NURSING RESEARCH

Brian A. Vasquez, , MAN, PhD (Cand.)

Activity No. 1
Get

your NOTEBOOK and PEN For those who want to participate in the activity copy this simple CONSENT FORM
I (name) am willing to participate in this activity. I will not receive any monetary privilege. There are few to no known risk. I will benefit by learning the concepts in research. I am free to withdraw anytime.
(Signature and Signature of witness with

1. Interest in Research

Rating

1 for Love 2 for Hate

2. Rate your emotional and psychological pain experienced in Nursing Research

3. How was your experience with Nursing Research?

The Practice of Nursing

deeply rooted

Nursing Knowledge

generated and disseminated from

Reading Using Creating NURSING RESEARCH

Practice decisions based on evidence Critical thinking Ask and answer questions systematically

Nursing Research in Perspective Nurses are increasingly expected to understand and conduct research, and base their profession on emerging evidence from research-based practice.

RESEARCH Systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions or solve problems (Polit & Beck)

ULTIMATE GOAL a.) develop a body of knowledge b.) refine c.) expand

NURSING RESEARCH Systematic inquiry designed to develop trustworthy evidence about issues of importance to the nursing profession (Polit & Beck)

Nursing research Including: 1. nursing practice is a systematic 2. nursing education inquiry that uses rigorous 3. nursing administration guidelines toinformatics bias-free, produce 4. nursing nursing trustworthy answers to actions Importance: 1. clinical appropriate questions about nursing practice and 2. cost-effective (Houser) decisions 3. positive outcome

SOURCES OF EVIDENCE FOR NURSING PRACTICE (Polit & Beck)

Tradition

and Authority Clinical Experience, Trial and Error and Intuition Logical Reasoning
a. Inductive- develop generalizations from specific observation b. Deductive- develop specific predictions from general principles

Assembled Information
a. Bench marking b. Cost-data c. Quality Improvement and Risk Data

Disciplined Research (EBP)

Evidence-Based Nursing Practice The use of best scientific evidence

integrated with clinical experience, and incorporating patient values and preferences, in the practice of professional nursing care (Houser) EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE
The use of the best clinical evidence in making patients care decisions, and such evidence typically comes from research conducted by nurses and other health care professionals: conscientious use of current best evidence in making clinical decisions about patient care (Polit & Beck)

Systematic Reviews: Cornerstone of EBP

A state-of-the-art summary of what the best evidence is at the time the review was written Meta-analysis technique for integrating quantitative research findings statistically.

(Unit of analysis individual studies and no longer the participants)

Metasynthesis integrating qualitative studies on a specific topic that are themselves interpretative synthesis of narrative information.

TYPES OF EVIDENCE and EVIDENCE Systematic HEIRARCHIES

review of RCTs and Non RCTs

RCTs and Non RCTs

Systematic review of single correlational or observational study

Single correlational or observational study

Systematic review of single descriptive, qualitative or physiologic studies

Single descriptive, qualitative or physiologic studies

Opinion of authorities and experts

Barriers to Using Evidence in Clinical Practice

Limitations in Evidence-Based Practice System

Houser Overwhelming amount of information in the literature Sometimes contradictory findings in the research Polit & Beck High-quality research evidence is limited On-going need for research that directly addresses clinical problem A range of setting for replica Issues of generalizability for methodologically strong studies Need for greater collaboration for researches and clinicians

Human Factors that Create Barriers

Houser Lack of knowledge about EBP Lack of skill in finding/ and/or appraising research studies Negative attitudes about research and EB care Perception that research is a cookbook medicine Perception that research is for medicine, not for nursing Polit & Beck Ability to communicate findings Language barriers Need to take proactive steps to report results Attitude and educational consistency Research valuing and belief on its benefits

Houser Lack of authority for clinicians to make changes in practice Peers emphasize status quo weve always done it this way Demanding workloads with no time for research activities Conflict in priorities between unit work and research Lack of administrative support or incentives Polit & Beck Staff release time Support for resources

Organizational Factors that Create Barriers

FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR NURSING RESEARCH (Polit & Beck) Heightened focus on EBP Development of a stronger EBP theory more rigorous methods and multiple, confirmatory strategies Strengthen reliability Replication of certain nursing actions Multi-Site Studies
Greater

Emphasis on systematic integrative reviews. Expanded local research in health care settings. Strengthening of multidisciplinary collaboration. Expanded dissemination of Research Findings (to promote
research utilization)

Increasing

visibility of nursing research Increased focus on Cultural issues and health disparities.

CONSUMER-PRODUCER CONTINUUM
Consumers

of Nursing Researchread reports to develop new skills and to search for relevant findings that may affect their practice. Producers of Nursing ResearchNurses who actively participates in designing or implementing studies.

Between the continuum the following activities are engaged

Participate in journal club in practice setting, which involves meetings among nurses to discuss and critique research articles. Solving clinical problems and making clinical decisions based on rigorous research. Collaborating in the development of an idea for a clinical research project. Reviewing a proposed research plan with respect to its feasibility in a clinical setting and offering clinical expertise to improve plan. Recruiting potential study participants. Assisting in the collection of research information. Giving clients information and advice about participation in studies. Discussing the implications and relevance of research findings with client.

Research utilization

the use of findings from a disciplined study or act of studies in a practical application that is unrelated to the original research

TYPES OF RESEARCH UTILIZATION:

Indirect involving changes in nurses thinking Direct involving direct use of findings in providing care Persuasive involving the use of findings to persuade other to make changes in policies and practices relevant to nursing care.

Research Utilization Continuum

START POINT END POINT

Emergence of new knowledge or new idea

Discrete, clearly identifiable attempts to base specific actions on research findings

Research conducted overtime

2 types of research according to purpose 1.Basic- undertaken to extend the base of knowledge to formulate a refine theory. 2. Applied- focuses on finding solutions to existing problems.

The Research Process and Ways of Knowing

TWO REALITIES 1. Experiential Reality- things you know as function of your direct experience 2. Agreement Reality- things you consider real because youve been told they' real, and everyone else seems to agree they are real.

Paradigms in Research
An overall belief system or way of viewing the nature of reality and the basis of knowledge.

Paradigm- world view, a general perspective on the complexities of the real world.

I. Ontologic: What is the nature of REALITY? Positive Paradigm- reality exist; there is a real world driven by natural causes.
Reality is out there that can be studied and known. Assumption- basic principle that is believe to be true without proof or verification. Determinism- the belief that the phenomena are not haphazard or random events but have antecedent causes.
Naturalistic

Paradigm- Reality is multiple and subjective, constructed by individuals.

II. Epistemologic Assumption How is the inquirer related to those being studied? (The Science of knowing) Positive Paradigm- The inquirer is independent of those being studied Naturalistic Paradigm The inquirer interacts with those being studied; findings reflect interaction.

