluminum matrix composite [Daud et al 2004, www.metalarcticle.com, 2005]. The effect of Si and Mg on casting properties of 7xxx series of alloy was investigated by Dailibor et al (2004) who reported that Mg and Si improved the casting properties of aluminum alloy. Clinch et al (2004) had optimized the composition of 7xxx aluminum alloy with Zn and Mg ratio 3:1 and 4:1 respectively. They concluded that low Mg Zn ratio exhibits better strength and toughness. They further concluded that Cu in matrix composition strengthens the alloy by precipitation of Al Cu2 or modification of brittle Al-Fe-Si phase and improves the corrosion resistance.

40

Haizhi (2003) reported that Fe in aluminum casting alloy be restricted to less than 2%. Cu modifies Si phase and prevent die sticking in die casting. The presence of Si in aluminum matrix improve fluidity and feeding characteristics, improves corrosion resistance, hardness and abrasive wear resistance [Lee 1998].

2.4.2

Effect of Heat Treatment The mechanical properties of as cast aluminum composite are inferior due to

inhomogeneties in composition, segregations, microstructural non uniformities and presence of internal stresses and porosity. In order to optimize the composition, properties and microstructural uniformity various heat treatment processes such as annealing, solution treatment and age hardening treatments are applied to the cast composite. Therefore, heat treatment is to be considered as an integral part of alloy development and further manufacturing process [Srivatsan and Vasudevan 2006, Jokhio et al 2006]. The main objective, of the thermal treatment is to modify or improve the physical, mechanical and structural properties to the required level for optimum performance of the material in service conditions [Jokhio 1996]. The most important heat treatment process for aluminum cast composites is age hardening or precipitation hardening. Heat treatment is more effectively applied to those aluminum alloys which are capable to be hardening. Their equilibrium diagram in Fig: 2.5 shows high solubility at high temperature lower solubility at low temperature. The selection of heat treatment process and its parameter depends upon alloys composition, size and shape and the required physical and

41

mechanical properties. The process of age hardening or precipitation hardening is carried out into three steps. o Solution treatment o Quenching o Aging Solution treatment involves the heating of alloy to a pre determined temperature and time depending upon the composition, geometry, size and shape of the parts. Heating allows the solute atoms to diffuse in the matrix phase and homogenizes the composition. After solution treatment alloy is rapidly cooled into a particular quenching media usually water at room temperature that will freeze (trap the solute atoms) in the matrix phase. This is the super saturated solid solution and lattice is overly stressed by the solute atoms and is in matastable conditions. With the passage of time at room temperature or upon heating solute atoms tend to precipitate within the matrix phase in a given form of particles (Clusters) which impede the motion of dislocation. This strengthens the matrix phase called age hardening or precipitation hardening [Yilmaz 2004]. The process of age hardening in Al-Cu alloy is shown in Fig: 2.5.

Fig: 2.5 Section of the aluminumcopper eutectic phase diagram (Polmear 1981)

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The strengthening by precipitation mechanism is complicated. In the early theory of age hardening it was thought that hardening occurs due to precipitate of fine particles which impede the motion of dislocation. Later on, the subsequent study led to more complete understanding of age hardening. It was thought that the strengthening is not due to precipitations of particles alone but also due to their uniform distributions of sub microscopic precipitates and distortion of lattice structure of matrix material. The most useful theory is coherent lattice theory of age hardening in which the cluster embryos of the precipitate occurs during aging and form intermediate or transition lattice which maintains registry (Coherency) with the lattice structure of matrix. This excess phase has different lattice parameters [Yilmaz 2004] When there is absence of transition lattice and distortion in alloy matrix will not be strengthened by precipitation hardening. Therefore, in case of aluminum cast composites 7xxx 6xxx and 7xxx series wrought alloy matrix and 2xx.0, 3xx.0 and 7xxx.0 cast alloy matrix give good response to the heat treatment [Taha 2001]. Most of the heat treatable alloys contain Mg with Cu, Si and Zn. The strengthening in these alloys are due to formation of Cu Al2 in aluminum copper alloy system, MgZn2 in aluminum zinc and magnesium system or AlMg2Si in aluminum magnesium silicon system and Cu Mg Al2 Phase in Al-Zn-Mg system. The precipitation treatment is generally carried out at low temperature ranging from 1150C to 1900C. Time varies from 5 to 48 hrs depending upon the alloy matrix usually referred by letter T6 temper. [www.metalarcticle.com, 2005]. T6 temper generally

