Stylistics for Translation Students

Prof.ReimaAlJarf
KingSaudUniversity

TableofContents
WHAT IS LANGUAGE?....................................................................................................................... 5 WHA IS COMMUNICATION?............................................................................................................ 5 FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE: ........................................................................................................... 6 SPEECH ACTS ...................................................................................................................................... 7

Speech Act Classification: ....................................................................................... 8

SOME KINDS OF TEXTS: ................................................................................................................... 9 BASIC DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................................................ 10 LEVELS OF STYLE: .......................................................................................................................... 12

A. Regional: ........................................................................................................... 13 B. Formal vs. informal: ........................................................................................ 13 C. Standard, Colloquial, Slang:............................................................................ 13 D. Literary: ............................................................................................................ 13
CONTEXT ............................................................................................................................................ 14

Context of Situation ............................................................................................... 14

APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF STYLE ................................................................................. 15 APPROACHES ACCORDING TO LINGUISTIC LEVELS: ......................................................... 15 APPROACHES ACCORDING TO LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS: .................................................. 16 DISCURSIVE VS EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE ............................................................................... 16 4. OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING STYLE ................................................................................... 17

a. Region = dialect................................................................................................. 17 b. Education and Social Standing: ....................................................................... 17 c. Subject-matter = register ................................................................................... 18 f. Interference: ...................................................................................................... 18 Style Marker: .......................................................................................................... 19 EXAMPLES ........................................................................................................... 19
5. LEXICAL ASPECTS OF STYLE ............................................................................................. 20

General: .................................................................................................................. 20 Nouns: .................................................................................................................... 20 Adjectives:............................................................................................................... 20 Verbs: ...................................................................................................................... 20 Adverbs: .................................................................................................................. 21 EXAMPLES ........................................................................................................... 21 2

referential: .............................................................................................................. 21 Denotation = conceptual = cognitive meaning ..................................................... 21 Use of slang: ........................................................................................................... 25 Use of Euphemisms: .............................................................................................. 26 Use of cliches: ........................................................................................................ 26 Use of Standard vs non-standard Words............................................................... 26 Use of rare words: .................................................................................................. 26 Use of obsolete & archaic words: .......................................................................... 26 Tautology ................................................................................................................ 26 High, Middle and Low Styles: ............................................................................... 27 Semantic features ................................................................................................... 27
6. GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS OF STYLE: .............................................................................. 29

GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS AND DESCRIPTION ..................................................................... 29

Sentence types: ....................................................................................................... 29 Sentence complexity:.............................................................................................. 29 Clause types: ........................................................................................................... 29 Clause structure: .................................................................................................... 29 Noun phrases: ........................................................................................................ 29 Verb phrases:.......................................................................................................... 30 word classes: ........................................................................................................... 30 General: .................................................................................................................. 30 Parts of speech: ...................................................................................................... 30 Sentence types: ....................................................................................................... 30 Sentence complexity:.............................................................................................. 31 anticipatory structures: .......................................................................................... 31 Clause types: ........................................................................................................... 32 Apposition ............................................................................................................... 34 Ellipsis: ................................................................................................................... 34 Focus, theme and emphasis ................................................................................... 34 Sentence Variety: ................................................................................................... 35
(3) SEMANTIC ASPECTS OF STYLE ............................................................................................. 36

Figures of Speech = figurative language=imagery .............................................. 36

(4) COHESION AND COHERENCE ................................................................................................. 38

Cohesion:................................................................................................................ 38 Cohesive ties: .......................................................................................................... 38 Types of Cohesion: ................................................................................................. 38

(5) EMPHASIS.................................................................................................................................. 40

Exercise: ................................................................................................................. 41
STYLISTIC FEATURES OF ADVERTISEMENTS ........................................................................ 43 STYLISTIC FEATURES OF NEWSPAPER ENGLISH ................................................................. 46 STYLISTIC FEATURES OF TECHNICAL TEXTS ....................................................................... 48 TECHNICAL TEXTS .......................................................................................................................... 48

1. Time order: Process .......................................................................................... 48 2. Time Order: Process ........................................................................................ 49 3. Time Order: Chronology ................................................................................. 49 4. Space order: ..................................................................................................... 49 7. Classification:.................................................................................................... 50 8. Definitions ........................................................................................................ 50 9. Description of properties: ................................................................................ 51 10.Cause-effect:...................................................................................................... 51 11.Function: ........................................................................................................... 51 12.Structure:........................................................................................................... 51 13. Measurement:................................................................................................... 52
STYLISTIC FEATURES OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS .................................................................... 53

Examples ................................................................................................................ 54
STYLISTIC FEATURES OF COMMERCIAL TEXTS .................................................................. 56

EXAMPLE ............................................................................................................. 56
STYLISTIC FEATURES OF LITERARY TEXTS .......................................................................... 58

WHATISLANGUAGE? Languageisasystem.Eachlanguagecontainstwosystemsratherthanonesystem, a system of sounds and a system of meanings (language is a device for conveying meaning through sounds). Only certain sounds are used by the speakers of any language and only certain combinations of these sounds are possible. There is no connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these soundsrefer,forexample: pvgnmbrtds catbookfulleatrunbeautiful Languageisasymbolicsystem,asysteminwhichwordsareassociatedwith objects,ideas,andactionsbyconvention.Languageishuman.Itisasystemthatis possessed only by human beings and is very different from the communication systems that other forms of life possess. Language is used for communication. languageallowspeopletosaythingstoeachotherandexpresstheircommunicative needs.Theseneedsarestrong.Languageisthecementofsociety,allowingpeople to live, work , and play together, to tell the truth, but also to tell a lie or lies. Sometimesitisusedtokeepthecommunicationchannelsopensothatifanyneed arises to say something of importance a suitable channel is available. This last functionismetthroughtheconventionsofgreetingandleavetaking,bysmalltalkat parties,andinthechatterofsecretariesinalargeoffice.Languagealsofunctionsto communicateattitudestowardslifeandothers. The communication of most importance to us is the communication of meaning.(languageisasystemofarbitraryoralsymbolsbymeansofwhichasocial groupinteracts). WhaisCommunication? Communication:itistheexchangeofideas,information,etcbetweentwoormore persons.Inanactofcommunicationthereare5elements: Thesender=speakerorwriter. Amessage=Whatisconveyedinspeechorwritingfromonepersontoone ormoreotherpeople.Themessagemaynotalwaysbestatedinverbalform butcanbeconveyedbyothermeans,e.g.:awink,gestures.Adistinctioncan bemadebetweenmessageformandmessagecontent.In spokenrequests, for example, the message form is how the request is made (e.g.: type or sentencestructure,useornonuseofcourtesywords,typeofintonation)and

the message content is what is actually requested (e.g.: the loan of some money). Thechannelsthroughwhichthemessageistransmitted.Thechannelmaybe verbal,visual,pictorial,aural.Theverbalchannel=thecode,i.e.,asystemof symbols involving sounds, letters, words, or other oral or graphic devices usedintransmittingthemessage. Thereceiver=thepersonorpersonsforwhomthemessageisintended. The situation = the physical setting and social context in which the communicationoccurs. Thesender,receiver,messageorcodemaybedominantinatextinorderto fulfillthepurposeofcommunication.Hence,textscanbeclassifiedinto: (1) senderdominanttexts=expressivefunctionlikelyricpoems,personal letters,autobiographies,personalexplanations (2) receiverdominanttexts=conativefunctionsuchaspublicspeeches, advertisements, sermons. These try to make an impact on the receiver. (3) messagedominant texts = cognitive function like technical reports, newspaperreports,textbooks,treatise,scientificdiscourse. (4) Codedominant texts = textual function: They are texts in which the organization of ideas is coherent and sentences and paragraphs are cohesive.

FUNCTIONSOFLANGUAGE: Languagehas5functions: 1. Informationalfunction: 2. Expressivefunction:itcanbeusedtoexpressitsoriginator'sfeelingsand attitudesswearwordsandexclamationsarethemostobviousinstancesofthis. 3. Directivefunction:itcanbeusedtoinfluencethebehaviorandattitudesof others,suchascommandsandrequests. 4. Aestheticfunction:theuseoflanguageforthesakeofthelinguisticartifactitself. 5. Phaticfunction:keepingcommunicationlinesopenandkeepingsocial relationshipsingoodrepair.Here,thecommunicativeworkdonebylanguageis atitslightest:itisnotsomuchwhatonesays,butthefactthatonesaysitatall, thatmatters. StylesofSpeech: Youalsounderstandthecontextsorsituationsinwhichstylesoflanguage maybeused: Pardonme,butwouldmindopeningthewindowplease?

 Openthewindownow. Gee,itshotinhere. Theattitudesyouhaveaboutandhowandwhendifferentformsofspeechareused andaboutthepeoplewhousethem. TextComponents:Atextconsistsofatheme,printedsymbols,words,sentences, paragraphsandlargerunitsofdiscourse,syntax,cohesion,anaphora, StylisticMeaning:Stylisticmeaningisthatwhichapieceoflanguageconveysabout thesocialcircumstancesofitsuse.Werecognizesomewordsorpronunciationsas beingdialectical,i.e.,astellingussomethingofthegeographicalorsocialoriginof the speaker. Other features of the language tell us something of the social relationship between the speaker and hearer. Variations in a person's speech or writing usually varies from casual to formal according to the type of situation, the personorpersonsaddressed,thelocation,thetopicdiscussed,etc.Wehaveascale ofstatususagethatrangesfromformalandliteraryEnglishatoneendtocolloquial, familiar,andslangEnglishattheother. Message: What is conveyed in speech or writing from one person to one or more other people. The message may not always be stated in verbal form but can be conveyedbyothermeans,e.g.:awink,gestures.Adistinctioncanbemadebetween messageformandmessagecontent.Inspokenrequests,forexample,themessage formishowtherequestismade(e.g.:typeodsentencestructure,useofnonuseof courtesy words, type of intonation) and the message content is what is actually requested(e.g.:theloanofsomemoney). SpeechActs Aspeechactisanutteranceasafunctionalunitincommunication.Inspeechact theoryutteranceshave2kindsofmeaning: Propositionalmeaning=illocutionarymeaning Thisisthebasicliteralmeaningoftheutterancewhichisconveyedbythe particularwordsandstructureswhichtheutterancecontains. Illocutionarymeaning=illocutionaryforce Thisistheeffecttheutteranceorwrittentexthasonthereaderorhearer. e.g.:inIamthirstythepropositionalmeaningiswhattheutterancesaysaboutthe speaker'sphysicalstate.Theillocutionaryforceistheeffectthespeakerwantsthe utterancetohaveonthelistener.Itmaybeintendedasarequestforsomethingto drink.Aspeechactisasentenceorutterancewhichhasbothpropositionalmeaning andillocutionaryforce.Therearemanykindsofspeechacts:requests,orders,