III. Axiologic Assumption - What is the role of values in the inquiry? Positive Paradigm- values are held in check; objectivity is sought. Naturalistic Paradigm- Subjective values are inevitable, desirable.

IV. Methodologic Assumption- How is knowledge obtained? (The Science of Knowing)

POSITIVE NATURALISTIC

deductive process discreet, specific Verification of predictions Outsider knowledge

inductive process subjective & non-quantifiable Emerging interpretations Insider knowledge

Fixed, pre specified

Tight control over context Measured, statistical analysis Seeks generalization Product oriented

Flexible, emergent
Context-bound, contextualized Narrative, qualitative analysis Seeks understanding (pattern) Product and process oriented

Scientific Approach / Modernism Positive Paradigm ( Positive/ Logical Reasoning) By Auguste Compte a (French Philosopher) launched in 1822 To replace religious justification with scientific objectivity. Basing from: Empirical evidence- evidence rooted in objective reality and gathered using ones senses as the basis for generating knowledge. Value objectivity Attempt to hold personal belief Attempt to hold biases to avoid data Use of orderly, disciplined methods CONTAMINATION with tight controls

Post Positivism Paradigm- Personal beliefs and feelings can do influence the problems scientist choose to study, what they choose to observe, and the conclusions they draw from those observations. Recognized that observation & measurement cannot be as purely objective as implied by the ideal image of science but
attempts to anticipate attempts to minimize the impact of potentially non objective influences

Instead of attempting to verify universal laws, they examine the conditions under which particular ideas and hypothesis are and are not falsified. Employ flexible methods: tend to see their findings as assembly tentative & exploratory in nature, generating new ideas for further testing.

POSTMODERNISM Naturalistic Paradigm (constructivist, relativism, interpretivism) do not focus on isolating & objectively measuring causes or in developing generalizations. Attempt to gain an emphatic understanding of how people feel inside, seeking to interpret individuals everyday experiences, deeper meanings & feelings, idiosyncratic reasons for their behaviors. The best way to learn about people is to be flexible & subjective

Postmodernism thinking emphasizes the value of deconstruction & reconstruction 1. Deconstruction- taking apart all ideas & structures. 2. Reconstruction- putting ideas & structures together.

Reality is not a fixed entity but rather a construction of the individuals participating in the research ; reality exist within the context; and many constructions as possible.

Relativism- multiple interpretation of reality that exist in peoples minds, then there is no process by which the ultimate truth or falsity of the construction can be determined.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Scientific Method & Quantitative Research Scientific Method- a general set of orderly, disciplined procedures used to acquire information. Quantitative Research- uses deductive reasoning to generate predictions that are tested in the real world.

Systematic- progresses logically through a series of steps, according to a pre specified plan of action. Control- imposing conditions on the research situation so that biases are minimized & precision and validity are maximized. Empirical Evidence- rooled on objective reality directly or indirectly through the senses. 1. sight 4.touch 2. hearing 5. smell 3. taste

 Quantitative-

numeric information that results from some type of formal measurement and that is analyzed with statistical procedures. Not interested in asking the why Interested on the what

Issues on Measurement Phenomenon are reduced to numbers thus limited (reductionist) Could not accurately measure psychological phenomena Complexities tend to be controlled &, if possible, eliminated Narrow & inflexible Sedimented view What is it used best? Monothemic aims Deductive monological (hypothetico-deductivism) Ideographic aims with single-case design

Generalizabilty-

widely used criteria for assessing the quality of study (quantitative)

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative Research & Naturalistic Method

Attempt to deal with the issue of human complexity by exploring it directly. Emphasized in the complexity of human behavior, their ability to shape & create their own experiences, & the idea truth is a composite of realities. Careful collection & analysis of qualitative materials that are narrative & subjective. Dynamic, holistic Flexible, emergent Field work(natural setting) Yield rich, in-depth information

Issues Idiosyncratic nature of conclusions. 2 different naturalistic researchers, studying the same phenomenon in similar setting may arrive at different conclusions. When is it used best? More suitable when flexibility is required to study the same phenomenon about which we know very little.

MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

CULTURE-BASED HEALTH CARE PRACTICES AMONG CEBUANOS IN THE RURAL AND URBAN AREAS 2. EFFECTS OF ATIS SEEDS IN HEAD LICE 3. INFIDELITY ACROSS GENDER 4. INFIDELITY AMONG MALES
1.

Considerations in Design Selection

Philosophical orientation of the researcher Nature of the research question or problem Skills, abilities, and preferences of the researcher Resources available Access to samples

Key Terms Used in Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Frameworks- (backbone of the study) is the over all underpinning of the study. Theoretical frameworks (based on theory) Conceptual framework (based on conceptual model)

Commonalities between Theories and Conceptual Models used concepts as building blocks Require conceptual definition of key concepts Can be depicted in a scientific model Are created by humans are developed inductively Cannot be proven Can be used to generate hypothesis Can serve as stimulus to research

Conceptual Models of Nursing 4 models Central to Models of Nursing

Person Environment Health Nursing

Theories in Qualitative Research

Substantive theoryconceptualizations of the target phenomena Theory embedded in a research tradition

Grounded theory (symbolic

interactionism)

Ethnography (cultural theories: ideational and

materialistic)

Phenomenology (phenomenological theory

of human experience)

Borrowed theories- utility of theories from other dicipline to nursing practice. Shared theory- when a barrowed theory is tested and found to be empirically adequate in health to nurses.
The use of theories or Models in Quantitative Research 1. Testing a theory 2. Testing 2 competing theories 3. Using a theory/model as an organizing structure 4. Fitting a problem into theory/model 5. Developing an original theory/model

RESEARCH COLLABORATION team with a Collaborative research research

mixture of clinical theoretical, and methodological skills

Project director/Principal investigatorLeader in a team. Co-investigators 2 to 3 researchers collaborating equally Research Assistants assist investigators in data collection and data management

REVIEWERS

Reviewers critiques and offers feedback Peer reviewer reviewers at a similar level of experience

Funder/Sponsor provides financial assistance Consultants experts providing information/help in a short-term basis Mentors provide direct feedback and mode standards.

RESEARCH SETTING
specific places where information is gathered

Naturalistic setting in the field (fieldwork is engaged) Laboratory settings highly controlled with or without elaborates scientific equipments

SITE AND MULTISITES

Site overall location for the research Multiple sites offers a larger or more diverse sample of study participants.