43

has the highest strength practically without sacrifice of other properties and characteristics. The T is found by experience to be satisfactory and useful for engineering applications. It is followed by number 1 to 10. The specific sequence of basic treatments as described below. T1= Cooled form elevated temperature shaping process and naturally aged (not cold work) T2= Cooled from elevated temperature shaping process cold work and naturally aged T3= Solution treated cold work and naturally aged T4 =Solution treated naturally aged T5 =Cooled from elevated temperature, shaping process and artificially aged. T6 Solution heat treated and artificially aged. T7 =Solution heat treated and over aged or stabilized T8= Solution heat treated, cold work and artificially aged T9 =Solution treated, artificially aged, cold worked. T10 =Cooled from elevated temperature shaping process, cold worked and artificially aged [Yilmaz 2004, Srivatsan and Vasudevan 2006]. Literature reveals that heat treatment has significant effect on mechanical properties and microstructure of aluminum cast composite. Process parameters depend upon the chemical composition hence less information is available to investigate the effect of heat treatment on properties of aluminum cast composites. Rupa and Meenai (2005) applied T6 treatment on 7075 aluminum cast composites reinforced with SiC particles. The composites were heated at 4950C for 8 hours water quench and then tempered at 1200C for 24 hours. The aged samples were then

44

retrogressed at 2000C for duration of 45 minutes to allow only dissolution of precipitate. In the second stage, the retrogressed samples were re-aged at 1200C for 2 hours to fully restore the peak aged condition of T6 temper. They concluded that T6 tempered has improved the strength as compared to double stage process (retrogressed) over the cast alloy composites. However, wear is improved as a result of retrogression and re-aging treatment. A similar matrix reinforced with Al2O3 particles using stir casting method was investigated by Daud et al (2004). They heated samples at 4900C for 2 hours for solution treatment and quenched in water and tempered at 120 0C for 8 hours only. They conclude better sliding wear resistance, strength and hardness are achieved as compared to the matrix materials. The aging behavior of spray cast 7075 aluminum alloy was investigated by Elmas (2002). The solution treatment was carried out at 4700C for hour followed by water quenched and then tempered (aged) at aging temperature 120, 140, 175 0C for selected time. They observed that aging increases with increase in temperature but better aging effect on properties were achieved at lower temperature. Maxim et al (1998) reported that homogenizing and artificial aging T6 and T7 increases 20 % strength of aluminum composite as compared to the natural aging. They reported that fine ceramics particles exhibit strong relationship between tensile strength and heat treatment. Karnezis et al (1998) reported that cast aluminum composite contain Al-7Si alloy matrix reinforced with SiC particles shows better ductility in alloy matrix and composites, after solution treatment at 5400C for 12 hours and then quenched in water.

45

6061 aluminum alloy reinforced with SiC particles was investigated by Gupta and Surappa (1995). The alloy was solution treated at 5300C for one hour and than quenched in cold water. The alloy was aged isothermally at 1770C for various intervals. The time aging results well defined peaks. They reported that aging rate is fast in 2 hours in aluminum stir cast composite and then 8 hours in matrix alloy and resulted high hardness of the composites as compared to alloy matrix. A comparative behavior of 2014 Al-Cu alloy and its composites after aging treatment was investigated by Rupa (2005). The alloys and composites were solution treated in a muffle furnace at 4950C for 8 hours then quenched in cold water. The samples were aged at different temperatures (150, 210, 2400C for 1& 2 hours) to optimize the properties. They concluded that aging treatment improved the over all condition for all properties in both alloys and composites in cast conditions. A wear behavior of 7075 aluminum alloys and 7075 Al composites reinforced with SiC particles was investigated after solution treatment and aging by Venkataraman, and Sundararajan (2004). They prepared the alloy composite using powder metallurgy route and applied T6 treatment. They found that wear behaviour of composites increases with additions of ceramic particles in aluminum matrix.