commands,complaints,promises. Aspeechactwhichisperformedindirectlyissometimesknownasanindirectspeech act,suchasthespeechactsofrequestingabove.Indirectspeechactsareoftenfelt tobemorepolitewaysofperformingcertainkindsofspeechact,suchasrequests andrefusals. SpeechActClassification: 1. Commissive:aspeechactthatcommitsthespeakerordoingsomethinginthe futuresuchasapromiseorathreat. Ifyoudon'tstopfighting,I'llcallthepolice.(threat) I'lltakeyoutothemovies.(promise) 2. Declarative:aspeechactwhichchangesthestateofaffairsintheworld.e.g: duringtheweddingceremonytheactofmarriageisperformedwhenthephrase Inowpronounceyoumanandwifeisuttered. 3. Directive:aspeechactthathasthefunctionofgettingthelistenertodo something,suchasasuggestion,arequest,oracommand.E.g.: Pleasesitdown. Whydon'tyouclosethewindow. 4. Expressive:aspeechactinwhichthespeakerexpressesfeelingsandattitudes aboutsomething,suchasanapology,acomplaint,tothanksomeone,to congratulatesomeone.E.g.: Themealwasdelicious. Representative:aspeechactwhichdescribesstatesoreventsintheworldsuchas anassertion,aclaim,areport.e.g.: ThisisaGermancar. Encoding:Theprocessofturningamessageintoasetofsymbolsaspartoftheact ofcommunication.Inencodingspeech,thespeakermust: selectameaningtobecommunicated. turnitintoalinguisticformusingsemanticsystems(e.g.concepts, propositions),grammaticalsystems(e.g.:words,phrases,clauses),and phonologicalsystems(e.g.phonemes,syllables).Differentsystemsof communicationmakeuseofdifferenttypesofsymbolstoencodemessages (e.g.:pictorialrepresentation,morsecode,drumbeats).

 Decoding:Theprocessoftryingtounderstandthemeaningofaword,phrase,or sentence.Whendecodingaspeechutterance,thelistenermust: holdtheutteranceinshorttermmemory. analyzetheutteranceintosegmentsandidentifyclauses,phrases,andother linguisticunits. identifytheunderlyingpropositionsandillocutionarymeaning. Decodingisalsousedtomeantheinterpretationofanysetofsymbolswhichcarrya meaning,forexampleasecretcodeofaMorsesignal. Tenor:referstotheparticipantswhoaretakingpartinthisexchangeofmeaning, whotheyareandwhatkindofrelationshiptheyhavetooneanother. Mode:Whatpartthelanguageisplayinginthisparticularsituation,forexample,in whatwaythelanguageisorganisedtoconveythemeaning Channel:writtenorspokenlanguageorboth SomeKindsofTexts: Literary texts: novels, short stories, tales, biographies, essays, diaries, plays, pomes,nurseryrhymes, Socialletters(invitations,thankyounotes),postcards,telegrams. Newspapers, magazines (headlines, articles, editorials, letters to the editor, classifiedads,weatherforecasts,radio/T.V./theatreprograms. Specialized articles, reports, reviews, essays, business letters, summaries, accounts,pamphlets,termpapers,researchpapers,documentaries. Handbooks,textbooks,guidebooks, Advertisements,travelbrochures,catalogues. Recipes, instructions (warnings), directions (how to use), notices, rules & regulations, posters, (road signs), forms (application forms, landing cards), menus,tickets. Comicstrips,jokes&riddles,cartoons&caricatures.

TextTypesAccordingtoPurpose:Narrative,descriptive,persuasive,informative. Text types According to Register: Journalese, legal, business, military, radio broadcasts, technical, literary, telephone, broadcasting, games, public speaking, commercial,advertisement,recipe,personalletter,businessletter.

BasicDefinitions Stylistics(N):Thestudyofstylesoflanguage.Thestudyofthatvariationinlanguage (style)whichisdependentonthesituationinwhichthelanguageisusedandalsoon the effect the writer or speaker wishes to create on the reader or hearer. It is the studyofthegrammatical,phonologicalandpracticalaspectsofstyleinlanguage.Itis the study or practice of the art of using linguistic devices to make communication more precise, connotative or personal. Although stylistics sometimes includes investigationsofspokenlanguage,itusuallyreferstothestudyofwrittenlanguage, includingliterarytexts.Stylisticsisconcernedwiththechoicesthatareavailabletoa writer and the reasons why particular forms and expressions are used rather than others. Stylistician:Onewhomakesamethodicalstudyoftheprinciplesofstyle. Style: Theparticularidentifyingcharacteristicofsomething,aswritingstyle,acting style,baroquestyle. Awayoflivingordressing,etcaslivinginstyle;one'slifestyle. The particular way in which a person uses language in a given social environment;idiolect. Styleas applied in writing and speaking is an elusive and subtle concept. In the broadest sense it refers to the characteristic way in which a person conceivesandexpressesideasthroughlanguage. The characteristic of a work which reflect its author's distinctive way of writing.Styleistotheworkofawriterwhatpersonalityistoanindividual. An author's use of language, its effects, and its appropriateness to the author'sintentandtheme.Styleisthedressofthoughts. The identifying aspect of a piece of writing or some other kind of performance. Themannerinwhichsomethingissaidordonein contrasttoitsmessage. AlinguisticVariationinaperson'sspeechorwriting.Styleusuallyvariesfrom casual to formal according to the type of situation, the person or persons addressed, the location, the topic discussed, etc. A particular style, e.g. formalstyleorcolloquialstyle,issometimesreferredtoasastylisticvariety. Stylecanalsorefertoaparticularperson'suseof speech or writing at all timesortoawayofspeakingorwritingataparticularperiodoftime,e.g.: Dickens'style,thestyleofShakespeare,an18thcenturystyleofwriting. Theelementofstyleexistsonthelevelofallmeaningfullinguisticunitsfrom wordtotext,andinallkindsofwritingwhetherliteraryornonliterary. 10

 Stylist: Aspeakerorwriterwhocultivatesanartfulliterarystyle. Adesignerorconsultantonstylesindecorating,dress,orbeauty. Stylistic variation: Differences in the speech or writing of a person or group of people according to the situation, the topic, the addressee(s) and the location. Stylistic variation can be observed in the use of different speech sounds, different wordsorexpressions,ordifferentsentencestructures. Genre: A particular class of speech events (a particular instance when people exchangespeech,eganexchangeofgreetings,anenquiry,aconversation)whichare consideredbythespeechcommunityasbeingofthesametype.Examplesofgenres are: prayers, sermons, conversations, songs, speeches, poems, letters, and novels. They have particular and distinctive characteristics. A group of several genres are calledacomplexgenre. Text:Apieceofspokenorwrittenlanguage.Itmaybeconsideredfromthepointof view of its structure and or its functions, e.g.: warning, instructing, carrying out a transaction.Afullunderstandingofatextisoftenimpossiblewithout referenceto thecontextinwhichitoccurs.Atextmayconsistofjustoneword,e.g.:DANGERon a warning sign, or it may be of considerable length, e.g.: a sermon, a novel or a debate. Discourse:Ageneraltermforexamplesoflanguageuse,languagewhichhasbeen producedastheresultofanactofcommunication.Whereasgrammarreferstothe rules a language uses to form grammatical units such as clause, phrase, and sentence, discourse refers to larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations, and interviews. The study of both written and spoken discourse is knownasdiscourseanalysis. Discourseanalysis:Thestudyofhowsentencesinspokenandwrittenlanguageform larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations, interviews, etc. for example,discourseanalysisdealswith: howthechoiceofarticles,pronouns,andtensesaffectsthestructureofthe discourse. therelationshipbetweenutterancesinadiscourse(adjacencypairs, coherence). Themovesmadebyspeakerstointroduceanewtopic,changethetopic,or assertahigherrolerelationshiptotheotherparticipants.

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LevelsofStyle: formalandinformalstyle: literaryandnonliterarystyle phonologicalaspectsofstyle: intonation lexicalaspectsofstyle: idioms proverbs figuresofspeech(similes&metaphors) euphemisms cliches slang grammaticalaspectsofstyle: nominalandverbalstyleSebeok emphasis activeandpassive subjunctive cleft topicalisation nominalization semanticaspectsofstyle variantreadingsandmisreadings(ambiguity) organization

StylesofSpeech: You also understand the contexts or situations in which styles of language maybeused: Pardonme,butwouldmindopeningthewindow please? Openthewindownow. Gee,itshotinhere. Theattitudesyouhaveaboutandhowandwhendifferentformsofspeech areusedandaboutthepeoplewhousethem. TRANSLATION: Theprocessofconvertingthemeaningofphrases,sentences,etc.,fromone languagetoanother. StylisticMeaning Stylisticmeaningisthatwhichapieceoflanguageconveysaboutthesocial circumstances of its use. We recognize some words or pronunciations as being dialectical, i.e., as telling us something of the geographical or social origin of the 12

speaker.Otherfeaturesofthelanguagetellussomethingofthesocialrelationship betweenthespeakerandhearer.Variationsinaperson'sspeechorwritingusually variesfromcasualtoformalaccordingtothetypeofsituation,thepersonorpersons addressed, the location, the topic discussed, etc. We have a scale of status usage that ranges from formal and literary English at one end to colloquial, familiar, and slangEnglishattheother. A.Regional: elevator(AmEng),lift(BrEng.) rentacar(AmEng),hireacar(BrEng.) either,often,laboratory,car,military,box,main, B.Formalvs.informal: Atapartywhereeveryoneislaughingand chatting, Peter Reynolds sees someone he thinks he recognizes. "Hello! You must be bill Merchant. I'm Peter".PeterReynoldsisgivingatalkathisfirm'sannual international sales conference. he has only recently joined the company and many in theaudiencedonotknowhim."MayIintroducemyself:PeterReynolds,sales manager,NorthernEurope".

C.Standard,Colloquial,Slang: Itakeyourpoint I'vegotthemessage Allright,thepenny'sdropped. (Standard) (colloquial) (slang)

D.Literary: "I'lltelltheeeverythingican; There'slittletorelate. Isawanagedagedman, Asittingonagate. 'Whoareyou,agedman?'Isaid. 'Andhowisityoulive? Andhisanswertrickledthroughmyhead Likewaterthroughasieve. Hesaid'Ilookforbutterflies 13

Thatsleepamongthewheat; Imakethemintomuttonpies, Andselltheminthestreet. Isellthemuntomen,'hesaid, 'Whosailonstormyseas; Andthat'sthewayIgetmybread Atrifle,ifyouplease.'