BREAK

Ethical Dilemma in Conducting Research

A situation

in which the rights of study participants are in direct conflict with requirements for a rigorous study

History Earliest Codes of Health Ethics

Hippocratic Oath
Above ALL, DO NO HARM

1794 Code if Medical Ethics

by Thomas Percival Use of experimental techniques should be scrupulously and conscientiously governed by sound reasoning

1846 AMA Code of Ethics

Based from Thomas Percival First code of conduct adopted by a national professional organization Stresses the responsibility of physicians to patients and support of universal access to medical care (not so much emphasis on experimentation and research)

History Ethical Research Lapses

1906:

Dr. Richard Strong, a professor of tropical medicine at Harvard experimented with Cholera on prisoners in the Philippines, killing 13 people (very convenient subjects)

History Ethical Research Lapses

Nazi

Experiments

Facilitate the survival of Axis military personnel Develop and test medications and treatment for injuries and illness which German military and occupation personnel encountered in the field Advance the racial and ideological tenets of the Nazi worldview

NAZI EXPERIMENT Subjects: Prisoners

To determine the maximum altitude from which crew of damaged aircrafts could parachute to safety Investigate the most effective means of treating persons hypothermia (5-6 hours of 6 ice water immersion naked then rewarming 100 died. Deliberate wounding and intentional infection (streptococcus, tetatus, gangrene) to test effectiveness of sulfanilamide Investigate immunization for and treatment for malaria, typhus, TB by intentional infection (more than half of 1000 died) Experiments to develop efficient and inexpensive procedures for the mass sterilization of the Jews

WHAT WAS WRONG? No adequate reason for doing the experiment Done with prisoners Deception happened Done in revolting (disgusting) conditions Outcome were: DEATH, DISABILITY, MUTILATION

NUREMBERG TRIAL
22

Physicians were found guilty for crimes against HUMANITY NUREMBERG CODE formulation
10 point statement delimiting permissible medical experimentation on human subjects Human experimentation is justified ONLY if its results benefit society and is carried out in accord with basic principles that satisfy moral, legal and

1947 NUREMBERG CODE

Voluntary informed consent of subject is absolutely essential Fruitful results for the benefit of society There should be prior experimentation on animals and prior knowledge of the problem Avoidance of unnecessary physical or mental injury Performance of physicians by scientifically qualified persons Degree of risks to be taken should never exceed the significance of the problem to be solved Proper preparation and provision of adequate facilities to prevent injury or death Research participant can withdraw from the study at any time Scientist must be prepared to terminate the research at any stage Experiments should not be done if there is a priori reason to believe that it will result in death or disability

Turkegee Syphilis Study (19301972) with latent syphilis 1932 400 African-American men

were not informed they had syphilis and not informed they were part of the research 1943 Penicillin was discovered, best treatment for syphilis; drug were not provided to study participants 1951 Penicillin widely available; treatment not provided 1972 Study exposed to the press; 100 died 1973 Survivors were treated 1974 Goverenment agreed to a 10M US$ out of court settlement, living participants received $37,500 in damages, heirs of deceased, $15,000 1977 Pres. Clinton apologized on behalf of the US

Ethical Problem with the Study

Recruitment

without informed

consent Participants were neither informed not treated with newly discovered drug that could treat their condition Research participants were poor African-American (minority)

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

1948 Article

5. No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment 1966 Article 7 (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights). No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. In particular, no one shall be subjected, without his free consent, to medical

DECLARATION OF HELSINKI

Made by Physicians for Physicians (World Medical Association) Superseded the Nuremberg Code Fundamental document for Biomedical Research Ethics: Comprehensive international statement of research ethics involving human subjects

Basis for formulation of international, national, and other guidelines and codes of conduct on research ethics 2006 Philippine National Health System All research protocols must contain the statement: This research will be conducted according to the principles annunciated in the Declaration of Helsinki

Focuses on obligations of physicians-investigators to research subjects

Ethical Principles from the Belmont Report 1979

Based for Turkegee Study Cornerstone document of ethical principles underlying the acceptable conduct of research involving human participants Beneficence Respect for person Justice

Ethical Principles from the Belmont Report

1.

Principle of Beneficence: Above all, do no harm

Freedom from harm Freedom from exploitation Maximizing benefits to participants and society Maintaining an appropriate risk/ benefit ratio

Potential Benefits and Risks of Research to Participants

Ethical Principles from the Belmont Report (contd)

2.

Principle of Respect for Human Dignity

Right to self-determination (absence of coercion) Right to full disclosure (absence of deception or concealment)

Informed Consent
Informed consent means that participants: have adequate information about the research can comprehend that information have free choice in deciding whether to participate in or withdraw from the study

Content of Informed Consent

Communicated?

What Must Be

Status as a study participant Study goals Type of data to be collected and procedures to be used Nature of participants commitment Sponsorship of the study Participant selection Potential risks and benefits Treatment alternatives Confidentiality pledge Voluntary nature of participation Participants right to withdraw or withhold information

Satisfaction of Standards of Informed Consent

Full disclosure of research risks and benefits Time to study options Comprehension No undue inducement Voluntary participation and withdrawal Continuing Disclosure of information Privacy Confidentiality

Covert data collection or concealment - The collection of formation without participants knowledge and thus without their consent
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. -observe in a real world -one way mirror -videotaping -hidden camera -observation

may be acceptable as long as risk are negligible and participants rights to privacy has not been violated.

Deceptions- can be involved deliberately

withholding information about the study, or providing participants with false information. Eg. The study is about drug addiction which can be described as a study on health practices. - Concealment or deception are used only as last resorts, when no other approach can ensure the validity of findings. - Investigator has moral responsibility to inform research participants of any concealment or deception as soon as possible and to explain the rationale for its use.

 Application

of the different Ethical

Principles
Freedom from harm and discomfort Risk and benefit Assessment - Protect participants - Benefits are in line with the cost (financial, physical, emotional or social) - Risk/ benefit ratio determination( benefits risk)

Minimal risk risks anticipated to be no greater than those ordinary encountered in daily life or during routine physical or psychological tests or procedures. Reduce risk and maximize benefits- when risk are not minimal. Research can still proceed but with caution. If the perceived risks and cost to participant overweigh the anticipated benefits, the research should either be abandoned or redesigned. In evaluating the anticipated risk/ benefit ratio of the design, consider how comfortable you would feel about being a participant.

Right

to self determination

Informed consent participants have adequate information regarding the researcher, capable of comprehending the information and have the power to free choice, enabling then to consent to or decline participation.

CONSENT
IMPLIED CONSENT WRITTEN CONSENT (Experimental) PROCESS CONSENT (Qualitative) ASSENT TAKING
Written

informed consent do not apply - does not involve intervention and data are collected anonymously - when existing data from record or specimens are used and identifying information is not linked to the data

MUST DO
should

give participant ample time to review the written document should also be signed by the researcher copy should be retained by both parties

Treatment Of vulnerable Groups - vulnerable subjects- incapable of giving fully informed consent or may be at high risk for unintended side effects because of their circumstances. - If with high risk groups should became acquainted with guidelines governing informed consent. - Risk benefit ratio (low or when there is no alternative) - Acceptable research procedure

Vulnerable groups Children (legally & ethically they are incompetent to give consent) *Assent refers to the childs affirmative agreement to participate (written 12 years old) (not written 7 years old) - below 7 years old (change participant) - fetus (change participant) *Mentally or Emotionally Disabled (impossible to weight risk and benefit or make informed consent legally and ethically they are incompetent to give consent)

Severely Ill or physically disabled People ( Assess the decisional capacity of mechanically ventilated patients) Deaf written consent process (entire) Physical Impairment prevents writing and reading audio tape or videotaping consent)

Terminally Ill (cannot expect benefit, risk-benefit ratio needs to be carefully assured) Specific procedure maybe required for obtaining informed consent of they are physically or mentally incapacitated.