2.4.3

Effect of AL2O3 Particles Strength and abrasive wear resistance of aluminum metal matrix cast composites

(AMMCC) depends upon the type of reinforcements, their size and distribution and interfacing with matrix materials. However, the most of the research was conducted to

46

investigate the influence of Al2O3 particles individually on strength or on wear. Some investigations were conducted to study the effect of Al2O3 particles on both properties strength and wear. The inherent properties of Al2O3 particles are attractive because they have good resistance to oxidation as compared to SiC. Its density is 3.98g / cm3, the modulus of elasticity E= 372 GPa and tensile strength of Al2O3 particles is 262 MPa [Altinkok 2006]. The addition of Al2O3 in aluminum matrix using stir casting method has advantage that it is inert at high mixing (processing) temperature as compared to SiC [Taha 2001]. The presence of - Al2O3 particles have the tendency to refine the structure of matrix which leads to improve the yield strength, wear resistance and co-efficient of fraction .However, the tensile strength and ductility decreases as reported by Azim et al (1995). The effect of Al2O3 particles content and their size on the properties such as hardness strength and porosity was investigated by Kok (2005). They concluded that hardness and tensile strength of aluminum cast composite increases with decrease in particles size. However, the porosity increases with fine particles size due to agglomeration of particles size. The similar effect of fine particles size (nano matrix particle reinforced in aluminum matrix composite) and increase in volume fraction was reported by Kang and Chan (2004).

47

The beneficial effect of increasing particles size and volume fraction on sliding wear resistance in 2024 Aluminum matrix cast composites was reported by Kok, and Ozdin (2007). The effect of Al2O3 particles aluminum cast composite on tensile strength and wear after rolling was investigated by Daud Bitar and Azim (2003). They reported beneficial effect on abrasive wear and yield strength but tensile strength decreased with an increase in volume fraction of Al2O3 particles in reinforced in Al 15 Mg matrix. However they reported beneficial effect of Al2O3 particles on strength, wear, and hardness in 7075 aluminum matrix [Daud et al 2004]. The influence of Al2O3 particles reinforced in aluminum matrix composites developed by using stir casting method was investigated by (Kok 2006), Yidmaz and Buytoz (2001). They also conclude that abrasive wear resistance of aluminum cast composite increases with increase in volume fraction and particles size. The similar effect of Al2O3 particles on abrasive wear resistance was reported by Stevircan and Kurnaz (2006). The beneficial effect of high Al2O3 particles upto 55 volume percent on strength and toughness was reported by Maxim et al (1998) but they used using advanced infiltration casting technique for development of cast composites. The beneficial effect of Al2O3 particles on hardness, strength, and wear resistance in Al-Si alloys was also reported by Surappa and Rohatgi (1981). Fang et al (1999) suggested that addition of Al2O3 particles would increase the dry wear or wear corrosion resistance of 6061 aluminum composites.

48

6061 aluminum alloy reinforced with Al2O3 particles was investigated by Massardier et al (1993) and Baifeng et al (2007). They had concluded that the there was increase in modulus of elasticity, tensile strength hardness but degrease in ductility. However both investigators did not use stir casting method. Generally it is summarized that Al2O3 particles increases the over all performance of aluminum cast composites except the ductility which decreases.

2.4.4

Effect of Microstructure The morphology of the microstructural constituents, their orientation, bonding,

distribution, presence of porosity and impurities have strong influence on strength and wear. Their appearance of the microstructural features depends upon the composition and processing method and heat treatment operations [Brusethaug, and langsrud 2001] Literature reveals that microstructure of aluminum cast alloy influences the properties of aluminum alloy based casting composites materials. The microstructure of aluminum alloy based casting composite material consists of matrix phase and particles, their distribution, defects and precipitation of particles, grains and subgrains [Baifeng et al 2007 and Srivatsan 1996, Daud et al 2004 Redsten et al 1995, www.keytometal.com, 2005]. In recent year increasing the need of high performance aluminum alloy based casting composites materials for automobile and aerospace industries need to understand the relationship between microstructure-mechanical properties and processing method [Srivatsan et al 1991].

