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CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture 1

CANNING
Cans and their Manufacture
M.de F. Filipe Pocas, Ecola Superior de Biotechnologia, Universidade Catolica Portuguesa, Portugal
Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved. doi:10.1006/rwfn.2003.0160

Filipe Pocas, M de F Ecola Superior de Biotechnologia, Universidade Catolica Portuguesa, Servicos de Embalagem (Packaging Services), Rua Dr. Antonio Bernardino de Almeida, Portugal

Cans
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Cans for food and drinks may be manufactured in tin plate, tin-free steel, or aluminium. Depending on the metal to be used and on the type of can, different production methods may also be used to manufacture cans. The characteristics of the metals and the operations to produce and close the cans are described below. Additionally, information is given on the polymeric coatings used to avoid undesirable interactions between the product and the metal surface.

Types of Cans for Foods and Drinks

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Metal cans for foods and drinks are usually classified in three-piece cans and two-piece cans. The can components and the terms commonly used to designate different parts of a can are shown in Figure 1. Cans in the first group are composed of a welded body and two seamed ends and are usually made in tinplate. The two-piece cans have the body and the bottom end in a single piece and a seamed top end. They are made in tinplate, aluminum, or tin-free steel, and are produced by the DrawRedraw (DRD) process or by the Draw-Wall-Ironing (DWI) process. The DRD process is used to produce shallow cans, with a height/diameter ratio, low in whereas the DWI process is typically used for drink cans, commonly with a high height/ diameter ratio. These cans have a very thin wall, thus lacking mechanical resistance. They are used for carbonated drinks where the high pressure from the product (very often around 4 atm) imparts the required resistance. In still drinks, the application of liquid nitrogen in the headspace yields a high internal pressure. A wide variety of can shapes are available: round, rectangular, oval, trapezoidal, etc. The circular can is

the most popular shape because it is the easiest shape to seam and uses the least metal sheet area for a given volume content. Rectangular shapes are common for processed fish because this format benefits the product presentation when the consumer opens the can. For a given can capacity, the surface area of metal required for round cans is minimal when the can diameter equals its height. The dimensions of cans are designed, taking into consideration this diameter/height ratio so as to maximize the efficiency of metal usage. However, it is easier and less expensive to reset a production line to make a can with a different height than to change its diameter, and thus a standard can diameter system was developed (Table 1 shows the standard diameters of round cans in both imperial and metric units). Therefore certain can dimensions have been commonly used for certain capacities of cans. The nominal size of round cans is given as diameter height. The dimensions of rectangular cans are given as three sets of numbers: the first two sets are base dimensions, and the third is the height dimension. The units conventionally used are millimeters for metric units; imperial dimensions are given in three digits: the fist digit is in whole inches, and the second two digits indicate 16ths of an inch. For example, a can designated as 307 403, is 37/16 inches in diameter and 43/16 inches in height. Table 2 shows some of the more widely used cans for foods.