Institutionalized people (requires recruitment or volunteers) Pregnant Women (safeguard the mother and the fetus) mother may have heightened physical or psychological risks, thus to give consent. (ethical consideration the fetus cannot give consent) To meet the health needs of pregnant women and risk to her and the fetus are minimized or there is only a minimal risk to the fetus. Women (not part of research in some countries)

Ethical Principles from the Belmont Report (contd)

3.

Principle of Justice Right to fair treatment Right to privacy (confidentiality, anonymity)

JUSTICE

Equitable distribution of risk and benefits of research participants

Those who will share the benefits, should also share in the risks No group should bear more than its share of burdens or risks of research No group should be deprived of its fair share of the benefits of research long or short term Fair Selection Participants should be better off or no worse off than before the study Should be responsive to the needs of participants/community Provision of proven or best intervention to participants at

Lapses in Individual and Societal Justice

Offer

beneficial research only to a few Selection of undesirable

External

Reviews and the Protection of Human Rights. IRB (Institutional Review

Board)- can approve/ disapprove require modification.

 manipulating research materials equipment or process, changing omitting, or distorting data/results. Plagiarism appropriation of someone's ideas, results or words without giving due credit, including information obtained through the confidentila review of research proposal or manuscript. Fabrication involves making up data
Falsification

ANONIMITY and CONFIDENTIALITY

obtain identifying information from participants only when essential Assign ID number Maintain identifying information in locked file Restrict access to small number of people No ID info to computer Destroy ID info as quickly as practical Make all personnel sign confidentiality pledges if they have access to data of identifying info Disguise persons identifying ( frictions name) when reported

Covert data collection or concealment - The collection of formation without participants knowledge and thus without their consent
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. -observe in a real world -one way mirror -videotaping -hidden camera -observation

may be acceptable as long as risk are negligible and participants rights to privacy has not been violated.

Deceptions- can be involved deliberately

withholding information about the study, or providing participants with false information. Eg. The study is about drug addiction which can be described as a study on health practices. - Concealment or deception are used only as last resorts, when no other approach can ensure the validity of findings. - Investigator has moral responsibility to inform research participants of any concealment or deception as soon as possible and to explain the rationale for its use.

BLINDIN

G
(experiment)

Blind Double Blind

Single

Debriefing and Referrals Permits participants to ask questions or air complaints Needed when the data collection has been stressful or when ethical guidelines had been bent Share the findings with participants Assists participants by making referrals to appropriate services.

NO

CONSENT NO SELF DETERMINATION THERE WAS DECEPTION NO DEBRIEFING NO PRIVACY NO CONFIDENTIALITY PUTTING PARTICIPANTS TO RISK

LUNCH BREAK

Finding Problems and Writing Questions

Feasibility of addressing the problem (Polit and Beck) a. Time and timing b. Availability of study participants c. Cooperation of others d. Facility and equipment e. Money f. Research experience g. Ethical considerations

Feasibility of the Study (Houser)

Appraised prior to developing the study design Evaluate:

Requires resources Ethical considerations Specific variables to be studied Availability of the population Potential access to the setting

Traditional Evolution of the Research Question

Nursing Research Concepts

Abstract

ideas that must be narrowed to researchable questions for

Sources of Research Problems (Polit and Beck) Nursing Literature Ideas from external sources Theory Experience and clinical fieldwork Social Issues

 Research Problem enigmatic, perplexing or troubling condition (purpose of research is to solve the problem) Problem Statement articulates the problem to be addressed and indicates the use for a study though the development of an agreement -express the dilemma or distributing situation that needs to be investigated and develop a rationale for a new inquiry. Statement of Purpose the researcher summary of the overall goal of a study. Research Aim or Objectives specific accomplishments the researcher hopes

Problem and Purpose Statements

Problem Statements
Statements of the gap between what is known and unknown Articulate the area of concern and provide support for the extent of the problem Focus the research process on a known nursing practice problem

Purpose Statements
Objective statement indicating the general goal of the study Describe the direction of the inquiry Contain the key variables to be studied, their possible relationships, and the nature of the

How to Communicate Research Problems?

Statement of Purpose example The purpose of this study... or may use (aim, goal, intent or objectives)

objectives)

In quantitative: identifies the key study variables and their possible interrelationship, as well as nature of the population of interest.

(experimental)

- test -evaluate (needs scientific control)

(Non-experimental-Correlation)

- examine
- assess

(needs no scientific control)

(Experimental or Non-Experimental-Comparative)

-compare

(Descriptive)

- determine

 In qualitative - indicates the nature of the inquiry, the key concept or phenomenon, and the group, community, or setting under study.

WORDING THE PURPOSE STATEMENT IN QUALITATIVE STUDIES

The (purpose / aim / goal / intent / objective) of this (qualitative tradition) study is to (action of the research) the (foci/outcome: encode/buzz verbs) of the (central phenomenon) for (participant/s) at (site).

Qualitative Research indicates the:

1. nature of the inquiry 2. key concept or phenomenon 3. group, community, or setting

Phenomenology

-explore -describe -discover

-describe -analyze -conduct an in-depth analysis -discover Grounded Theory -understand -discover -develop -generate -discover

Ethnography

-lived-in experience -experience -meaning -essence -culture -roles / life ways -cultural behavior / language / portraits / themes -ethnography -culture-sharing group -processes -social structures -social interactions -grounded/substantive theory -propositions

Narrative Studies

-understand -discover

Case Studies

-discover

-experiences -lived experiences -narrative studies -stories -epiphanies - chronology -bounded -single or collective/multiple case study -event -process -program

 Research questions - are the specific queries researcher want to answer in addressing the research problem. - some case, are direct recordings of the statement of purpose, phased interrogatively.

The Research Question

Specifically

identifies the key elements to be studied Guides the design and methodology Carefully constructed and refined

 Quantitative Studies: (question of relationships or descriptive questions): IV & DV with moderate variable affects the strength or direction of an association between the independent and dependent variable. (usually profiles or categorical variables) with mediating variable (key explanatory mechanism) intervenes between the independent and dependent variables

Med V

Mo dV

IV

DV

BASIC RESEARCH QUESTIONS ABOUT RELATIONSHIPS

In (population), what is the relationship between, (IV),

DESCRIPTIVE (QUANTITATIVE) RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Descriptive In (population) Quantitative NO what is the Studies are not IV frequency/prevalen CONCERNED with CAUSALITY thus and ce/average value of there is no IV and DV (interest)? DV

The PIO or PICO Approach

Population: Who is the population of interest? Intervention: What is the planned nursing intervention? Comparison: Who is the comparison group? Outcome: What is the outcome of interest?