49

The main microstructural requirement for aluminum cast composites is the uniform distribution of ceramics and their interfacing. In stir casting porosity and interfacing are the major issues which affect the properties of aluminum alloy based casting composites Taha (2001). These problems have been well documented by Ibrahim et al (1991), and Hashim, et al (2003). The interfacing or wetting between the ceramics and particles can be improved by preheating the ceramics at 9000C, addition of Mg upto 3 %, applying presence during mixing , casting as reported by Taha (2001), Ibrahim et al (1991), Hashim et al (2003). The uniform distribution, good interfacing, fine grain matrix and precipitation of particles increase the strength and abrasive wear resistance as discussed by numbers of investigators [Chawala et al 2000, Karnezis et al 1998, Lai and Yap 1997]. The microstructural characterization studied in stir casting route was conducted by Gupta and Surappa (1995). They observed the precipitation behavior and segregations of alloying elements in the interfacial region between Al alloy matrix and ceramic particles. This will cause the variation in mechanical properties of cast aluminum composites. In stir casting of aluminum alloy matrix uniformity of distributions of ceramics particles and good bonding between ceramics and matrix is essential that minimizes porosity and improves the strength and wear as reported by Pai et al (1993). Azim et al (1995) has observed that Al2O3 in stir casting help in formation of equiaxed grains and acts as sites for nucleations which increases the strength properties.

50

The particle clustering and agglomerations of porosity were observed in cast aluminum composites Kok (2005). Kang and Chan (2004) investigated tensile properties of nanometric Al2O3 particles enforced in aluminum matrix. They observed that agglomeration increases with increase in volume fraction but if the agglomeration is well bonded with matrix, it can contribute to strengthen of composites. The study of microstructural evaluation of 6061 MMC reinforced with Al2O3 particles indicates high dislocation density around Al2O3 particles. The formation of reinforced precipitates constituting sites for dislocation pilling up phenomena will improve the strength of composites [Bonollo 1997]. The aluminum particles in aluminum cast composites are located at higher frequency at grain boundaries than in the grain interior. The clustering of alumina particles and increasing dislocation density around aluminum rich region were observed in microstructures of cast oxide dispersion strengthening aluminum composites by Redsten et al (1995). Daud et al (2004) observed particles agglomeration and porosity in squeeze cast 7075 aluminum composite reinforced with Al2O3 particles. They reported that presence of alumina particles in 7075 aluminum alloys affects dendrite structure which is reinforced as compared to aluminum cast alloy. This reinforcing of microstructure in aluminum cast composites improves hardness and abrasive wear resistance.

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2.4.5

Effect of Interfacing (wetting) and Porosity The interfacing compatibility between ceramics, matrix and porosity are the major

factors which affect the overall performance of aluminum cast composites as reported by large numbers of investigators [Ibrahim Mohammad and Levernia 1991, Hashim et al 1999, 2002, Surappa 1981, Kok 2005, Aquida, Ghazali and Hashim 2004, Taha 2001]. One of the important limitations in fabrication of aluminum metal matrix composite is the compatibility of reinforcement in matrix. In case of aluminum composites, Al is covered with a thin layer of oxide. Thin layer blocks the surface wetting and reacts with some ceramics to form intermetallic phases which affect the final properties of aluminum composites [Suresh et al 2003]. A Good bonding between reinforcement and matrix is required for effective load transfer through the matrix to the reinforcement. This interfacing can be improved through surface oxidation, cooling, preheating of ceramics particles, melt treatment addition of Mg and apply pressure during mixing [Taha 2001, Hashim et al 1991]. The wettings extend the intimate contact between the liquid matrix and solid ceramics. Successful incorporation of solid ceramics particles in casting requires that melt should wet the solid particles. The problem of wetting is due to surface chemistry of solid and surface tension of the liquid. The surface modification of ceramic particles with Mg, Li, Ti, Cu and P by breaking surface tension by rapid mixing will improve the wettingablity or by reducing the contact angle 90 degree as reported by Hashim et al (1999).

52

Ibrahim et al (1991), reported that 3% Mg decreases surface tension of pure aluminum and in the presence of Al2O3 particles a chemical reaction takes place between Al2O3 and divalent transition metal oxides, resulting in formation of aluminum spinals such as MgO. Al2O3 promotes interfacial bonding and form strong bonding between both matrix and ceramics that would result in improvements in the properties of cast composites. Hashim et al, (1999, 2002) reported that as the particle size decreases wetting become very difficult due to increase in surface area of particles and increasing the tendency of agglomeration. Porosity in stir casting is also the major problem which has adverse effect on mechanical properties of cast composites [Aquida et al 2004, Hashim et al 1999 and 2002, Yilmaz, and Buytoz 2001] Porosity is a defect formed by interfacial reaction occurred in the form of rod or long fissured pores. Porosity result due to entrapment of gases during stirring, water vapour content in mould, ceramics particles, hydrogen evolution or shrinkage during solidification [Aqida 2004]. Porosity content increases with increasing the processing temperature, prolong mixing increasing volume friction and size [Hashim et al 1991] In aluminum casting hydrogen is responsible for gas porosity which penetrates the liquid alloy by following reaction H2O(v) 1/3 Al2O3 + 2H(in Al) Upon solidification the hydrogen trapped in solid metal form bubbles that produce gas porosity [Aqida et al 2004]. porosity is measured by quantitative metallographic method or through the density using arch median method [Kok 2005] but in case of cast