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Metallic Materials
Tinplate is the material used more widely in cans for foods. The term tinplate refers to a low-carbon mild steel sheet with a coating of tin on each surface of the material (Figure 2a). The steel varies from around 0.12 to 0.5 mm in thickness. The thickness and hardness of the tinplate are selected as a function of the can size and format, as well as taking into consideration the mechanical solicitations during the thermal processing and handling. In general, the smaller the diameter of the can, the thinner the body wall and ends may be to withstand the imposed loads. Larger cans with thinner walls may be used if wall beading is provided. Double-reduced steel (steel that has undergone a second cold reduction before tinplating) also enables downgauging with no loss of performance. This steel has additional strength, but is less ductile compared with the single reduced plate, which may impose some limitations to the can-manufacturing process.
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2 CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture
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The tin coating is applied in weights from 1.0 to 11.2 g m2, with the same or different amounts of tin on each surface. Differentially coated tinplate is identified by marking a set of parallel lines, the line pattern being related to the differential weight combination. Normally, the pattern is applied on the more heavily coated surface, inside the can, where greater protection is needed. Figure 3 shows the tin coating weights used and, in the case of differentially coated steel, the pattern of marking lines. The steel strip usually has a passivation treatment to render its surface more stable and resistant to the atmosphere, as well as to improve lacquer adhesion. Passivation treatment results in the formation of a top layer of chromium and chromium oxides and tin oxides. After the passivation, the plate is given a light oiling to help preserve it from attack and to assist the passage of sheets through container-forming machines without damaging the soft tin layer. Tin-free steel (TFS) or electrolytic chromiumcoated steel (ECCS) is low-carbon steel coated with metallic chromium and chromium oxides with a weight of around 80 and 20 mg m2, respectively (Figure 2b). The surface of TFS has a better adhesion to protective lacquer coatings or printing inks and varnishes than tinplate. It requires shorter times in curing enamels (since higher temperatures may be used, due to the lack of a low-melting-point tin layer) but is less resistant to corrosion than tinplate. TFS is not used in three-piece cans, because it cannot be soldered by traditional techniques, nor in DWI two-piece cans because its hard and rough surface makes drawing operations in uncoated metal impracticable. Therefore, TFS is frequently used for can ends and DRD two-piece cans. Aluminum is a light metal, easy to work throughout most of the conventional can-forming processes. Aluminum is used for two-piece containers only, DWI and singly or multiply drawn cans, but it is also formed into easy-open ends. Aluminum cans may also be formed by impact extrusion, this type of can normally being used for monobloc aerosols. Aluminum body stock is available in a range of thicknesses from 0.25 to 0.30 mm, whereas end stock covers the range from 0.30 to 0.38 mm. Most commercial applications of aluminum require special properties that the pure metal cannot provide. Therefore, alloying agents are added to impart strength, improve formability, and influence corrosion characteristics. A wide range of alloys are commercially available for packaging applications, depending on the container design and fabrication method being used. The alloys are identified by four-digit numbers where the value of the first digit indicates the alloy type and the principal alloying ingredient. For

example: 2xxx for copper, 3xxx for manganese, 4xxx for silicon, and 5xxx for magnesium. Series 1xxx represents aluminum with 99.00% or higher purity. Commercially pure aluminum (types 1100 and 1050) is used for the manufacture of foil and extruded containers since it is the least susceptible to work hardening. For rigid packaging, the alloy elements used are manganese and magnesium (alloy types 3004 and 5184). When the aluminum surface is exposed to the atmosphere, a layer of aluminum oxides is naturally formed, which protects the metal from further oxidation. This self-protecting characteristic gives the aluminum its high resistance to corrosion, unless it is exposed to some substance that destroys this passivation layer. Aluminum will corrode on contact with products with a pH lower than 4 or higher than 9, and when used for manufacturing cans for food and beverage products, it is always coated with a organic lacquer in the internal surface.

Manufacturing Processes
Steel and aluminum are initially in coil form, so sheet cutting is often the first manufacturing process. This operation can be performed by the can-maker if coil cut-up lines are available in the plant. Otherwise, material must be acquired already in sheet form. Sheets to be used for the production of can ends or round DRD cans are scroll-cut (Figure 4). This is a method used to cut coil into sheets in a pattern, which reduces metal wastage. It enables circular blanks to be packaged more densely: skeleton scrap is reduced by a third compared with straight-cut sheet.
Three-piece Cans
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Starting with metal sheets, rectangular in format and with dimensions suiting the can body size (Figure 5a), the sheets are coated on the side that will become the internal surfaces of the finished cans (Figure 5b). This special lacquer protects the can itself from corrosion and limits the interaction between the contents and the metal. However, welding margins should be left uncoated since the polymeric nature of the lacquer would influence the electric current passage through the metal (see details below). The lacquer is cured as sheets pass in an oven (Figure 5c). The sheet may also be printed for decoration on the other side, unless a paper label is to be used. The sheets are fed into a slitter, where they are cut into body can blanks (Figure 5d). The blank is then fed to the forming rolls, which generate a cylinder with the edges of the side seam (Figure 5e). The cylinder edges are welded by squeezing them together whilst passing an electric current through them

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CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture 3