TREATMENT/INTERVENTION QUESTIONS
Without an Explicit Comparison: diabetic clients In _____________________________, (P) population IV insulin what is the effect of ________________ (I) intervention blood sugar DV on ____________________________? (O)outcome level With an Explicit Comparison: diabetic clients In ____________________, (P) population insulin IV what is the effect of _______, (I) intervention (IV) in comparison to oral meds _________, (C) comparative intervention (IV) IV blood sugar on ____________________? (O) outcome (DV) DV level With Moderator: diabetic clients In ____________________, (P) population insulin what is the effect of _______, (I) intervention (IV) IV oral meds in comparison to _________, (C) comparative intervention (IV) IV blood sugar on ____________________, (O) outcome (DV) DV level type of diagnosis vary by_________________? moderator (ModV)

DIAGNOSIS/ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Without an Explicit Comparison: Assessed Clients For _______________________, (P) population, Aneroid Sphygmomanometer does ______________________ (I) tool/procedure IV yield accurate and appropriate diagnostic/assessment DV information Blood Pressure about _____________________? (O) outcome (DV)

With an ExplicitClients Assess Comparison: For _______________________, (P) population Aneroid Sphygmomanometer IV does ______________________ (I) tool/procedure yield more accurate or appropriate diagnostic/assessment Digital information Sphygmomanometer IV than ______________________ (C) comparative tool Blood Pressure DV about _____________________? (O) outcome (DV)

PROGNOSIS QUESTIONS
Without an Explicit Comparison: Geriatric Clients For ______________________, (P) population Secondary Smoking does _____________________ (I) disease/condition IV DV increase the risk for Lung Cancer ___? (or influence) (O) outcome With an Explicit Comparison: Geriatric Clients For ______________________ (P) population Secondary Smoking does _____________________, (I) disease/condition IV relative to _________________, (C) comparative disease Primary Smoking DV increase the risk for Lung Cancer____? (or influence) (O)outcome With Moderator: Geriatric Clients For ______________________ (P) population Smoking does _____________________, (I) disease/condition IV relative to _________________, (C) comparative diseaseIV Primary Smoking DV increase the risk for Lung Cancer____, (or influence) (O)outcome Gender differentially for _____________? moderator (ModV)

CAUSATION/ETIOLOGY/HARM QUESTIONS
Without an Explicit Comparison: Frequent Does _________________ (I) Travelling Swine Flu DV exposure/characteristic Infection Clients with Low increase Resistancefor _______ the risk (O) outcome in __________________? (P) population Frequent With an Explicit Comparison: Travelling Swine Flu DV Does __________________ (I) exposure/characteristic Infection Swinefor _______ Farm Exposure increase the risk (O) outcome Clients with Low compared to ____________ (C) comparative exposure Resistance in ____________________? (P) population Frequent With Moderator: Travelling Swine Flu DV Does __________________ (I) exposure/characteristic Infection Swine Farm Exposure increase the risk for _______ (O) outcome Clients with Low compared to ____________ (C) comparative exposure Resistance Geographic in ____________________ (P) population Location Differentially for _________? moderator (ModV)

IV

IV

IV

IV IV

 Qualitative Studies: (use only for

grounding) can be altered, do not prohibit discovery: sufficiently flexible

Grounded theory process questions Phenomenology meaning questions Ethnography descriptive questions about culture

MEANING OR PROCESS QUESTIONS

Meaning: What is it like for STD to experience________? condition/illness/

Gay Red District Workers ______

NO IV and population

Process: What is the process by mothers which_______________ copes with, adapts to, or Special lives with Children ___________?

DV: Concepts in circumstance Qualitative Studies are Called Phenomenon population and not Variables condition/illness/

Descriptive (Experiential and Cultural)

Descriptive, Experiential: Nursing What is it like for (population) to Students NO IV and DV: experience Counter Transference in Psychiatric Concepts in (condition/illness/circumstance)? Exposure Qualitative Studies are Descriptive, Cultural: Called Phenomenon How does (cultural group) and Siquijodnons not Variables manage/experience/address/structur e Mystical Healing Practices (situation/condition/circumstance)?

FINER Criteria

Used for evaluating the desirability of a research question

Feasible Interesting Novel Ethical Relevant

Classifications of Questions

Descriptive
Studies a subject of interest in a defined population or setting

Analytic (Inferential)
Studies that compare population, interventions and outcomes Studies relationship between variables

Prospective
Studies that are planned and carried out in the future under control of the researcher

Retrospective
Studies that use existing secondary data to answer a research question

The Hypothesis
Translates the research question into a statistically testable statement Null hypothesis Directional hypothesis Non-directional hypothesis

Research Hypothesis:

- a prediction about the relationship between two or more variables

Inductive Hypothesis - generalizations inferred from observed relationships. vs Deductive Hypothesis -general to specific

Simple Hypothesis 1 IV + 1 DV vs

Complex Hypothesis (2 + IV) + (1 DV) (2 + IV) + (2 + DV) (1 IV) + (2 + DV)

Directional Hypothesis - do not only specify existence but also expected direction. vs Non-directional Hypothesis -do not situate -direction

Older

patients are more at risk for experiencing a fall than younger patients Directional

There

is a relationship between the age of a patient and the risk for falling Non Directional

The

older the patient , the greater the risk that she or he will fall Directional

Older

patients differ from younger ones with respect to their risk for falling Non Directional

Younger

patients tend to be less at risk for a fall than older patients Directional

The

risk for falling increases with the age of the patient Directional

Research Hypothesis (substantive, declarative, scientific, alternative) - statement of expected relationships vs Null Hypothesis (statistical) -statement of expected absence of relationships

Older

patients are more at risk for experiencing a fall than younger patients Research

The

older the patient , the greater the risk that she or he will fall Research

Older

patients differ from younger ones with respect to their risk for falling Research

Younger

patients tend to be less at risk for a fall than older patients Research

The

risk for falling increases with the age of the patient Research

There

is no significant relationship between the age of a patient and the risk for falling NULL no, none, absent, negative, zero

Developing a Sampling Plan

Basic Sampling Concepts in Quantitative Studies

Population
The aggregate of cases in which a researcher is interested Sampling Selection of a portion of the population (a sample) to represent the entire population

Basic Sampling Concepts in Quantitative Studies (contd)

Probability sampling Involves random selection of elements Nonprobability sampling