Context Thatwhichoccursbeforeandorafteraword,aphraseorevenalongerutteranceor text.Thecontextoftenhelpsinunderstandingtheparticularmeaningoftheword, phrase, etc. E.g.: the word loud in loud music is usually understood as meaning "noisy" whereas in a tie with a loud pattern it is understood as unpleasantly "colorful".Thecontextmayalsobethebroadersocialsituationinwhichalinguistic itemisused.E.g.:inordinaryusage,spinsterrefersto"anolderunmarriedwoman" butinlegalcontextitreferstoanyunmarriedwoman. ContextofSituation Thatwhichoccursbeforeorafteraword,aphraseorevenalongerutteranceor text.Thecontextoftenhelpsinunderstandingtheparticularmeaningoftheword, phrase,etc.e.g..:thewordloudinloudmusicisusuallyunderstoodasmeaning "noisy"whereasinatiewithaloudpatternitisunderstoodasunpleasantly "colorful".Thecontextmayalsobethebroadersocialsituationinwhichalinguistic itemisused.e.g:inordinaryusage,spinsterrefersto"anolderunmarriedwoman" butinlegalcontextitreferstoanyunmarriedwoman. 1.Situationalcontext:Itisassociatedwiththenotionofstyle. 2.Temporalcontext:Changeinlanguageinthedimensionoftime.ModernEnglish showssomedifferencefromShakespeareanorVictorianEnglish(19thcentury)in formormeaningofawordobtainedfromacommonsource. 3.Regionalcontext:Referstochangeinlanguageonthedimensionofgeographical region,eg 4.Socialcontext:Theenvironmentinwhichmeaningsareexchanged.Thesocial contextoflanguagecanbeanalyzedintermsofthreefactors: Thefieldofdiscoursereferstowhatishappening,includingwhatisbeing talkedabout.

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Thetenorofdiscoursereferstotheparticipantswhoaretakingpartinthis exchangeofmeaning,whotheyareandwhatkindofrelationshiptheyhave tooneanother. Themodeofdiscoursereferstowhatpartthelanguageisplayinginthis particularsituation,forexample,inwhatwaythelanguageisorganizedto conveythemeaningandwhatchannelisusedwrittenorspokenora combinationofboth.

Field:referstowhatishappening,includingwhatisbeingtalkedabout ApproachesToTheStudyOfStyle Stylecanbestudiedindifferentways: Accordingtothesubjectfield:literary,sociologicalsocial,psychologicaland linguisticstudyofstyle. Accordingtolinguisticlevels,i.e.linguisticunits. Accordingtolanguagefunctions. ApproachesAccordingtoLinguisticLevels: 1.1Microstylisticsisthestudyofstylefeaturesattheword,phrase,clauseand sentencelevels.Itissubdividedinto: phonostylistics:Studyofstylefeaturesatthephonologicallevel. morphostylistics:Studyofstylefeaturesatthemorphologicallevel. lexicostylistics:Studyofstylefeaturesatthelexicallevel,i.e.,lexicalitems andpatternsofvocabulary. syntacticostylistics:Studyofstylefeaturesatthesentencelevel,i.e.,studyof sentencestructuresattheclause,phraseandwordlevel(verbalstyle, nominalstyle). 1.2Macrostylisticsisthestudyofstylefeaturesabovethesentencelevel,i.e., paragraphs, stanzas, sections, chapters, and whole book. The text may be of any lengthandanyform.

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ApproachesAccordingtoLanguageFunctions: Function is the purpose for which an utterance or language unit is used. Language functionshavebeenclassifiedindifferentwaysaccordingtotheapproachandthe purpose of the investigation. According to Buhler, language may be used as a symptom,asymbolorasignal.Symptomisselfexpressionandisspeakercentered. Symbol is information and is textcentered. Signal is persuasion and is hearer centered. ExpressiveStylistics:Itinvestigatestextsinwhichsymptomisdominantlike lyricpoetry,personalletters,diarywritingandbiographies.Insuchtextsthe focusisontheauthororspeaker'spersonality. Cognitive Stylistics: It is appropriate for studying texts where symbol is dominantasintechnical,technological,scientific,social,historicaltexts.Here thefocusisoninformation. Affective Stylistics: It is appropriate for studying texts in which signal is dominant as in public speeches, sermons, advertisements. In such texts the hearerorspeakertriestopersuade,affect,appealto,orexhortthereaderor hearer into believing in a certain thing or taking some kind of action. One languagefunctionormore(symbol,symptomandsignal)maybedominantin thesametext.Atextmaybeinvestigatedforsymbol,symptomandsignalat thesametime. DISCURSIVEVSEXPRESSIVELANGUAGE Discursive Language: It is the language of science. It is used to transmit information, and knowledge. It is codecentered. It is cognitive. Texts are concerned with the real world. It is denotative, monodimensional, and unambiguous. ExpressiveLanguage: Itisthelanguageofliterature.Itisthelanguageusedto express emotions, feelings, and attitudes. It is messagecentered. It is understood through the components of the message. Texts are concerned with the author's inner world (his feelings, emotions and experiences). It is connotative,multidimensional,andambiguous.

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4.OTHERFACTORSAFFECTINGSTYLE Englishisthecommoncoreornucleuswhichisrealizedinthedifferentformsofthe languageweactuallyhearofread.Throughhisuseoflanguagesuchasvocabulary,a personmayrevealfactsabouthisage,hissex,hiseducationallevel,hisoccupation, his social class, and his geographical and cultural origin. The following are some factorsthataffectstyle: a.Region=dialect Geographical dispersion is a basis for linguistic variation. This dispersion resultedindifferentdialects.Everyonespeaksaregionaldialect.Regionalvariations (dialects) are realized predominantly in phonology, i.e, we tend to recognize a differentdialectfromaspeaker'spronunciationbeforewenoticethathisvocabulary isalsodistinctive.Grammaticalvariationtendstobelessdistinctive.Butalltypesof linguisticorganizationcanreadilyenoughbeinvolved. l,r,often,matter,water,box,interstate,territory flat/apartment;rent/hire;lift,elevator;post,mail. Ineversaw;Iveneverseen. b.EducationandSocialStanding: Thereisanimportantpolarityofuneducatedandeducatedspeechinwhich theformercanbeidentifiedwiththeregionaldialectmostcompletelyandthelatter moves away from dialectical usage. Educated speech tends to be given the additional prestige of government agencies, the learned professions, the political parties, the press, the lawcourt. Educated English is referred to as "Standard English". Upper class English has more in common with Standard English than has lowerclassEnglish.Formsthatareassociatedwithuneducateduseareoftencalled "substandard".Herethespeechorwritingofthepersonorgroupdoesnotconform tothestandardvarietyofthelanguageinpronunciation,grammarorvocabularyand isthereforethoughttobeundesirable.Amoreneutraltermthatisusedbylinguists forformsthatdonotbelongtothestandardvarietyofalanguageis"nonstandard". e.g.: Idon'tknownothing (substandard) telly,chocs(chocolate), advert(advertisement), comfty(comfortable), veggy(vegetables)

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c.Subjectmatter=register A speech variety used by a particular group of people , usually sharing the same occupation (eg doctors, lawyers) or the same interests (eg stamp collectors, baseballfans).Aparticularregisteroftendistinguishesitselffromotherregistersby havinganumberofdistinctivewords,byusingwordsorphrasesinaparticularway (in tennis: deuce, love, tramlines, van), and sometimes by special grammatical constructions(eg:legallanguage). Mostpeoplehavearepertoireofregisters.Thesamespeakerwouldswitch totheappropriateregisterastheoccasionarises.Theswitchinvolvesnothingmore than turning to the particular set of lexical items habitually used for handling the subjectmatterinquestion:law,cookery,engineering,football. d.Medium: Referstospokenvswrittenlanguage.Mostofthedifferencearisefrom2 sources:oneissituationalinwhichtheuseofawrittenmediumnormallypresumes theabsenceofthepersontowhomthepieceoflanguageisaddressed.Thisimposes thenecessityofacarefulandprecisecompletionofasentenceratherthantheodd wordsupportedbygesture,andterminatingwhenthespeakerisassuredbywordor lookthathishearerhasunderstood. Thesecondsourceofdifferenceisthatmanyofthedevicesweuseto transmitlanguagebyspeech(stress,rhythm,intonation,andtempo)areimpossible torepresentinawrittentext. e.Attitude: Thechoiceofalinguisticformmayproceedfromourattitudetothehearer orreader,tosubjectmatter,ortothepurposeofourcommunication.Theessential aspectofthenonlinguisticcomponentisthegradientbetweenstiff,formal,cold, impersonalandrelaxed,informal,warm,friendlystyles.Wecandistinguish sentencescontainingfeaturesthataremarkedlyformalorinformal. Formalspeechisastyleofspeakingusedtoinformanaudienceinimpersonal terms,markedbycarefulattentiontoorganizationofcontentandtogrammatical structureandpronunciation.Professionallecturesaredeliveredinaformalstyle. f.Interference: Itisthetraceleftbysomeone'snativelanguageupontheforeignlanguagehe hasacquired.Thus,theFrenchmanwhosays:IamheresinceThursdayisimposinga FrenchgrammaticalusageonEnglish.Butthereareinterferencevarietiesthatareso widespreadinacommunityandofsuchlongstandingandarestableandadequate enoughtoberegardedasvariantsofEnglish.InIndiaandPakistanandseveral

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Africancountries,efficientandfairlystablevarietiesofEnglishareprominentin educateduseatthehighestpoliticalandprofessionallevels. StyleMarker: Itisalinguisticelementinthetextwhichsignalsafeatureofstyle.Itisalso calledstylefeatureorstylisticdevice.Itcanbeofanysize:asinglewordphrase,a multiwordphrase,aclause,asentence,aparagraph,agrammaticalcategory,a particulartransformation,asetofverbs,asemanticfeature.Itisrecognized intuitively. EXAMPLES monosyllabicwords:I,one,streets,staight,what,where. disyllabicwords:problems,classrooms,subjects,passage trisyllabicwords:proportion,beatiful,frequently,separate. imperative: Comehere!. Openthewindow,please! finiteverbs=Verbsbehavingasverbssuchas:run,open, want,change,write. nounadjunct:anounthatpremodifiesanothernounina nouncompound,e.g.: windowshade,policecar,kitchensink,kitchentable,waterbottle, trueadjectives:canberenderedinthecomparativedegreeandcanbeused attributivelyandpredicatively,e.g.: tall,taller;interesting,moreinteresting. Aninterestingbook Thebookisinteresting. untrueadjectives=nounadjunctconstructions.Theycannotberenderedinthe comparativedegreeandcannotbeusedpredicatively. incometax,waterbird,goldwatch,silverspoon,homeeconomics. adjectivesmodifiedbyadverbs: veryquickly,completelyfull,definitelyright subordinateclauses: 19

Theboy,whoisplayinginthegarden,ismybrother. ThisisthebookthatIboughtyesterday.