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(Figure 5f). This heats up the metal sufficiently for a sound join to be made. To protect the weld seam, a coating is applied immediately after the can body exits the welder, in both sides of the side seam (Figure 5g). Powder coating is usually applied electrostatically to the interior of the side seam. The cans are passed through a flanger, where the top and bottom of the can are flanged outwards to accept the ends (Figure 5h). Ends, produced elsewhere, are seamed to the can bodies to close one end (called the `maker's end') of every can (Figure 5i). Depending on the can design, cans are passed through a beader, where the walls of the cans have circumferential beads formed (Figure 5j). Beading of the can body wall, although reducing the top-load resistance of the can, allows for a reduction in wall thickness without sacrificing paneling performance. Testing is performed with high-pressure air to detect pinholes and poor seams on every can, and the finished can bodies are then transferred to the warehouse to be automatically palletized before delivery to the filling plant.
DWI Two-piece Cans

(necked in), and the tops of the cans are flanged outwards to accept the ends after the cans have been filled. Every can is tested at each stage of manufacture. At the final stage, they pass through a light tester, which automatically rejects any can with pinholes or fractures (Figure 6m). Cans are then moved to the warehouse for palletizing and delivery to the filling plant together with the ends.
DRD Two-piece Cans

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Aluminum or steel coil (Figure 6a) is lubricated with a thin film of oil and then fed continuously through a cupping press (Figure 6b), which stamps and draws disks into cups at a rate of more than 1500 cans per minute. Each cup is rammed through a series of tungsten carbide rings for drawing and ironing. This process redraws the cup to smaller diameter and thins the walls, whilst increasing the height leading to untrimmed cans (Figure 6c). Trimmers remove the surplus irregular edge and cut each can to a precise specified height (Figure 6d). The trimmed can bodies are passed through washers (Figure 6e) for removal of all traces of lubricant and then dried in preparation for internal and external coatings. The clean cans are coated externally (Figure 6f) with a clear or pigmented base coat, which forms a good surface for the printing inks. The cans pass through a hot air oven to dry the lacquer (Figure 6g). The next step is the application of the print design in up to six colors, and a varnish, by a highly sophisticated printer/decorator (Figure 6h). A coat of varnish is also applied to the base of each can by the rim coater (Figure 6i). The cans pass through a second oven, which dries the ink and the varnish. Spray machines apply an internal coating of protective lacquer (Figure 6j) to maintain product quality, and the cans are then dried in the final oven (Figure 6k). The cans are passed through a necker/flanger (Figure 6l), where the diameter of the body is reduced

This process is similar to the DWI process, except that the final height and diameter of the container are produced by sequentially drawing cups to a smaller diameter, i.e., causing metal to flow from the base to the wall of the container rather than ironing the container wall. The wall and base thickness of DRD cans, as well as the surface area, are identical to the original blank, as opposed to the DWI cans, where the wall thickness is much lower than the base thickness (Figure 7). The process starts with blanking and cupping, in which cups are produced from prescrolled sheets, lacquered, and/or decorated. The cups then go through the first drawing operation, where they are drawn by a punch through a die. The cups produced at this stage may undergo a similar redraw process for further diameter reduction as the height is progressively increased (Figure 7b). There is a linear relationship between the maximum height to which a container can be drawn in a single operation and its diameter. The taller the can, the more drawing operations are required. Also, single-reduced steels can be drawn more than double-reduced, which can be used in lower gauges for the same strength. The bottom end is the thickest region and governs the material gauge, often resulting in an excessive side wall thickness. Typically, 0.2-mm-thickness prelacquered tinplate and TFS is used for the DRD process. DRD cans are currently used in the packaging for food rather than beverages, where a greater wall thickness is required to withstand pressure reversals. The body is beaded, and TFS is used more than tinplate because a better enamel adhesion is achieved with the former.
Ends

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The can end is designed for optimum deformation behavior during the food-heating process thereby preventing permanent distortion: it should resist the high relative internal pressure achieved in the heating process that tends to deform the can ends outwards, and it must also be sufficiently flexible to return to its

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4 CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture

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original profile as the internal pressure becomes slightly negative inside the processed can. This behavior depends on the metal thickness, the profile of the expansion rings, and the countersink depth (Figure 8). The scroll-cut sheet, previously lacquered, is fed through a press that stamps the ends. After stamping, the edges are curled and passed through a lining machine, which applies a precise amount of a sealant compound around the inside of the curl. This sealant assists the formation of a hermetic seal by providing a gasket between adjacent layers of metal in the double seam. Easy-open ends are produced, from a previously stamped shell (Figure 9a), in a press comprising four basic operations: a bubble-like structure is drawn (Figure 9b), a cylindrical button is drawn from the bubble (Figure 9c), the score line is performed (Figure 9d), and the tab is attached at the rivet station by compression of the button, the tab being formed on a separate operation (Figure 9e). In this way, the tab is affixed to the end without any loss of end integrity. Figure 9 illustrates the basic operations.
Double seaming

each peak of the alternating current. By adjusting the frequency of the current to the linear speed of the can body, the correct number of spot welds per unit of can length can be achieved. In a good weld, the individual spots should merge into a continuous weld. Although the welded seam is free from the danger of lead pickup, the weld has to be effectively coated to prevent any traces of iron being picked up by some types of beverages and acidic foods. The external side of the seam is also coated for protection.

Protective Organic Coatings

The primary function of interior can coatings, enamels or lacquers, is to prevent any interaction between the can and its contents, although some enamels have special properties, and others are used merely to improve the appearance of the pack. Exterior can coatings may be used to provide protection against the environment, as well as for decoration and product labeling. Internal lacquers must be inert, must provide a good barrier, and must also have a good mechanical resistance, as well as thermal resistance if the product is to be thermally processed. The lacquer must comply with the regulations for materials intended for food contact, i.e., only approved substances that had sustained successful migration or extraction tests and that do not impart any flavor to the contents, may be used. The barrier provided by the lacquer depends on its chemical composition and on its porosity (which must be as low as possible) and which in turn depends on the thickness of the lacquer. Control of the amount of lacquer applied, usually measured in terms of the mass of dry film per area of metal sheet, is very important since a thin layer will not cover the surface completely, and a layer that is too thick will lead to brittleness, lack of flexibility, and poor adhesion, as well as being uneconomical. The lacquer must resist mechanical solicitations during can and ends manufacturing operations, as in the case of three-piece cans and most DRD two-piece cans that are produced from a precoated metal sheet. Flexibility and adhesion are also important characteristics of lacquers, as during retorting, the can tends to deform, due to a pressure imbalance. The lacquer is usually applied by roller coating to the metal in the flat form sheet or coil before fabrication. Spraying is used for coating the internal surface of DWI two-piece cans that cannot be produced from prelacquered sheets, owing to the considerable amount of metal deformation and surface disruption occurring during ironing operations. Powder coating, where the resin is applied dry in the form of a fine
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The end is joined to the can body by a double-seaming operation that is carried out in two stages (Figure 10): in the first operation, the end curl and the body flange are brought together and rolled inwards so that the end hook is well tucked up underneath the body hook. The shape of the seaming roll determines the contour of the seam at the end of this stage; in the second operation, the seam is tightened by a second set of seaming rolls. The final quality of the double seam is defined by its length, thickness, and the extent of the overlap of the end hook with the body hook (Figure 11). Rigid standards are laid down for an acceptable degree of overlap and seam tightness.
Welding Side Seams of Three-piece Cans

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The side seam is made by a resistance-welding process, using the lost-wire-electrode principle. After the can body blank has been formed into a cylinder over the welding arm, the overlapping seam (0.4 mm for most cans) passes between two copper weld rools where the weld is formed (Figure 12). The two layers in the seam are squeezed together between the upper weld roll located outside the can body and a smaller-diameter inner weld roll. An alternating current is passed to the upper roll, and high electrical resistance causes the interface temperature to rise rapidly to at least 900  C, resulting in solidphase bonding. As the can body moves continuously between the two weld rolls, a spot weld is created at