Does not involve selection of elements at random

Nonprobability Sampling
Convenience (accidental) sampling Snowball (network) sampling Quota sampling Purposive sampling

Probability Sampling
Simple random sampling Stratified random sampling Cluster (multistage) sampling Systematic sampling

Methods of Sampling in Qualitative Research

Convenience (volunteer) sampling Snowball sampling Theoretical sampling Purposive sampling

Sampling in the Three Main Qualitative Traditions

Ethnography Mingling with many members of the culture Informal conversations with 25 to 50 informants Multiple interviews with smaller number of key informants

SAMPLING ETHNONURSING AND ETHNOGRAPHY

PROPONENT TYPE PRESAMPLING GENERAL INFORMANTS (provides general data) KEY INFORMANTS (highly knowledgeable)

Leininger

Maxi Ethnonursing Mini Ethnonursing

Ethnography Big-Net Approach (mingle and converse with as many informants in the community)

20 to 25 purposive 10 purposive
25 to 50 purposive

12 to 15 purposive 6 to 8 purposive
Smaller number of key informants (purposive)

Polit

Sampling in the Three Main Qualitative Traditions (contd)

Phenomenology Relies on very small samples (often 10 or fewer) Participants must have experienced phenomenon of interest

Sampling in the Three Main Qualitative Traditions (contd)

Grounded theory Typically involves samples of 20 to 30 people Selection of participants who can best contribute to emerging theory (usually theoretical sampling)

Planning a Nursing Study

Criteria for Evaluating Quantitative Research

Reliability The accuracy and consistency of obtained information (Houser).The degree of consistency or dependability with which an instrument measures an attribute (Polit & Beck). Validity The soundness of the evidencewhether findings are convincing, well-grounded (Houser). A quality criterion referring to the degree to which inferences made in a study are accurate and well-founded; in measurement, the degree to which an instrument measures what it is intended to measure (Polit &

Major Methodologic Challenge

Designing studies that are: Reliable and valid (quantitative studies) Trustworthy (qualitative studies)

Internal Validity
The

level of confidence that an experimental treatment or condition made a difference, and that rival explanations were systematically ruled out through strength of study design and control. A degree to which it can be inferred that the experiment treatment (IV), rather than uncontrolled (extraneous variables), caused observed effects.

Conditions Necessary for Causality

Changes in the presumed cause must be related to changes in the presumed effect If the treatment is changed in any The presumed cause must occur beforethe outcome will change. way, the presumed effect Weight loss must occur after the Eg. If exerciseplausible alternative There are no and dietary program exercise and dietary program the explanationsin any way, the weight No changed for the responsible areother factors could be outcome for

Eg. There is nothing that has occurred that could have caused the weight loss except the prescribed exercise and dietary intervention

introduced. loss outcomes. will change.

Statistical Support for Validity

Minimize error

0.05 (maximum acceptance level in scientific research/social Type I error (alpha) level of significance: an error science) Result in (conservative) of 0.01 weakness created by rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true (the 0.001 (pure science/life design researcher concludes that the relationship exists when in fact threatening) To obtain significant results

it does not a false positive).

increase the power of statistical Result in weakness of design. Type II test. To that treatment the Type II error (beta) anerror meanscontrolatype II error wasthe error created by be increased accepting sample size must null hypothesis when it iseffective, butresearcher concludes that false (the the study did not reveal it.

no relationship exists when in

to provide sufficient power to fact itilluminate findings. negative). does a false

Collecting data that supports argument Using inferential analysis Controlling for confounders Ensuring assumptions are met

History (events that occur during data collection) Experimenter effects (interaction) Maturation (result from passage of time) Testing (familiarity if the test) Instrumentation (multiple data collectors must follow the same protocols with training and dry runs) Treatment effects (placebo) Multiple treatment effect (cannot isolate individual effect, combination and order/sequence)

Factors that threaten internal validity

External Validity

Generalizability of the findings of the study to other populations, places or settings. POPULATION VALIDITY

Treats to External Validity

Selection Time

effects

History
Novelty

Experimenter

effects

Dimensions of Trustworthiness in Qualitative Studies

CRITERIA DEFINITION CREDIBILITY Refers to direct sources of evidence or information from the people within their environmental contexts of their truths held firmly as believable to them. Confidence in the truth of the data; analogous to internal validity. DEPENDABILITY Refers to the stability of data over time and over conditions; analogous to reliability. CONFIRMABILITY Refers to the objectivity or neutrality of the data and interpretation. TRANSFERABILITY The extent to which findings can be transferred to other settings or groups; analogous to generalizability. AUTHENTICITY Refers to which the researchers fairly and faithfully show a range of different realities in the analysis and interpretation of their data.

How to enhance TRUSTWORTHINESS?

Prolonged

contact Verbatim accounts (tracts) Triangulation Member checking Bracketing (the process of explicitly reflecting
on and documenting the researchers biases)
Audit

Trails (detailed documentation of

sources of information, data, and design decisions related to a qualitative research study.

Bias

An influence producing a distortion in study results Examples of factors creating bias:

Lack of participants candor Faulty methods of data collection Researchers preconceptions Faulty study design

Research Control in Quantitative Studies

Achieved by holding constant factors (extraneous variables) that influence the dependent variable in order to better understand its relationship with the independent variable

Randomness An important tool for

achieving control over extraneous variables

Randomness

Having

certain features of the study established by chance rather than by design or personal preference

Masking or Blinding
Used

to avoid biases stemming from participants or research agents awareness of study hypotheses or research status.

Single-blind studies Double-blind studies

Generalizability and Transferability

Generalizability
(Quantitative research): The extent to which study findings are valid for other groups not in the study

Transferability
(Qualitative research): The extent to which qualitative findings can be transferred to other settings

Design

Cross-sectional:

Involves data collection at one point in time Longitudinal: Involves data collection at two or more points over an extended period

Retrospective Design Versus Prospective Design

Retrospective design: Involves the collection of data about an outcome in the present and about possible causes or antecedents in the past Prospective design: Involves having information about a cause or antecedent first and then the subsequent collection of information about outcomes

Pilot Study
(Feasibility Study)

Small-scale

version or trial run designed to test methods to be used in a larger, more rigorous study (the parent study)

Developing an Approach for a Qualitative Study

Typical Phases of Qualitative Design

Orientation

and overviewgetting a handle on what is salient about a phenomenon Focused explorationin-depth exploration of the phenomenon Confirmation and closureefforts to ascertain trustworthiness of the findings

Overview of Qualitative Research Traditions

Anthropology (Domain: Culture) Ethnography; Ethnoscience Philosophy (Domain: Lived Experience) Phenomenology; Hermeneutics

Psychology (Domain: Behavior) Ethology; Ecological psychology

 Sociology

(Domain: Social Settings) Grounded theory; Ethnomethodology Sociolinguistics (Domain: Communication) Discourse analysis History (Domain: Past Events & Conditions) Historical research