5. LEXICALASPECTSOFSTYLE General: Nouns: Arethenounsabstractorconcrete? Whatkindofabstractnounsoccur(nounsreferringtoevents, perceptions,processes,moralqualities,socialqualities)? Whatuseismadeofpropernames? whatuseismadeofcollectivenouns? Isthevocabularysimpleorcomplex? Isthevocabularyformalorinformal? Isthevocabularydescriptiveorevaluative? Isthevocabularygeneralorspecific? Howfardoestheauthormakeuseofemotiveandotherassociationsof wordsasopposedtotheirreferentialmeaning? Doesthetextcontainidiomaticphrases? Withwhatkindofdialectorregisteraretheseidiomsassociated Isthereanyuseofrareorspecializedvocabulary? Areanyparticularmorphologicalcategoriesnoteworthy(compound words,wordswithparticularsuffixes)? Towhatsemanticfieldsdowordsbelong?

Adjectives: Verbs: Doverbscarryanimportantpartofthemeaning? Aretheystativeordynamic? Dotheyrefertomovements,physicalacts,speechacts,psychological statesoractivities,perceptions? Aretheytransitive,intransitive,linking Aretheyfactiveornonfactive? 20 Aretheadjectivesfrequent? Towhatkindofattributesdoadjectivesrefer(physical,psychological, visual,auditory,color,referential,emotive,evaluative)? Areadjectivesrestrictiveornonrestrictive? Areadjectivesgradableornongradable? Areadjectivesattributiveorpredicative?

 Adverbs: EXAMPLES referential: Therelationshipbetweenwordsandthethings,actions,eventsandqualities they stand for. Reference in its wider sense would be the relationship between a wordorphraseandanentityintheexternalworld.foreample,thewordtreerefers totheobject"tree"(thereferent).Referenceinitsnarrowersenseistherelationship betweenawordorphraseandaspecificobject,eg.aparticulartreeoraparticular animal.eg,Peter'shorse wouldrefer toahorsewhich isowned,ridden by,or in somewayassociatedwithPeter. Denotation=conceptual=cognitivemeaning Itisthepartofthemeaningofthewordthatrelatesittophenomenainthe realworldorinafictionalorpossibleworld,e.g.:thedenotationoftheEnglishword birdisatwolegged,winged,egglaying,warmbloodedcreaturewithabeak.Ina meaningsystem,denotativemeaningmayberegardedasthe"central"meaningor 'core"meaningofalexicalitem. dogchairtreecartrain emotive=affectivemeaning=connotation The additional meanings that a word or a phrase has beyond its central meaning. These meanings show people's emotions and attitudes towards what the word or 21 simple vs complex = number of morphemes in the word, e.g.: unfriendli ness,sleepless,unproductive formal:pray(please);beget(produce);behindhand(late) informal:get(receive);beggar(fellow); descriptive&evaluative:thin,slim,skinny,slender,round,boring. general:animal,food,sports,vehicles,country. specific:mammal,fastfood,watersports,lorry,Egypt. veryspecific: cow,hamburger,Frenchfries,swimming. Areadverbsfrequent? Whatsemanticfunctionsdotheyperform(manner lace,direction,time, p degree? Isthereanysignificantuseofsentenceadverbs(conjunctssuchasso, therefore,however,disjunctssuchascertainly,obviously,frankly)?

phraserefersto.e.g.:childcouldbedefinedasayoungbeingbuttherearemany othercharacteristicswhichdifferentpeopleassociatewithchild,e.g.,affectionate, amusing,lovable, sweet,mischievous, noisy,irritating. Some connotationsmay be sharedbyagroupofpeopleofthesameculturalorsocialbackground,sex,orage; othersmayberestrictedtooneorseveralindividualsanddependontheirpersonal experience, i.e., connotations vary from age to age, from society to society, from individual to individual within the same speech community. For example: candy swingdressfootballmoneyEnglish idiomatic=anexpressionwhichfunctionsasasingleunit and whose meaningcannotbeworkedoutfromitsseparateparts.Shewashedherhandsofthe matter.(meansSherefusedtohaveanythingmoretodowiththematter)makeup one'smind dialectical: lift(elevator),hire(rent), register: lambent(lit...havingsoftlight) scapula(med...shoulderblade) larceny(law...stealing) quark(tech...thesmallestpossiblepieceofmaterial) specialized: riverbed, base(math,architecture,tech,chem,pol,geometry) system(medicine,astronomy,education) wing(bio,politics,hotel,house,airforce,aircraft,sport) compound:twowordsusedasoneunit. separate:UnitedStated,Postoffice,AtlanticOcean hyphenated:swimmingpool,selfconfidence. agglutinated:flashback,manpower,sunflower ConcreteN=referstosomethingthatyoucansee&touch,&whichhasapositionin time and space. They refer to things, animals, places, gases, liquids, substances,e.g.:house,car,table,garden,man,Spain,Henry,water,sugar, oxygen,iron,crowd. abstractN=standsforgeneralfeelings,ideasorconcepts.

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happiness, beauty, health, honesty, whiteness, unity, education, manhood, childhood,difference,weakness. events(actions):act,answer,change,fight,laugh,shout,victory,start,examination. perception: smell, taste, vision, touch, process: changes of state that happen to people or things, such as: change, aging, growing, deterioration, weakening, dehydration, recovery, moral quality: honesty, truth, goodness, socialquality:helpfulness,friendliness,sociable,loneliness,selfishness, propernames:Namesofspecificpeople,places,countries,lakes,mountains,rivers, universities, months, days, holidays, magazines, festivals such as: Shakespeare, Chicago, Australia, Ontario, Amazon, University of London, January,Sunday,Christmas,Time,Thanksgiving. Collectivenouns=groupnouns team,crowd,peple,committee,staff,class, Adjectivesreferringtoattributes: physicalattributes:tall,short,slim,round,blonde, psychological:excited,aggressive,depressed,upset visualattribute:roughsea,windy, auditoryattribute:noisy,loud,soft. color:red,brown,greenish,dark. referential:thin,fat,big emotive:sad,excited,aggressive,depressed,angry. evaluative:difficult,careless,interesting,bad,beautiful. restrictive: nonrestrictive: gradable adjectives: can be modified by an adverb which convey the degree of intensityoftheadjectives. verytall;soyoung,extremelyinteresting taller,younger,moreinteresting nongradableadj:Technicaladjsarenotgradable. atomic, hydrochloric, enormous, American, annual, mental, physical, final, various,electric,unemployed,particular.

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attributiveadj: Aninterestingbook Thetallboy predicativeadj: Thebookisinteresting. Theboyistall. stativeV=Vofinertperceptionandcognition. adore,believe,desire,dislike,doubt,feel,forgive, guess, like, hate, hear, imagine, impress, intend, know, love, mean, mind, perceive, please, prefer, realize, recall, recognize, regard, remember, satisfy, see, smell, suppose, taste,think,understand,want,wish. dynamicV:canformtheprogressive. ask,beg,call,drink,eat,help,learn,listen,lookat,play, rain, say, throw, work,write,change,grow,mature,slowdown,widen,ache,feel,hurt,itch, arrive,die,fall,land,lose,hit,jump,kick,knock,nod,tap. movement: walk,run,enter,leave,fly,land,move,go. physicalact: cut,dig,eat,drink,wrap,bend,stand,sit,work. speechact: say,state,announce,report,declare,request,refuse, psychologicalstate: annoy, amuse, astonish, calm, concern, disgust, excite, frighten, horrify, humiliate,hurt,impress,grieve,impress,satisfy,offend,relax,scare,satisfy, sadden, perception: feel,hear,notice,observe,see,smell,watch. transitive V = takes a direct object and sometimes an indirect object, e.g.: write, play,give,show,take, intransitiveV=doesnottakeanobject: walk,come,run,sleep,stand,sit,

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 linking Verbs = expresses condition or status. It takes no object. E.g.: be, seem, become,appear,feel. factive Verbs: believe, admit, agree, answer, declare, deny, expect, hope, insist, know,report,say,see,suggest,suppose,think,understand,ascertain, discover,realize,regret. SemanticfunctionofAdverbs: Manner:actively,calmly,carefully,gladly,quickly, sincerely, late, anyhow, together,still,how. Direction:towards,out,inside,up,along,across,by. Time:always,never,often,seldom,sometimes,already,before,immediately, lately, once, presently, shortly, soon, still, today, tomorrow, tonight, when, yet. Degree:absolutely,thoroughly,extremely,greatly,deeply,completely,much, entirely. Sentenceadverbs: Adjuncts=partoftheclause Theyarewaitingoutside. Icannowunderstandit. Hespoketomeaboutitbriefly. disjuncts: certainly, obviously, frankly. Fortunately, I remembered in timewhohewas.Indeed,Iwon'tdoit. conjuncts:so,therefore,however,yet,though. We have complained several times about the noise, and yet he does nothingaboutit. Useofslang: Casual, very informal speech, using expressive but informal words and expressions. for some people, slang is equivalent to "colloquial speech" but for others,itmeans"undesirablespeech".Usually,'colloquialspeech'referstoaspeech varietyusedininformalsituationswithcolleagues,friendsorrelatives,and'slang'is usedforaveryinformalspeechvarietywhichoftenservesasan'ingroup'language

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for a particular group of people such as teenagers, army recruits, popgroups etc. Mostslangisratherunstableasitswordsandexpressionscanchangequiterapidly, e.g.: Beatit!Scram!Rackoff! (forleave) fag (cigarette) fedup (boredwith) UseofEuphemisms: Theuseofawordthatisthoughttobelessoffensiveorpleasantthananother word.e.g.: indisposedinsteadofsick topassawayinsteadoftodie seniorcitizeninsteadofold.person laidtorestinsteadofburied sanitaryengineerforjanitor Useofcliches: Awordorexpressionthathaslostitsoriginalityoroffensivenessbecauseit hasbeenusedtoooften.Soontheybecometriteandlosetheirforce.e.g.:impacted on;viable,upbeat,beinto(I'mintodieting) UseofStandardvsnonstandardWords nohow (nonstandard) don't (nonstandard) Useofrarewords: wireless(meansofsendingmessagesinsound) Useofobsolete&archaicwords: Theyarewordsthatarenolongerusedsuchas: verily (bibl,olduse....truly) thine (bibl,olduse&poetic....yours) thouart (bibl,olduse....youare) tothee (bibl,olduse....toyou) beget (bibl,olduse....becomethefatherof) behold (lit&olduse...tohaveinsight) ort (fragmentoffood) yestreen (lastevening) Tautology Tautology is wordiness = use of different words to say the same thing Commutersgoingbackandforthtoworkorschoolformedcarpools.(wordy) 26