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CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture 5
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powder, usually under the direction of an electrostatic field, is used for the protection of welded side seams (internal side), where heavy coatings are required. A postfabrication repair lacquering is applied to cans used to pack products with very stringent protection requirements, to compensate for natural application imperfections and layer damage during can fabrication. After application, the lacquer must be dried by solvent removal, oxidation, and/or heat polymerization. This process is usually performed in a forced convection oven using hot air up to 210  C for up to 15 min. Recent developments include resin formulations, which need lower temperatures and shorter curing times, often through the use of ultraviolet radiation (these ultraviolet-curing resins are virtually solvent-free). The more common chemical families of protective lacquers are the phenols, epoxy, polyesters, and vinyl. The resins are rarely used pure. They are modified and/or combined with other resins and additives that confer specific characteristics. Table 3 summarizes the major lacquers' characteristics and applications. Phenolic resins are produced by the action of formaldehyde on phenol and are characterized by having a high degree of reticulation enhancing barrier, hardness and chemical inertia, but limited flexibility due to the presence of the bulge phenolic ring. Epoxy resins are produced by polymerization of bisphenol A with glycerol epichlorohydrine. Epoxy is highly reactive, allowing for combination with other resins, and it has a good chemical resistance. It is very flexible because of its linear structure, without reticulation, and it is often combined with phenolics giving the epoxy-phenolic family, one of the most widely used families of resins for lacquering. A three-dimensional structure is formed during curing, either by straight blending of a solid epoxy resin with a solid phenolic resin or by condensation of a mixture of two resins in appropriate solvents. Epoxy-phenolic lacquer combines the good adhesion properties of the epoxy resin with the high chemical resistance properties of the phenolic resin. The balanced properties of epoxy-phenolic coatings have made their use almost universal in food-can applications. Epoxy may also be combined with amines to produce epoxy-urea and with fatty acids to produce epoxy-esters. Vinyl coatings are based on copolymers of vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate. They can be used with or without pigmentation, and they can be blended with alkyd, epoxy, and phenolic resins to enhance their performance. Their main disadvantage is the high sensitivity to heat and retorting processes, restricting their application to cans that are hot-filled and to beer and beverage products.

Vinyl organosol coatings are dispersions of PVC (homopolymer), sometimes reinforced with soluble thermosetting resins, such as epoxy or phenolic, to enhance thermal resistance and adhesion. Plasticizers are also added to aid film formation. These coatings are typically white due to the addition of titanium dioxide. Polyesters have an excellent resistance to high temperatures and are often used for can external coating. When used for heat-processed foods, they are modified with phenolic resins and often white pigmented with titanium dioxide. The choice of lacquer depends on the nature of the food and the can to be used. Products that contain sulfur-containing amino acids require sulfur-resistant lacquers to prevent staining of tinplate surfaces. Sulfur compounds may break down during heat processing to release sulfides, which react with tin to form brownviolet tin sulfide (SnS) that affects the global can surface or with iron to form iron sulfide (FeS) in spots where, due to lacquering and tincoating imperfections, iron may be in contact with the food. These compounds do not affect the product safety or quality but are suspicious to the consumer. To overcome this problem, lacquers offering a good physical barrier, such as phenolic or epoxy-phenolic, are used. In addition, these are pigmented with zinc oxide, which reacts preferentially with the sulfur compounds, thus acting as chemical barriers. Lacquers may also be pigmented with aluminium powder or white pigments, to obscure any tin sulfide that might be formed. Acidic foods require a very good protection to prevent can corrosion. A vinyl organosol with a high thickness, pigmented with aluminium powder or titanium dioxide, or a double coating of epoxyphenolic plus vinyl organosol may be used for this purpose. Beer and other drinks susceptible to flavor contamination by metallic traces require very good protection as well. DWI cans are coated after fabrication, usually with two coats of lacquer: epoxy-phenolic plus vinyl, epoxy-urea plus vinyl or a double layer of epoxy-urea.
See also: (0089a) ; (0159a) Canning: Principles; (0162a) Food Handling; (0163a) Quality Changes During Canning; (0872a) Packaging: Packaging of Liquids; (0873a) Packaging of Solids

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Further Reading
Bakker M and Eckroth D (1986) The Wiley Encyclopaedia of Packaging Technology. New York: John Wiley.

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6 CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture Robertson GL (1993) Food Packaging Principles and Practice. New York: Marcel Dekker. Soroka W (1995) Fundamentals of Packaging Technology. Herndon, VA: Institute of Packaging Professionals.