53

aluminum composites reinforced with Al2O3 particles quantitative method can not accurately predict the porosity because many pores are filled with ceramic particles. Therefore theoretical density and experimentally determined density will give accurate measurement of porosity [Hassan et al 2009]. Porosity depends upon matrix composition and particle size. However porosity reduces strength, fatigue, ductility and wear resistance and density of the cast composites [Yilmaz and Buytoz, 2001, Aqida et al 2004, Suresh et al 2003, Hashim 2002]. However, the damping capacity increases with increasing the porosity content [Aqida et al 2004]

2.5
2.5.1

MODELING
Introduction Modeling is an art. Now a days it is considered as an active branch of

scientific study, mostly used for solving complex problems. Based on the nature of the problem, various modeling techniques have been reported in the literature for solving the materials engineering related problems. Theses modeling techniques include physical modeling, mathematical modeling and computational modeling [Askin and Standridge 1993]. The physical models are the processes by which any object is to be modeled on scale and provides the visual aids for checking the desired potential of design [Anu 1997].The mathematical modeling requires the use of mathematical set of equations or logical relationships to describe the real system for solution of problems [Xiaos et al 2009].

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Mathematical modeling differs from physical modeling in their use of decision variables. Mathematical modeling can be descriptive (simulation) or prescriptive (such as linear programming) in nature [Warke, Shanker, and Makhlouf 2005]. A more efficient modeling can be done with the help of computer systems using computational modeling. The computational modeling requires the use of computers for development of models. Also logical programming is required for solving complex problems. Now days computational modeling techniques are widely used for research and development work; especially in the field of materials science and engineering due to increased accuracy, reliability, efficiency and reduced fatigue of experimental work, saving time as well as energy as well [Patanker, 2002, Jokhio et al 2009]. Literature reveals that a comparatively new modeling technique which has been widely used for solving such complex non-linear materials related problems using computational modeling is artificial neural network models [Houche 2004, Rajagopal andRajagopalan 1996].

2.5.2

Artificial Neural Networks Modeling Artificial neural network is a computational modeling technique and relatively

considered as a new field of artificial intelligence because it can simulate intelligence activities [Talpur 2003] An Artificial neural network tries to mimic the structure and operations of the human brain [Jokhio et al 2004].

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By creating an artificial neural network on computers, complex problems can be solved such as intelligent control of power plants [Talpur 2003], speech recognition, prediction of protein, classification of cancer [kough 2008] etc. The development of intelligent machine began in the 19th century as a combined effort of many researches was aimed to understand the functionality of brain; such as its ability to receive input, stored in memory, the logical operations of manipulations, sense of thinking, learning, recocnizing the activities and finally giving the response in term of outputs [Talpur 2003, Unar 1999]. A simple hardware and software based on the hypothesis of brain thinking system developed by Mc Culloch and Pitts in 1943 was considered as an initial systematic study of artificial neural network. Later on investigators developed networks for pattern recognition using single layer preceptron. First artificial neural network was developed in the period of 1950 to 1960 and was initially implemented as electronic circuits. In the period of 1970 to 1980 the artificial neural network was utilized in the field of computer science and electronics. Later on, after the development of various learning algorithms (especially back propagation learning) in the period of 1982 to 1986 it gained popularity in applications in almost all disciplines [Ziliochain 2001, Anil et al 1996].

2.5.2.1 Background of Artificial Neural Network An artificial neural network consists of an architectural network of neurons organized in a certain pattern. The basic element of artificial neural network is neuron

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(Fig 2.6) whose structure and working principle is derived from the concept of biological neuron. For efficient uses of an artificial neural network one must understand the structure and working principle of biological neuron. Fig: 2.7. This aspect has not been so clearly defined in most of the research articles.