 Commutersformedcarpools.(concise) Each writer has a distinctive style, and he or she uses this in his or her own works.(wordy) Eachwriterhashisownstyle.(concise) Needlessrepetition: Thisinterestinginstructorknowshowtomakeauninterestingsubjectinteresting. Usingunnecessarywords: Intheeventthatthegradingsystemischanged,expectcomplaintsonthepartofthe students. The reason why we honor Lincoln in these various ways is because he saved the Union. High,MiddleandLowStyles: Highstyleaimsatloftinessandgrandeur.Itwasusedmorefreelyinthepast, butnowadaysitisconsideredtooornateandceremonious.Itischaracterizedbyits solemnity, its resounding rhythms and its elaborate sentence structures. It uses unfamiliarwordsandisthusdifficultforthegeneralreader. Middlestyleaimsatclarityandsimplicity.Itsoundslikeconversation.Itrelies on familiar wording. It is the style in which most of the world's writing gets done. Sometimesitischaracterizedbyuseofforeignexpressionsorvoguewords(onethat becomespopularthatitisusedtoofreelyandwithtoolittleregardforitsmeaning), use of jargon which specialists use to write for other specialists more clearly and concisely.However,thewritermustkeepthejargontoaminimum,replacingitwith everydayEnglish.Ifhemustuseajargontermheshoulddefineit. Low style is plain and ordinary likethe wording of casual conversation. It is appropriatefornotestothemilkmanorbabysitter,letterstofriends,andlettersor articlesforacampusnewspaper.Itsoundslikecasualtalk.Thecharacteristicsoflow style are: use of colloquial or informal diction, use of slang words, use of first and secondpersonpronouns,useofcontractions. Semanticfeatures They are also called semantic fields; semantic components; or semantic properties. Semantic features refer to the basic unit of meaning in a word. The meanings of words may be described as a combination of semantic features. e.g.: thesemanticfeature<+male>ispartofthemeaningoffather,andsoisthefeature 27

,<+adult>, but other features are needed to give the whole concept or sense of father.Thesamefeaturemaybepartofthemeaningofanumberofwords,e.g.: <+movement>ispartofthemeaningofawholegroupofverbsandnounssuchas run,jump,walk,gallop.Sometimes,semanticfeaturesareestablishedbycontrasts andcanbestatedintermsof<+>or<>,e.g.: child <+human> <adult> man <+human> <+adult> <+male> boy <+human> <adult> <+male> Nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives and prepositions have semantic properties. Each word has at least one semantic property. The meaning of nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and prepositionscanbedefinedbysuchproperties,e.g.: Nouns Abstract:idea,truth,thought,action,flight,attachment. Action:movement,vibration,battle,fusion,flight,attachment. Chemicalcompound:sodiumchloride,vitaminC, benzene,laughinggas. Concrete:water,air,child,attachment,Plato,galaxy,motor,molecule. Form:circle,sphere,square,ellipse,cylinder,cone. Human:man,child,sister,Plato,chairman. Male:man,Plato,uncle,rooster,king. Measureunit:centimeter,mile,kilogram,liter,second,degreeC,lightyear. Physicalobject:flower,motor,Plato,galaxy,molecule,attachment. Vertebrate:man,fish,salmon,bird,Plato. Verbs: Causative:(blowup,break,kill,open,put,...) Factive:(ascertain,discover,know,realize,regret...) Inchoative:(break,grow,mature,rise,stop,...) Defect:(crack,deteriorate,rot,rust,scar,...) Adjectives: Degree:(bright,happy,large,useful,young) Defect:(bad,corrosive,defective,rusty,sick) form:(angular,circular,oblong,polygon,round,...) Adverbs: Locative:(afar,centrally,here,nearby,there,...) Time:(now,soon,today,tomorrow,yesterday,...) Degree:(extremely,quite,rather,too,very,...) Defect:(badly,excessively,harmfully,poorly,...)

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Prepositions: Locative:(a,in,infrontof,on,under) Movement:(bywayof,into,onto,toward,via..) Time:(after,at,before,during,priorto) 6. GRAMMATICALASPECTSOFSTYLE: GrammaticalAnalysisandDescription Sentencetypes: Sentencecomplexity: Clausetypes: Clausestructure: Frequencyofobjects,complements,adverbials. Frequencyoftransitiveandintransitiveverbs. Arethereanyinitialadverbials,frontingofobjectorcomplement? Useofpreparatoryitorthere? Whattypeofdependentclausesareused(relativeclauses,adverbialclauses, nominalclauses) Arereducedornonfiniteclausescommonlyused? Aresentencessimpleorcomplex? Whatistheaveragesentencelength? Ratioofindependenttodependentclauses? Arethereanyanticipatorystructures(subjectsprecedingverbs, dependentclausesprecedingsubjectofmainclause)? Doestheauthorusestatements,questions,commands,exclamations?

Nounphrases: Aretheysimpleorcomplex? Ispremodificationbyadjectiveorpostmodificationbyprepositionalphrases complex? Arethereanylistings(sequencesofadjectives),coordination,orapposition.

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Verbphrases: Arethereanyspecialusesoftheprogressiveaspect,perfectiveaspect,modal auxiliaries.

otherphrasetypes: Isthereanyspecialusesofprepositionalphrases,adverbphrases,adjective phrases. wordclasses: General: Areanygeneraltypesofgrammaticalconstructionsusedtospecialeffect (comparativeorsuperlative,coordinativeorlisting,appendedorinterpolated structures(puttinginadditionalwords). Whichfunctionwordslikeprepositions,conjunctions,pronouns, determiners,auxiliaries,interjectionsareused? Areanyfunctionwordsusedforparticulareffect?

Partsofspeech: nouns:London,Peter,sugar,people,team,tree. verbs:go,come,give,stay,seem,like.be,can,will,shall,may,might,have, do,ought. adjectives:small,beautiful,circular,polite. adverbs:quickly,slowly,definitely. pronouns:I,we,you,he,she,it,they. prepositions:in,on,to,up,into. articles:the(definite),a,an(indefinite). conjunctions:and,but,or,although,yet,however, interjections:Oh!Ohdear!Oops,Hooray!Wow!

Sentencetypes: questions: o WhatdidIbuy? o WheredidIbuythebook? statements: o Iboughtagrammarbookatthebookstore.

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o Whoboughtthebook? o DidIbuyabook? commands o Closethewindow,please! exclamatory: o Whatanexcitingmovie! o Howinterestingthetripwas! o Sheissuchagoodfriend!

Sentencecomplexity: o simple:IspentmysummerholidayinAlaska. o compound: IwenttoAlaskaandvisitedanEskimovillage. WhenIwenttoAlaska,IvisitedanEskimosvillage. IwenttoAlaska,butIcouldnotswim. Iboughteggs,bananas,orangesandapples. ImetSara,MaryandDavidbutnotSteve. Icam,Isaw,Iconquered. I'llhave,coffee,eggs,cheesecake. Iknowit,youknowit,sheknowsit,butdoesanybodycare? o complex: ThisisthebookthatIboughtyesterday. Theboywhowontheprizeismyyoungerbrother Australia,acountryofgreatdistancesandwidely separated centersofpopulation,hasaveryimportantnetworkofinternal airlines. anticipatorystructures: o Theformitusedtodisplacetherealororiginalsubjectofasentence. (subjects preceding verbs, dependent clauses preceding subject of mainclause)? o Runningarailroadcanbetroublesome. o itcanbetroublesomerunningarailroad. o Havingadayofffromworkisnice. o Itisnicehavingadayofffromwork. o Marysavedthebaby'slife. o ItwasMarywhosavedthebaby'slife.

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Clausetypes: (a)relative:adependentclauseintroducebyarelativepronounand modifyingsomeelementinthemainclause. o Themanwhomweallmetlastweeklostallhismoneyin thestock marketcrash. o keepingupahousethatyoureallyloveisnorealproblem. (b)adverbial:adependentclausethefunctionsasanadverb,modifyinga verb,adjective,oranotheradverb. o Althoughheisalone,he'sneverlonely. o Iwillbuyyourticket,unlessyouwanttouseit. (c)nominal: o Weknowhowhedidit. o ThatFredkeptpigeonsiswellknown. (d)reducedclauses: o Thebuswewerewaitingforneverarrived. o Thebus(which)wewerewaitingforneverarrived. o Doyourememberthedaywefirstmet. o Doyouremembertheday(when)wefirstmet. o Whenangry,sheblushed. o When(sheis)angry,sheblushed. o Althoughhorriblyembarrassed,hesomehowgot through the speech. o Although (she was) horribly embarrassed, he somehow got through thespeech. Clausestructure: clause=anygroupofwordsthathaveasubjectandaverb. objects: Ireadabook. (directobj) Igaveherapresent. (indirectobj) Don'tchopdownthatoldtree! (clause) Iwanttofeedthedog. (objofinfinitive) IgavethebooktoSally. (objofprep) Iheardofthestory. (objofprep)

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complements: Thegirlishappy. Sheisateacher. Thecatappearsconfused. Wearepleasedthatyoucouldcome. Theyelectedhimpresident. initialadverbials=adjuncts,disjunctsandconjuncts. frontingofobject=thematicfronting HisnameisJoe. Joe,hisnameis. Ilikecoffee Coffee,Ilikeit IwasborninLondonandI'lldieinLondon. InLondonIwasbornandinLondonI'lldie. Tenfurtheritemsofimportancemaybeaddedtothislist. Tothislistmaybeaddedtenfurtheritemsofimportance

Samcansolvemostoftheseproblemsinasecond. MostoftheseproblemsSamcansolveinasecond. preparatoryitorthere=(asadummyorfillersubject) Thereisnothingleftforustodo. Thereweretwentyofthemalltogether. Itlooksasifitwillraintoday. Itisgoingtorain. Sentenceconstituents: nounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),prepositionalphrase(PP). TheHausaswearflowingwhitegarments. Ironisthemostimportantindustrialmetal. Manylargecitiesdependonlakesfortheirwatersupply. Inthelessdenseforestthepeoplecombineprimitiveagriculturewiththeir huntingactivities. MostofthecapitalcitiesofEuropehavebecomethecentersofnetworks thatconnectthemwithotherkeytowns. Simple&complexNP

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Johnboughtthehouse. Anoldmanboughtthehouse Theboyonthebicycleismybrother. Thethin,tall,blondeboyismybrother. anoldman,awomanandtheirsonboughtthehouse. ThattheFrenchrevoltedin1789wasnewstoEric. Wewanteverythingyoucanpossiblyget. Thebeliefthatvolcanoeshavetheirorigininahotliquid interioroftheearthisnowconsideredtobewrong.