Overview of Qualitative Research Traditions (contd)

Ethnography
Describes and interprets cultural behavior Types of ethnography:

Macroethnography (broadly defined

cultures)

Microethnography (narrowly defined

cultures)

Autoethnography Ethnonursing research Ethnoscience (cognitive anthropology)

 Relies

on extensive, laborintensive fieldwork Culture is inferred from the groups words, actions, and products Assumption: Cultures guide the way people structure their experiences
Ethnography (contd)

Seeks

an emic perspective (insiders view) of the culture Relies on a wide range of data sources Product: An in-depth, holistic portrait of the culture under study
Ethnography (contd)

Phenomenology
Focuses

on the discovery of the meaning of peoples lived experience Descriptive phenomenology describes the meaning of human experience Steps: Bracketing, Intuiting, Analyzing, Describing Interpretive phenomenology (hermeneutics)interprets human experience

 Asks: What is the essence of a

phenomenon as experienced by these people, and what does it mean? Four aspects of experience: Lived space, lived body, lived time, lived human relation Main data source: In-depth conversations with participants
Phenomenology (contd)

Grounded Theory

Aims to discover theoretical precepts about social psychological processes and social structures, grounded in data Substantive theorygrounded in data on a specific substantive topic Grounded formal theorya higher, more abstract level of theory based on substantive grounded theory studies

Historical Research Systematically attempts to establish facts about and relationships among past events Types of historical research:

Biographical history Social history Intellectual history

Grounded Theory Studies

Primary

interviews and observations Data collection, data analysis, sampling occur simultaneously Constant comparison used to develop and refine theoretically relevant categories
Alternative

data sources: In-depth

views of grounded theory:

Glaser and Strauss Strauss and Corbin

Historical Data Typically written records (can be physical remains, photographs, interviews) Requires evaluation

External criticismauthenticity of the source Internal criticismworth of the evidence

Often found in historical archives Can be primary source or

secondary source

Other Types of Qualitative Research

Case studies: Focus on a single entity, or a small number of entities, with intensive scrutiny Narrative analysis: Focus on story; designed to determine how individuals make sense of events in their lives

Qualitative outcome analysis (QOA): An approach to confirming the

applicability of clinical strategies suggested by a qualitative study and evaluating clinical outcomes

Qualitative metasynthesis:
Interpretive translations produced by integrating findings from qualitative studies
Other Types of Qualitative Research (contd)

EXPERIMENTAL

DESIGN

Research Design Terminology in the Social Scientific and Medical Literature

Assignment and Group Formation

RANDOM SELECTION

The equal probability that subjects within the population can be selected.

Random assignment

Allocating the Subjects into groups in such a way that the probability of each subjects appearing in any of the groups is equal.

Group equivalence

That the groups to be compared must be homogenous in

Experiments or Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) Properties

1.Manipulation 2.Control
3.Randomization

Manipulation
Doing

something to study participants Experimenter manipulates the independent variable by administering a treatment (intervention) to some subjects and withholding it from others, or by administering some other treatment

Control Group

Researchers can expose the control group to various conditions: no treatment alternative treatment placebo standard treatment different doses of the treatment wait-list

Randomization (Random Assignment, Random Allocation)

Involves

placing subjects into treatment conditions at random Approximates the idealbut impossiblecounterfactual of having the same people in multiple treatment groups simultaneously Basic randomization

Types of Experiment

Manipulation/Treatment? Randomized Assignment? Yes

True experiment
Control Group?

Yes

QuasiExperiment
Pre-Experiment Non-Experiment

Yes No No

No

TRUE EXPERIMEN TS

Symbolic Representation of a PretestPosttest Experimental Design

POST-TEST Only Control Group Design

R X R O2

O1

Solomon four-group design

R R R R

O1 x O 2 O3 O4 x O5 O6

Factorial Designs
Two

or more variables are manipulated simultaneously Test both main effects and interaction effects

Example of a Factorial Design

Example of a Factorial Design

Auditory

Tactile

Male Female

(20) (20)

(20) (20)

CROSSOVER DESIGN

R O1 X1 O2 X2 O3 R O4 X2 O5 X1 O3

 Similar

to Factorial Design One Variable cannot be manipulated (Stratifying or blocking variable)

Rule

RANDOMNIZED BLOCK DESIGN

of thumb

Minimum of 20 subjects per cell At least 80 for 2 x 2 At least 160 for 2 x 2 x 2

RANDOMIZED COMPLETE BLOCK DESIGN ORDER

SEQUENC E

LATIN SQUARE DESIGN

1 C A D D

2 A D B C

3 B B C D

4 D C A B

I II 4 B C D A III A

SEQUENC E

I II III IV

1 A B C D

ORDER 2 3 D C A D B A C B

MULTIPLE TREATMENT COUNTERBALANCED DESIGN

Quasi-Experimental Designs and preespeiments

Quasi-Experimental and Preexperimental Designs

Nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design (quasi-experimental)

Time Series Design

O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8

Time Series Design nonequivalent control group design

O1 O2 O3 O4 X O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8 O5 O6 O7 O8

Time Series Design with multiple institutions of treatment O1O2X O3O4X O5O6X O7O8

Time Series with intensified treatment O1O2X O3O4X+1O5O6X+2O7O8

Time Series with intensified treatment O1O2X O3O4 (-X) O5O6X O7O8

Nonequivalent control group posttestonly design (preexperimental) X O O One group pretest-posttest design (preexperimental) O1 X O2

Other Quasi-Experimental Designs Regression discontinuity design C O X O C O O

Other Quasi-Experimental Designs Quasi-experimental dose-response analyses

PRPP (Partially Randomized Patient Preference) design

This

design has the clear advantage in terms of persuading potential subjects to participate in a study because those with a strong preference get to choose their treatment condition. Those without strong preference are randomized but those with a preference are given the condition they prefer and are followed up as part of the study. The two randomized groups are part of the true experiment and the two groups who get

Analyzing Qualitative Data

Tasks in Qualitative Data Management and Organization

Transcribing

the data Developing a categorization scheme Coding qualitative data Organizing qualitative data
Manual methods of organization Computerized methods of organization

Utterances
Whenever there is a meeting in school for parents, mostly American mothers are attending. I usually ask my father to attend the meeting. I am embarrassed if my mother is the one attending the meeting. Everyone is looking at her because she is different. When she first attended, my classmate said Oh your mother is a brown foreigner. Im not comfortable with that.

Analysis
-Ashamed/embarrassed/uncomfortable with mother who is Filipino -Denial of Filipino roots -Paranoid

I am American. I am here in the USA. I -Ethnocentrism dont need to learn Filipino language Im not interested. The only language here is American English. I will not live in the Philippines anyway.

My image of Filipina is that they are different different form Americans. They are not Americans. My mother is Filipina and I am American.