Fig: 2.6 Biological neuron (Ziliochain 2001)

Fig: 2.7 Working principle of a biological neuron (Jasmin 2003) A biological neuron (Fig 2.6) consists of the cell body (Soma) as a central part of neuron which consists of neuclus and protein. All logical functions take place within this

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part of the neuron and acts as an information processing unit. Neuron is connected with axon and multitude of dendrite (Tree like structures). Dendrites are connected with cell body through axon and act to receive informations. A neuron receives information from other neurons through large number of dendrites and transmits information through axon (output channel). The axon is further divided into strand and substrand. The neurons are connected through synapses (joints), which are the functional units between two neurons. Upon receiving impulses or information at synapses neuron releases chemicals to enhance or inhabits the received tendency and emits electrical pulses. The strength of synaptic can be chemically altered by the brain in response to favorable and unfavorable stimuli. The synapses act as junctions between axon and dendrite of other neurons. A neuron fires when collective influence of all impulses reaches to the threshold value and proceeds to soma through axon structure and gives the output results [Unar 1999, and Talpur 2003]. A simple artificial neuron is modeled as a device (usually nonlinear) whose architecture is divided into three parts: input part, processing part and output part. The input of the neuron may be the input of network of which the neuron is a part, the output of other neuron or its own neuron. The functionality (Simulation) of output artificial neuron is achieved upon receiving one or more input Xi (i =1, 2---Xn) to the neuron and then multiplying by weight Wi (i =1, 2, ---- Wn). Each neuron connection has the weight value which represents the memory of the network and indicates the strength of synapses and analogy with neuro-biological synapses (Fig: 2.7). The weighted signals are summed (Linear combination of value) to produce over all activation value which is compared to

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the threshold value called activation function of the neuron. In most cases, the bias is added to the weighted sum. The bias is generally used to speed up the learning process. When the overall value exceeds the threshold value, a neuron passes data in the form of simple electrical pulses. The selection of the activation functions of a neuron depends upon the desired functionality of neuron and may be linear or nonlinear function. The purpose of activation function is to confine the neurons output to a pre-specified range. The various activation functions are shown in Fig 2.8.

Fig: 2.8 Various activation functions (Jasmin 2003) Mathematically, an artificial neuron is expressed as: Xn y = f [WiXi - b]
i=1

(2.1),

Where, Xn is the total number of n inputs. In most cases, threshold contribution b is treated as an extra input X0 to the neuron X0 = -1 and W0 = b. Equation (2.1) Simplifies as:

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Xn y = f [Wi Xi]
i=1

(2.2).

A neuron has two modes of operation training and testing mode [Talpur 2003]. In the training mode, a neuron trains to fire or not to fire for a particular input pattern. In the testing mode, if the input pattern does not belong to the list of the trained pattern of inputs the firing rule is used to decide whether the shared neuron fire or not fire. The simple neuron can solve simple problem however, complex problems require the use multiple neurons working together.his is called neural network which is usually arranged in the form of input layer, hidden layer and output layer as shown in Fig: 2.9. Hidden layer

Out put layer Input layer

Fig: 2.9 Architecture of a simple neural network [Unar 1999] The input neuron or input layer receives information from environment. The output neurons of layers send signals out of the system. The hidden neurons or layers are those which have information within the system [Altinkok and Koker 2005]. The neural networks are generally classified based on thier architecture (topology and learning

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method). The most widely used topology is the feedforward network and most common learning method is the ever back propagation rule [Talpur 2003].

2.5.2.2

Multilayer Feedforward Neural Network The multilayer feedforward neural network is one of the most popular architecture

due to its easeness in applications [Badeshah 1999]. Another reason of its popularity is that it allows supervised learning. In this type of learning a network is required to give some desired output for a certain class of input patterns [Unar 1999]. The feedforward name is given to this network, because signals always propagate in forward direction from layer to layer and do not pass from other neurons in the same layer or the previous layer. Since the development of feedforward network technique in the late eighties, theses networks have been applied by large number of investigators. Based upon the applications, these can be divided into two major groups: For function approximation and classification. If the output values are continuous, then this network is performing function approximation. However, if it restricts the output to a finite set of value then it is performing classification task. Furthermore, multilayer feedforward neural network can be divided into two major categories: The multilayer perceptron (MLP) and radial Bias function (RBF). However, in the present work, MLP has been used therefore; this network is described as under.