Apposition o Theguestsangryattheirhosts'rudebehavior,leftwithoutsayinggood bye. o Tooilltogetoutofbed,heaskedhiswifetocalladoctor. o Theman,awarethathemadeamistake,triedtocorrect it. Ellipsis: Wedonotknowwhethertogo(ornot). Wedesirethework(tobe)doneimmediately. Iboughtsomebooksandacomputer. Although(shewas)inahurry,shestoppedtohelptheoldlady. Mostpeopledon'tworkhardbutapersonwhodoesgetsahead. Focus,themeandemphasis Hedidwalk,Itellyou. (emph.aux) Hereallydidsellhishouse. (emph.aux) Dopleasesitdown. (emph.aux) Imyselfwillseethatitisdoneontime. (emph.appos.) Youyourselfareresponsible. (emph.appos.) Whatatimewe'vehadtoday! (exclamation) acertainwinner (intensifier) agreatmistake (intensifier) Sheissopretty. (intensifier) Sheishighlyintelligent. (intensifier) RedwasmyfaceasIexplainedtheembarrassingsituation(extraposition) TokeepgoodtimeiswhatIexpectfrommyclocks. It is the girl that I was complainingabout. Itwasbecausehewasillthatwedecidedtoreturn. Whatyouneedmostisagoodrest. Whowasitwhointerviewedyou? Agoodrestiswhatyouneedmost. Itisagoodrestwhatyouneedmost. 34

intensifiers: actually, definitely, indeed, certainly, clearly, obviously, really, surely,honestlycertain,complete,extreme,entire,great.

SentenceVariety: Toomanysentencesofthesamesizeandstructurecanleadtoboringprose, even when the message is far from boring. The power of style comes from its emphatic variations. Good style is characterized by uses a variety of sentence structure, sentence types, sentence length, sentence beginnings, avoids loose sentences, (1) Varying sentence length = avoiding choppy sentences (a series of short sentences): o Douglas wrote a quick note. It was to Nora. She is his former employer. (choppy) o DouglaswroteaquicknotetoNora,hisformeremployer. (better) o Twodayspassed.Thenhelicoptersheadedforthe mountaintop.The blizzardhadstrandedseveralclimbers.(choppy) o Aftertwodays,helicoptersheadedforthemountaintop, becausethe blizzardhadstrandedseveralclimbers.(better) (b)Varyingthebeginningofthesentences: (c)Avoidingloosestringysentences: (d)Varyingsubjectverbsequences: (e)Usingquestions,commandsandexclamatorysentencesinsteadofstatements.

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(3)SemanticAspectsofStyle FiguresofSpeech=figurativelanguage=imagery Afigureofspeechisawordorwordsinanimaginativeratherthanliteral sense.Thetwochieffiguresofspeecharethesimileandmetaphor.Asimileisan explicitcomparisonbetweentwothingsofadifferentkindorquality,usually introducedbylikeoras.Ametaphorisanimpliedcomparisonofdissimilarthings. Inametaphor,wordsofcomparison,suchaslikeoras,arenotused.Singlewords areoftenusedmetaphorically.Similesandmetaphorsarespeciallyvaluablewhen theyareconcreteandtendtopointupessentialrelationshipsthatcannototherwise becommunicated.Sometimeswritersextendametaphorbeyondasentence. o Thefirstthingthatpeoplerememberaboutfailingatmathisthatitfeltlike suddendeath.(asimile) o TheBowieknifeisasAmericanasahalftonpickuptruck.(asimile) o Successfullivingisajourneytowardsimplicityandatriumphoverconfusion. (ametaphor) o Thewolfpupsmakeafrothyribbonofsoundlikefatbubbling.(ametaphor &asimile) o Aman'sfeetmustbeplantedinhiscountry,buthiseyesshouldsurveythe world.(asinglewordmetaphor) o Somewomenhavemanagedtoshapeupandshipoutintothemainstream oflife,handlingthecurrentsandtherapidsandthequietpoolswithgracious, confidentease.Othersaretrappedinoneeddyafteranother,goingnowhere atall,hungupinswirlingpocketsofconfusion. Hyperboleisadeliberateoverstatementorexaggeration. Personificationistheattributiontothenonhuman(objects,animals,ideas)of characteristicspossessedonlybyhumans. o I,forone,don'texpecttillIdietobesogoodamanasIamatthisminute,for justnowI'mfiftythousandfeethighatowerwithallthetrumpets. (hyperbole) o Timetalks.Itspeaksmoreplainlythanwords...Itcanshoutthetruthwhere wordslie.(personification) Cliches:Awordorexpressionthathaslostitsoriginalityoreffectivenessbecauseit hasbeenusedtoooften.e.g.: o It'sacryingshame. o I'mheretotellyou... o Inthisdayandage... 36

o fromthefryingpanintothefire o tothebitterend o getitalltogether o cleanasahound'stooth Exercise: LieutenantBlueberryAdventure (1) BLUEBERRY:SoIhavetoseetheGeneralcommandingoperationsagainst theIndiansandtellhimthetruthabouttheStantonRanch,sir... (2) COLONEL:Hm...Ireckonyou'reoveroptimistic,Blueberry. We'retoofarintostopthekillingnow! (3) BLUEBERRY:Wemusttry,sir. (4) COLONEL:There'salotofpeopleinfavorofthiswar...andtheIndians themselveswon'tnegotiatewithanyone. (5) BLUEBERRY:Letmetry. (6) COLONEL:Obstinate,eh?Well.GeneralCookisincommand.He'satCamp Bowie. (7) BLUEBERRY:Andyou'reinluck!Ihavetoprovideanescortforan ammunitiontraingoingtherefromDallas. (8) COLONEL:I'mshortofofficers...soI'llgiveyoucommandoftheescort.You takechargeoftheconvoyfromPecosonward. (9) BLUEBERRY:Thanks,sir! (10) COLONEL:Don'tthankme...this'llbenopicnic!It'salongdangerousway fromPecostoCampBowie,andIcan'tgiveyoumanymen.Youleavefor Pecosintwodays'time.Maybeyoudon'tknowthearea,butyou'llhavean Apacheguide.Now,getsomerest. (11) BLUEBERRY:Thanksagain,sir...

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(4)COHESIONANDCOHERENCE Cohesion: istherelationshipbetweenmeanings.Itreferstothetiesbetween sentences.itisindependentofsentenceorgrammaticalboundaries.itisachieved throughrelationshipsinwhichtheinterpretationofoneideainthetextdependson successfulinterpretationofanother. Cohesiveties: linksthatestablishcohesion. TypesofCohesion: 1. Cohesionbyconjunction:itsuppliesthelogicalconnectionbetweenpartsof thetext.Itmarksthewayonesentencefollowstheotherandhowthetext asawholeismovingforward. 2. Lexicalcohesion:anindividualwordthatrefersbacktoanotherwordinthe developmentofthetext. Lexicalset:wordsofsimilarmeaningthatformastitchworkthroughthe textandcanbesetoutasaset. generalcommandingoperations,Indianskilling,war,Indians, negotiate,GeneralCook,command,escort,ammunitiontrain, command,escort,dangerous,CampBowie 3. Reference=anaphora=Thewayinwhichspeakersreferbacktoanother partof hetext.Itisachievedthroughpronouns&demonstratives. t 4. Ellipsis=partoftheutteranceisleftunsaid. Coherence=Factorswhichhelpusseethetextasawhole.Itrelatestogeneral knowledgeastowhatgoeswithwhat,e.g.:knowledgeofhistoricaleventsinwhich theeventsaretakingplace,therelationshipbetweenIndiansandwhites,how armiesworkedthen,whata"wagontrain"is,what"operations"standfor. o cohesionisatextrelatedphenomenon,coherenceisatextandareader relatedphenomenon. o cohesionisonecomponentofcoherence. o tobecoherent,atextshouldhaveorganization. o Parallelstructureisanaidtocoherence.

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o Parallelsentenceelementsappearinlists,series,andcompoundstructures. Connectiveslikeand,or,but,yetlinkandrelatebalancedsentenceelements. o Parallelwordsandphrases: o Peoplebegantofeelbad,facelessandinsignificant. o Shehadnotimetobehuman,notimetobehappy. o Thetwomostpowerfulwordsintheworldarenotgunsandmoney,but wheatandoil. o Therewardrestsnotinthetaskbutinthepay. o Wejudgeourfriendsbothbytheirwordsandbytheiractions. o It'seasiertolovehumanityasawholethantoloveone'sneighbour. o Itisthethingsthatwethinkweknowbecausetheyaresoelementaryor becausetheysurroundusthatoftenpresentthegreatestdifficulties. Parallelclauses: o Whattosayandwhattodoseemoutofjoint. o Topsoil,onceblownaway,canneverbereturned;virginprairie,once ploughed,canneverbereclaimed. Parallelsentences: o Thedangerofthepastwasthatmenbecameslaves. o Thedangerofthefutureisthatmenmaybecomerobots.