-Ethnocentrism -Cultural blindness -Denial of cultural roots

Utterances

Analysis

I used to play with my cousins and -Happy times with relatives in the neighbors. I miss them I miss my Philippines grandmother too. I always call her but I still miss her Its really fun there! My mother used to narrate her childhood experience, tell me some places and Filipino values, traits, behavior, and attitudes. She usually says in the Philippines I do this, I behave this way when I was at your age She expects me to be like her this is USA this is not the Philippines. I am an American and I should behave as one. I have a classmate who used to bully me. He always tell me to go back to the Philippines because my mother is there. I just cried and narrated it to my parents. -Mother is proud of her cultural heritage -Pressure from the mother to behave like real Filipino -Cultural blindness -Ethnocentrism

-Afraid of being bullied (social acceptance) -Afraid of being labeled as different (social acceptance) -Wanting to belong

EDUC 7741/Paris/Terry

Issues on Cultural heritage/roots

Ashamed of cultural heritage/roots Denial of cultural heritage/roots Cultural blindness Ethnocentrism Finding an excuse for not visiting the Philippines

Issues on ego/self esteem related to Filipino roots (social acceptance)

Anxiety others might determine ancestral roots Afraid of being bullied Emotional pain experience when bullied Afraid of being labeled as different Wanting to conform/belong Paranoid Rage for being bullied

Constructing the narrative

Identify dialogue that provides support for themes Look for dialogue in the participants own dialect Use metaphors and analogies Collect quotes from interview data or observations Locate multiple perspectives & contrary evidence Look for vivid detail Identify tensions and contradictions in individual experiences

Conveying personal reflections

Because qualitative researchers believe that personal views can never be kept separate from interpretations, personal reflections about the meaning of the data are included in the research study
David had been diagnosed with AD/HD and also with mild Tourette Syndrome. He took medication for AD/HD. He was selected to participate in the project as a confirming participant because he was so involved with the project and so intense during the first observation. Unaware that he had AD/HD and Tourette Syndrome until I interviewed his mother during the second year of the project, I was surprised because he was the most focused student in the classroom.(Terry, 2003)

Providing Visual Data Displays

Qualitative researchers often display their findings visually

Comparison table or matrix Hierarchical tree diagram that represents themes and their connections Boxes that show connections between themes Physical layout of the setting Personal or demographic information for each person or site

Schematic Diagram on Cultural Detachment -Ashamed of cultural

Positive Experience with Filipinos Negative Experience with Filipinos Issues on ego/self esteem related to Filipino roots (social acceptance) Pressure from mother to be like real Filipino Acknowledgement of Filipino roots
heritage/roots -Denial of cultural heritage/roots Cultural blindness -Ethnocentrism

Issues on Cultural heritage/roots

Ambivalence (Identity Crisis: Ethnicity)

Change of Mind

Labeling Filipinos with names

Making comparisons with the Literature

Interpret the data in view of past research Show how the findings both support and contradict prior studies

These findings are consistent with other studies in regard to duration. It has been found that the length or duration of service learning projects has an impact on student outcomes, with the longer duration projects having greater impacts. However, significant differences are not found in projects lasting over 18 weeks (Conrad & Hedin, 1981). The project on which this study focused was examined over a year and a half period of time; thus it is considered to be long in duration which helps to explain its impact on student outcomes.

Describing Data Through Statistics

Exercise:

In a scale of 1 up to 10 Prioritize according to your favored working-motivation factor. Ten work-motivating factors:
_____ 1. Interesting work _____ 2. Job security _____ 3. Up-to-date equipment _____ 4. Feeling of doing something important _____ 5. Good wages _____ 6. Challenging work _____ 7. Effective supervision by boss _____ 8. A chance for advancement _____ 9. Pleasant working condition _____ 10. The opportunity to succeed of what you are doing

Summary:
Column A __________ 1 __________ 4 __________ 6 __________ 8 __________ 10 __________ Total Column B __________ 2 __________ 3 __________ 5 __________ 7 __________ 9 __________ Total

Types of Statistics

Descriptive statistics
Used to describe and synthesize data Inferential statistics Used to make inferences about the population based on sample data

Levels of Measurement Nominal measurement Involves assigning numbers to classify characteristics into categories

Ordinal measurement Involves sorting objects based on their relative standing on an attribute

Interval measurement Occurs when objects are45F 90F is not twice as hot as rankordered on a scale that has with arbitrary zero point equal distances between points on the scale (no inherent starting point) Ratio measurement Occurs when there are equal 90 cm is twice as long as 45units cm distances between score with is a rational, and thereabsolute zero point meaningful zero (with inherent Levels of Measurement (cont.) starting point)

Scores ?

Frequency Distributions A systematic arrangement of numeric values on a variable from lowest to highest, and a count of the number of times each value was obtained Frequency distributions can be described in terms of: Shape Central tendency Variability

Distribution of Values: Central Tendency

Index of typicalness of set of scores that comes from center of the distribution

Mode the most

frequently occurring score in a distribution
2 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Mode = 3

 Median

the point in a distribution above which and below which 50% of cases fall
2 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Median = 4.5

Mean

equals the sum of all scores divided by the total number of scores
2 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Mean = 5.0

Distribution of Values: Central Tendency (cont.)

Using Inferential Statistics to Test Hypotheses

Inferential Statistics A means of drawing

conclusions about a population (i.e., estimating population parameters), given data from a sample Based on laws of probability

Interpretation:
1 If your total in Column A is Higher than in Column B 2 If your score in Column A is over 30 : you derive more satisfaction from the Psychological side of your job than from the physical side.

: you are highly motivated to succeed and achieved at your current job.
: you derive more satisfaction from the physical side of your job than from the psychological side : indicates that you do not particularly care for the job, but you do like the benefits the company is giving you

3 If your total in Column B is higher than that in Column A

4 If your score in Column B is 30 or more

A SMALL TRUTH TO MAKE LIFE 100%

Then what makes 100%?

Is it Money? ... NO!!!!! [M+O+N+E+Y = 13+15+14+5+25 = 72%] Leadership? ... NO!!!!
[L+E+A+D+E+R+S+H+I+P = 12+5+1+4+5+18+19+9+16 = 89%]

Every problem has a solution, only if we perhaps change our attitude. To go to the top, to that

100%

what we really need to go further...a bit more...

ATTITUDE
A+T+T+I+T+U+D+E 1+20+20+9+20+21+4+5 = 100%
It is OUR ATTITUDE towards Life and Work that makes OUR Life 100%

WHAT WILL YOU DO ABOUT IT!?

THE LEAST YOU CAN DO IS LET OTHERS KNOW

Of all the creations of the earth, only human beings can change their patterns. Man alone is the architect of his destiny. Human beings, by changing the inner attitudes of their minds, can change the outer aspects of their lives.
William James

DAGHANG SALAMAT