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2.5.2.3

Multilayer Perceptron Network The Multilayer Perceptron network has been successfully applied in almost every

discipline perhaps it is the best known type of feedforward neural network [Unar1999, and Anil, 1996, Jokhio 2009]. Recently, the Multilayer Perceptron has been used in the field of materials science and engineering by a large number of investigators [Ozerdem 2007, Jokhio et al 2004, and Hassan et al 2008]. The topology of multilayer perceptron is similar to multilayer feedforward as discussed previously. it consists of input layer, hidden layer and output layer. The number of hidden layers and number of neurons in each layer is not fixed. Each layer may have different number of neurons depending upon the applications. Generally MLP network has a different number of neurons and different synaptic weights for different layers. All neurons in hidden layers have a sigmoidal nonlinearity such as a logistic function Yi =
1 1 + exp( Ui )

or hyperbolic tangent function Yi = a tanh b(Ui )

Where Ui is the net internal activity of neuron i, Yi is the output of the same neuron and a,b are the constants. MLP network learn faster with hyperbolic tangent function than logistic function [Hyken 1999]. Each unit performs a weighted sum of its inputs and pass this activation level through a transfer function to produce its output. The output layer neurons may have the same activation as the hidden neurons. However, many applications use a linear function as the activation function of the outputs neurons. An important point to emphasis here is that the non linearity is smooth (i.e differentiable every where). A multilayer perceptron (MLP) is usually trained by using the error back

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propagation rule. The development of the back propagation learning algorithm for determining weights in a multilayer perceptron has made these networks the most popular among the researchers and users of neural networks. The back propagation algorithm is discussed in the next section.

2.5.2.4

Back Propagation Neural Network Algorithm The back propagation neural algorithm was developed in the 1980.

The back propagation algorithm works in three steps. o Forward sweep o Error calculation o Back propagation In forward sweep, each neuron receives information in the form of inputs; calculated and passed to the neurons of the next layers which receive information and passes it to the neurons of final layer. In the next step the error is calculated by comparing the value of the neurons of output layers to the desired output. If the differences between the actual output and the teacher(desired output) is within acceptable rang then learning is successful other wise the error is calculated and learning is called unsuccessful. In the third step; if the learning is unsuccessful then the error value is propagated backward through the network to minimize the error between the actual and desired outputs by adjusting the weighted value. In learning process, these three steps are repeated until the learning becomes successful by minimizing the error between actual and desired output within the acceptable range [Hassan et al 2008]. The derivation of the back propagation algorithm can be found elsewhere [Haykin, 1999; Unar 1999].

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2.5.3

Neural Networks in Materials Science and Engineering The neural networks have been applied in almost every discipline for solving

problems such as design, development, processing and controlling of materials, equipment, and products. In the field of materials science and engineering this technique has also be effectively applied by a large number of investigators. For example, Badeshah (1999) had well documented the applications of neural networks in materials science concerned with the processing, properties and microstructural evaluation of steels and ductile cast iron. Sha and Edwards (2007) had brought the researchers attention for towards the use of neural network in materials science based research work. The microstructural constitutions such as amount of retained austenite in austempered ductile cast iron was estimated by using artificial neural networks by Yascas, Bhdeshia, and Mackay (2006). Martin and William (2003), reported that neural network modeling, using back propagation algorithm can effectively be used for feature classification of steel alloy microstructural constitutions (ferrite + pearlite) Maly, Harck and Novotny (2001) have also reported that neural network approach can be used in image analysis of complex systems. Jokhio et al (2004), Sudhakar and Haque (2001), Cherian ,Smith, and Midha (2000), Ohdar, and Pasha (2003), are the few examples of applications of neural

networks in the field of Materials Science and Engineering concerned with the field of powder metallurgy.

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Steel processing and its performance, characterization involving the complex analysis of problems has been solved by applying neural networks by a large number of investigators such as Dobrzanski, Sitech (2003), Dobranski , Kowalski, and Maejski (2005), and Lujie et al (2007). The materials performance depends upon the complex interrelated materials factors such as chemistry and processing method. Therefore, experimental observations can not capture all aspects of materials. The material development and processing and characterizations are difficult and time consuming tasks. However neural networks have the capability in capturing the experimentally observed behavior through a learning process.