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(5) EMPHASIS Someideasvaryinimportance,expressionofthemshouldvaryinemphasis.Ideas maybeemphasizedthroughthefollowing: 1.Byplacingimportantwordsatthebeginningorattheendofthesentence. o Totaldeafnesshoweveris,inmanyways,worsethantotalblindness. o Anundergroundblastrockedthewholearea. Thecolonandthedashoftenprecedeanemphaticending. o Wehavedevelopedsomethingnewinpolitics:theprofessionalamateur. o Mostcommercialtelevisionstationstalkabouthelpingtheir communities,butitisinthemainjustlikethattalk. o Sincethesemicolon,sometimescalledaweakperiod,isastrong punctuationmarkwhenusedbetweenmainclauses,wordsplacedbefore andafterasemicolonhaveanimportantposition. o Apennysavedusedtobeapennyearned;now,afterfiveyears,itisonly halfapenny. 1. Bychangingloosesentencestoperiodicones.Inloosesentences,themainidea comesfirst;lessimportantideasordetailsfollow.Inaperiodicsentence,the mainideacomeslast,justbeforetheperiod. o Suchstickylabelsdonotaccuratelydescribeanygenerationfor example,labelslikelost,beat,now,silent,unlucky,orfound. Loose o Suchstickylabelsaslost,beat,now,silent,unlucky,orfounddonot accuratelydescribeanygeneration.periodic 2. Byarrangingideasintheorderofclimax(orderofimportancewiththestrongest idealast) o Summingupforthedefenseofthesmalldiesel,onecansaythatitoffers excellentfuelconsumption,itislonglasting,ithasnoignitionsystemto causetrouble,anditslevelofpollutionislow. Anticlimaxanunexpectedshiftfromthedignifiedtothetrivialorfromthe serioustothecomicissometimesusedforspecialeffect. ButIstillfearitwillallendbadly,thisProtectiveSyndrome.Iseeafuturein whichthegovernmenthasstrippedusofallworldlygoodsworthhaving; clotheshangers,toothpaste,AlkaSeltzer,toasters,pencilsharpeners,and maybeeventhumbtacks. 3. Byusingactivevoiceinsteadofpassivevoice.

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o Littleattentionisbeingpaidtocheap,nutritiousfoods by theaverageshopper o Theaverageshopperispayinglittleattentiontocheap,nutritiousfoods. 4. Byrepeatingimportantwords: o Itisimpossibletobesimultaneouslyblastedbyarevolutioninenergy,a revolutionintechnology,arevolutioninfamilylife,arevolutioninsexual roles,andaworldwiderevolutioninrecommendationswithoutalsofacing soonerorlaterapotentiallyexplosivepoliticalrevolution. o Itisimpossibletobesimultaneouslyblastedbyarevolutioninenergy,in technology,infamilylife,insexualroles,andinworldrecommendations without also facing sooner or later a potentially explosive political insurrection. 5. Byputtingawordorphraseoutofitsusualorder. o Onlyrecentlyhasthishumandeficiencybeenturnedintolaw. o Basictoallachievementwasfreedom. 6. Byusingbalancedsentencestructure. Asentenceisbalancedwhengrammaticallyequalstructures are used to express contrasted or similar ideas. It emphasizes the contrast or similarity betweenpartsofequallengthandmovement. o TobeFrenchistobelikenooneelse;tobeAmericanistobelikeeveryone else. o Love is positive; tolerance negative. Love involves passion; tolerance is humdrumanddull. 7. Byabruptlychangingsentencelength. InthelasttwodecadestherehasoccurredaseriesofchangesinAmerican life, the extent, durability, and significance of which no one has yet measured.Noonecan. Exercise: Success We can learn by doing by doing anything. Even if we fail repeatedly there's something to be learned from the failures. Of course, one of the lessons we can learn is, "I want to learn some new ways of doing things so I don't have to fail so much".Perhapsyoualreadyareasuccessfuldoerand,likeallsuccessfuldoers,you know there is always more to learn about successfully doing. You will notice,

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however, that most tools can be used foreither inner or outer learning. The same commitment that allows you to make a million dollars can be used for achieving happiness.Thesamedisciplinethatallowsyoutofocusonyourselfworthcanalso beusedtomasterscubadiving.Theinnermirrorstheouter.Theoutermirrorsthe inner. Health Healthismorethanjustthelackofillnesshealthisaliveness,energy,joy.Byalways focusingoneliminatingillness,fewofuslearnhowtoenhancehealthoreventhat enhancinghealthispossible.Itis.Youdon'thavetobesicktogetbetter.Healthis notjustforthebody.Healthincludes themind,theemotions,thewholeperson.Healthistheamountofvibrant,peaceful, lovingenergyflowingthroughyourbeing.Themoreenergy,thegreaterthehealth. Letthatenergyflowinyou,throughyou. healthisnotheavy.Healthislightwork. Wealth Unlikemoney,wealthisnotjustwhatyouhave.Wealthiswhatyoucandowithout. whoiswealthier,thepersonwhoisaddictedtosomethingandhasplentyofmoney tobuyit,orthepersonwhodoesntdesiretheaddictivesubstanceatall?Wealthy people carry their riches within. The less they need of this physical world, the wealthiertheyare.Theymayormaynothavelargesumsofmoney.Itmattersnot. Whatever they have is fine. Wealth is health, happiness, loving, caring, sharing, learning,knowingwhatwewant,opportunity,enjoying,andbalance. Wealthisenjoyingone'sowncompany. Wealthisbeingabletoloveoneselffully.

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STYLISTICFEATURESOFADVERTISEMENTS Theaimofadvertisementsistopersuade. Theoveralleffectofpressadvertisementsdependsas muchonthedesign layout,includinggraphics,differentprintingfonts,asonthetext. Theadwillbefittedwiththepracticaltextswhichidentifyasubjectandwith whichthevieweridentifiedasamatterofeverydaylife. Theadisnotrealistic.Thecontextisimaginary.Thevoiceofthenarrator,the facesandthegestures,thechoicefthenamesforthecharactersareall caricatures. Thenarratorspeaksinthethirdperson,i.e.,fromthepositionofanobserver. T.V.commercialshavegreatlyincreasedtheuseofthespokenwordin advertising. Minoractorsinacommercialoveractinordertomaketheirpointinthevery shortspaceoftime.Thechiefresultsofthisoveractingarethatchangesin intonationaretoosuddenandfacialexpressionsaretoopredictable.Thereis alwaysa"feed"whohasthetaskofexpressingastonishmentatthelowpriceof theproductorwhoregistersinstantconvictionofbeingassuredofitsvirtues. Speakersareliabletoextoltheirproductwithemotiondrippingfromevery syllable.Affectationinpronunciationisverycommon. Thenamesofthecharactersarepartialdescriptionsoftheirworkand personalities. Practicalsettingoftheviewer:theviewer'shouse,class,party,kitchen. Advertisementsuseinflatedlanguagetomakecommonplaceproductsseem glamorous. richgoldenbrownseafoodwithsuperfineFrenchfriedpotatoesasaside dish. adwellinghouseofcharacter. Advertisementsseektoimpressthereaderbytheuseoflongwordswhose meaningheisnotlikelyunderstood.Theygiveanairofglamourbyusinglong wordstodescribepropertiesoftheproductthatareeithercommonplaceor disadvantageous. Afarmerboughtafieldonbeingassuredthat"itwas richlymegalithicisnodoubtuntrue". Weshoulddistinguishbetweenwhatisactuallysaidandwhatismerely suggested. Wordsareoftenmisusedinadvertisements.Butthemotivefortheirmisuseis notnecessarilyanattempttodeceive.Moreoftenawordthathasbecomea glamorwordisadoptedwithoutanyclearideaofitsmeaning:Anadvertisement describedacarpolishbysaying: "comesingenuinesimulatedalligatorgraincaseforcompactstorage".

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Advertiserschooseanamethatiseasytopronounceinmanylanguageslike: nylon,Kodak,Canon. Reductioninpriceforquantitiesisagenerallyacceptedcommercialprinciple whichtheadvertiserusestopersuadecustomerstobuylargerpacketsofthe goodsoffered. "buyone,getonefree!buyonegetone50%off. "largeeconomysize" Thewordsofanadvertisementneedtobechosenwithcareifaludicrouseffect istobeavoided. nodissatisfiedcustomeriseverallowedtoleavethesepremises. Loveofeuphemismisanadvertisementfeature. Thefullerfigureisnolongeraproblem. ThereisanappealtotheEnglishloveofanimalsinadvertisements(petsseeking newhomes): Dear little Jack Russell dog, 3.5, having lost devoted lady owner, seeks another. Useofvoguewords.Oneofthevoguewordsinadvertisementsforsecretaries seemsis"top": topsecretary toptypist/topshorthand topflightsecretary toppeople The text as a whole is one clause complex or one long written sentence. Grammarandcohesionarecoextensive. Freestructuresarecomposedinsuchawayastoavoidthiskindofcomplexity. Theyareeconomicallyworded.Theadasawholeislimitedinlength.Economyis achievedthroughellipsis,whichallowsthewritertoavoidrepetition.Ellipsisisa formofcohesion. Thetextisdividedintowrittensentencesmarkedwithcapitals and full stops, butsomesentencesdonotcontainafullcomplementofelementswhichmake upa"completesentence".Theycanbecorrectedbychangingthepunctuationor by adding some deleted words. There are several paragraphs marked by indentation, but some of them contain only two or three words. The stylistic effect ofthisdeviantmethodofpunctuatingandparagraphingistoconvey theimpressionofspokenratherthanwrittenlanguage,becausethesentencesin factcorrespondtothetoneunitsofaspokenreadingofthetext. Youwillnoticeparallelisminthetext. 44

Thevocabularybelongstotheordinaryinformaltalkofcarenthusiasts.

OnethingEuropeseemstoagreeabout From Strasbourg to Brussels, London to Paris, Madrid to Rome, it was all smiles, handshakes,pleasantriesallround. Thereasonforthiscommunalchuminess? Ournewgolf. Fiftynine top motoring writers from eighteen European countries had just voted it Car of the Year. a welcome win, for sure. though to be frank, not entirely unexpected. Itjustgoestoshowthateverythingcomestohewhoimproves.andimproves. Andanticipates. Already,ournewGolfisdesignedtomeetevertoughersafetystandardsset for1994. Already,over80%ofitspartsarerecyclable. allgoodstuff.Butwhataboutperformance?anytorquier?Maisoui. Thedragfactor.Anylower?Naturlich. Thehandling.Anysharper?Certo. Andthefuelconsumption.Stillgenerous?What,moregenerous?Claroquesi. AsmanyaEuropeanknows,suchthingsarecommoncurrencywitheverynew Volkswagon.