Easy-open end Double-seam

Can body

Beading

Side-seam

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Figure 1 Can terminology.

Tin plate Lacquer Passivation Tin Alloy tin/iron Steel

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Tin-free steel

Aluminum

Lacquer Chromium oxide Chromium Steel Lacquer Aluminum oxide Aluminum alloy

Figure 2 Metallic materials for can-making.

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Equal coating

Differential coating (identification on heavier coated side)

12.7 25.4 38.0

D 5.6/2.8 E 2.8/2.8 E 5.6/5.6 E 8.4/8.4 E 11.2/11.2 D 8.4/2.8

38.0 25.4

D 8.4/5.6
38.0 12.7

D 11.2/5.6

50.8

D 11.2/2.8
Figure 3 Tin coating weights.

D 2.8/1.1

[mm]

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(a)

Scroll-cut sheet

Length of cut sheet

Width across coil

(b)

Straight-cut sheet

Length of cut sheet

Width across coil

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Figure 4 Comparison between scroll and straight cut sheet.

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8 CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(j)

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Figure 5 Three-piece can-manufacturing process.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(j)

(k)

(l)

(m)

(n)

(o)

(p)

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Figure 6 Two-piece DWI can-manufacturing process.

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CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture
(a)
Seaming panel

Bead Second expansion panel Center panel

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First expansion panal

Figure 8 Can end profile.
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Figure 7 Comparison between (a) DRD and (b) DWI processes. From Bakker M and Eckroth D (1986) The Wiley Encyclopaedia of PackagingTechnology. New York: John Wiley with permission.

Lining compound

Can end Flange on can body (a)

(a) Sealant (b) Lining compound (c) Score line (d) Rivet Ring tab (e)
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Former

Profile of roller die

(b)

Lining compound

(c)

Profile of roller die

Figure 9 Easy-open end production.

Lining compound (d)

Figure 10 Double-seaming: (a) and (b) first seaming operation; (c) and (d) second seaming operation.
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10 CANNING/Cans and their Manufacture
Seam thickness

Body-hook length

Seam length

End-hook legth

Countersink depth End-plate thickness 2

Overlap

Body-plate thickness
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Figure 11 Main components of a double seam.

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Figure 12 Welding side seam of a three-piece can: 1, blank feed; 2, wire fed; 3, welding rolls (electrodes); 4, copper wire (welding contact); 5, used wire. From Bakker M and Eckroth D (1986) TheWileyEncyclopaediaofPackagingTechnology. New York: John Wiley, with permission.

Table 2 Examples of common sizes of food cans Type

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Capacity (ml) 142 212 212 236 335 340 350 425 850 945 75 125 150 250

Dimensions (mm) 55 67 65 71 73 58 65 78 73 88 99 52 83.7 69 73 109 99 118 99 123 104 59 19 104 59 28 154 55 23 105 76 38

Table 1 Nominal diameters of round cans Imperialunits 202 211 300 307 401 404 502 603 610 700 Metric units 52 65 73 83 99 105 127 153 168 176

Round three-piece cans

Rectangular two-piece cans

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tbl0003

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Table 3 Application and characteristics of lacquers Family Phenolic Epoxy-phenolic Vinylics Organosols Acrylics Epoxy-urea Polyesters Application Fruits, vegetables, meat: very good barrier Wide use, can be pigmented with Al, ZnO; characteristics depending on formulation Beverages Large use in two-piece cans Pigmented with TiO2 Beverages Pigmented with TiO2 Flexibility Bad Good Excellent Very good Good Good Medium Adhesion Bad Good Good Very good Very good Good Good Resistance to heat-processing Very good Good Bad Good Medium Medium Good

Manuscript Queries
TITLE: ENCYCLOPEDIA OF FOOD SCIENCES AND NUTRITION Manuscript code: 0160 Entry: Cans and Their Manufacture Article: Author: Filipe Pocas Sheet _1__ of _1__

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Query Figures 7 and 12: Has permission been obtained? Please clarify town/city in shortened and full addresses

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mechanical solicitation Do you mean damage or ? Sentence Phenolic resins does not make sense. Please check