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STYLISTICFEATURESOFNEWSPAPERENGLISH ThechiefcharacteristicofnewspaperEnglishisthatitisbothwrittenandreadby peoplewhoareinahurry. Thewordingofaheadlineisaffectedby:theideastobeexpressed,the technologyofprintingandthekindofreaderassociatedwithaparticularreader. Thereare3criteriaforgoodheadlinewriting:simplicity,informalityandimpact. Itshouldbeaclearsignal,swiftlyreadable,economicalinreadingintimeand space. Newspaperheadlineshaveafamiliarandconventionallinguisticstructurelike telegramsintheirbrevity. Allgoodheadlinesfollowcertainrulesinwhattheysayandhowtheysayit. Sometimesthereisacombinationofmainheadlineandoverline(strapline): PoliceatLongbridgeasangermountsover500layoffs TroubleflaresasBLworkersdemonstrate Headlinesusenounsnotverbsforactions. EdwardestellsBLunionsthatstrikewouldbringclosure Twolinguisticconventionsthathavegrownupinheadlinesare:theuseofthe infinitiveinplaceofthefutureandtheuseofthecommawhenthereisnoroom fortheconjunction"and": filmstartowed. Netanyahu,ArafattomeetinWashington. Useofsurnameonlyisusualinheadlines: Newspaperheadlinesuseblocklanguagei.e.,alanguageoftheirown: bid=attempt trek=journey ban=toforbid rap=torebuke probe=investigation pact=treaty Tory=Conservative Headlinescanbeambiguous,havingtwopossiblemeanings.Awordcanhave morethanonemeaningandcanfunctionasmorethanonepartofspeech. StudentsPlanGrantsCutsProtestMarch. $1,900,000paidtoattackvictims. Blindmanexpectedtoleavegoal. Initialsareusedinheadlinestodescribecompanies: U.M.B.=UnitedBuildersMerchants. M.E.P.C.=MetropolitanEstateandPropertyCo. Useofpassiveclauseswithnoagent: ImportsinfluxfearedasPostOfficeprofitsarecreamedoff 46

Useofwordswithemotiveassociations(connotationsofimportantlexical items): mountingangeratsilence. tightlipped abespectacledfigure (ifamanontrialwearsspectacles Muchofthesubjectmatterofnewspapersisrepetitivematerialinwhichthe journalisttakeslittleinterest.Hehasdescribedsimilareventsahundredtimes before,andhethereforeusesthephraseshehasusedahundredtimes. Journalistsoftenhavetobevaguebecausetheyarenotfreetospecifytheexact sourceofinformationorbecausetheyhaveverylittlerealnewswithwhichtofill upthespace. aspokesmansays..... wellinformedsourcesinParis... Journalistarefondofirrelevantdetail,suchastheagesofminorparticipantsin anincidentorthetonnageoflargesteamships. said50yearoldexarmycaptain Themostexcessivefeaturesofjournaleseare:excessiveuseofcliches,fondness forshortparagraphs,inversionofnormalwordorder,fondnessofirrelevant detail,sometimesexpressedbythepilingupofadjectivesandadjectivalphrases, andoccasionalbadgrammar. Thearticleisusuallydeletedinopenings: NewsagentJohnSmith... CertainpartsofthenewspapersuchastheSportspageuseaspeciallanguage: bullsbearsstags Theidiomaticuseofwordsandphrases: thestockwentfirmlyexgrowththesameyear. Thereisacertainmonotonyabouttheeventsdescribedinsportjournalism whichthejournalististemptedtodisguisebyfindingnewsynonymsforsuch words: football=theleather cricketbat=thewillow goalposts=uprights

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STYLISTICFEATURESOFTECHNICALTEXTS Sometypesoftechnicaltextsare:scientificpapers,reports,instructionsheets, advertisement,patents. Technicallanguageisusedtodescribeobjects,qualitiesofmaterials, appearance,apparatus,phenomena,processes,experiment;toclassify;togive instructions;togivecauseandreason;toreportactions,observationsand results;tostateconclusions. Scientifictermshaveassociationswithotherscientificroots,andtheuseof GreekandLatinrootshastheadvantagethattheyareinternationally understood. Scientifictermsareoftenlong.Alongscientificwordismadeupoffamiliar elementswhichcompressintoonewordfactsthatmighthavebeenexpressedin severalsentences: fibrosisleukemiaelectrocardiogramtonsillitis Namesofsciencestendtoendinology,ics: biology,technology,pediatrics,aeronautics,genetics Themaindistinguishingfeatureoftechnicallanguageisitsvocabulary.The vocabularyischaracterizedbyuseof:nominalphrases,compounds,derivatives, newapplicationofwords(bed,mouth,force,word,current). Technicaltextsarecharacterizedbyarigorouslydefineduseofwordsandahigh frequencyofpassiveformswithnobyphrasetospecifytheactor. Technicallanguagetendstobemorelogicalandlucidthaneverydaylanguage. Thestyleisformalandimpersonal.Technicalproseiswrittenintersesentences. TECHNICALTEXTS 1.Timeorder:Process The first man to produce a practical steam engine as Thomas Savery, an English engineer (16501715), who obtained a patent in 1698 for a machine designed to drain water from mines. The machine contained no moving parts except hand operated steam valves and automatic check valves, and in principle it worked as follows:Steamwasgeneratedinasphericalboilerandthenadmittedtoaseparated vesselwhereitexpelledmuchoftheair.Thesteamvalvewasthenclosedandcold water allowed to flow over the vessel, causing the steam to condense and thus creatingapartialvacuum.Thisvacuumpulledwaterfromtheareatobedrainedinto

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the vessel. Then by a further operation of the valves, steam was readmitted to the vesseltoforcewaterthroughaverticalpipetothedischargeelevation. 2. TimeOrder:Process CarriageandAssemblyRemoval: 1.Removethesnapringsfromthechainanchorsandpullthechainanchorsout ofthecarriage. 2.Securethecarriagewithanoverheadcrane.Removethecarriagebypullingit outthebottomofthemastchannels. 3.Removethetwomiddleandtwolowerassemblies. 4. Remove the two upper roller assemblies by removing the capscrews that connect the retaining plats to the stubshafts. Pull the roller assemblies off the stubshafts. 3. TimeOrder:Chronology Since the Middle ages the output and consumption of pit coal had been greater in English than in any other country of Europe. Already during the 13th century, domesticcoalconsumptioninLondonissaidtohavebeensogreatthatrestrictiveby laws became necessary to check the increasing smoke nuisance. During the 17th century,Englishcoalwasalreadyshippedtothecontinentinconsiderablequantities. Theactual'coalage',however,setinduringthesecondhalfofthe18thcenturywhen itbecamepossibletousesteampowerforthedrainageofcollieries,thuspermitting theworkingofdeepergalleriesunderconditionsofgreatersafety. 4. Spaceorder: Thetestsectionwasconstructedofapurecoppercylinder2ft6inlong,6inidand 6.25inod.BothendsofthecylinderwereclosedwithremovablePyrexglassplates 1/4in.thick.Afluidportwaslocatedateachendofthecylinder. 5. Comparisoncontrast Manytypesofmathematicalproblemsaresimilarinonewayoranotherasaretheir methods of solution. However, there are also distinct differences in both types of problemsandtheirmethodsofsolution.Forexample,manyinterestingproblemsin maximaandminimacanbesolvedbyelementarymethods:thatis,bythemethods of algebra and plane geometry. But there are many more maxima and minima problems that require the techniques of differential calculus for their solutions. Finally, there are many other problems of a more complicated nature in which

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quantitiesaretobemaximizedorminimizedthatcannotbehandledbythemethods of the differential calculus: These require treatment by methods of the calculus of variation. Analogy Sound waves are created by the compression of the molecules of air, this compression generated by the origin of the sound. The resulting wave motion is analogoustothatcreatedinwaterwhenarockisthrowninapond.Bystudyingthe propertiesexhibitedbywaterwaves,wecanbecomefamiliarwiththepropertiesof all wave motion. First, we note that the waves produced on the water by a rock striking it move away at a constant speed: This speed is called the velocity of propagation.Second,wenotethatthewaveshavecrestsandtroughs.Thedistance betweensuccessivecrestsortroughsiscalledwavelength.Third,asthewavesmove pastagivenpoint,theycauseupanddownmotionofthewateratthispoint.This motionisthefrequencyofthewave. 7.Classification: Allcrystallinesolidscanbeclassifiedasmembersofoneoffourteencrystalsystems. Thenumberofwaysinwhichatomicarrangementscanberepeatedtoformasolidis limited to fourteen by the geometries of space division. Any one of these arrangements,whenrepeatedinspace,formsthelatticestructurecharacteristicofa crystalline material. These fourteen systems are ... For example, cadmium sulphide hasalatticeformedofhexagonalunits... We can classify the planets of our solar system by one or more of the following characteristics: average distance from the sun, Earth = 1; solar radiation received, Earth=1;orbitalperiod;eccentricity;equatorialdiameterinmiles;mass,Earth=1' gravity,Earth=1;escapevelocityinmi/sec.;rotationperiod;inclinationindegrees; andalbedo. 8. Definitions Anarachnidisaninvertebrateanimalhavingeightlegsextendingatequalintervals fromacentralbody. Ananamometerisameteorologicalinstrumentthatregistersthespeedofthewind onadialorgage. Anarachnidhaseightlegsextendingatequalintervalsfromacentralbody. 50

Ananamometerisusedtomeasurethespeedofthewind. Agronomyisasciencewhichseeksimprovedmethodsofsoilmanagementandcrop production.Bycropproductionwemeannewtechniquesthatwillincreasetheyield of field crops. By improved soil management we men the use of fertilizers which containthenecessarynutrientsneededforthecrops. 9. Descriptionofproperties: When substances are mixed without a chemical reaction, they do not change their properties.Thusamixtureofsandandsaltisyellowishwhiteincolor.Ittastesboth salty and gritty. If we put the mixture in water, the salt will dissolve, because it is soluble.Butthesandwillnotdissolve. 10.Causeeffect: Heat causes substance to expand. This is because heat causes the atoms and molecules in the substance to move more quickly. As a consequence, they take up more space. than liquids, and liquids much more than solids. When a substance is cooled,themoleculesslowdownandasaresultthesubstancecontract. 11.Function: The endocrine system consists of various glands such as the thyroid and adrenal glands.Thefunctionoftheseglandsistosecretechemicals,knownashormones,into the blood. These hormones control various processes in the body, such as growth, and digestion. The nervous system controls the other systems and enables human beingstothink. 12.Structure: Matterconsistsoforganicsubstancesandinorganicsubstances.Organicsubstances include coal and oil. Inorganic substances include iron and sulphur. Organic substancescontaincarbon.Inorganicsubstancesdonotcontaincarbon.

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13.Measurement: In Calcutta in January the temperature ranges from 27 C to 13C; that is, the maximumtemperatureis27Candtheminimumtemperatureis13C.Thesearethe twoextremesoftemperature.

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 STYLISTICFEATURESOFLEGALDOCUMENTS Some kinds of legal documents are: insurance policies, wills, drawing up of statutes, contracting of agreements between individuals, leases, petitions, investigations...etc. Lawyershavebeendoingthesamethingforalongtime,andforeachspeciesof transactiontherehasdevelopedalinguisticformula(establishedformula).They relyonformswhichwereestablishedinthepast. Pronounreferenceisextremelyscarce. LegalEnglishcontainscompletemajorsentences.Mostofthemarestatements, with no questions and only occasional command. Statements are of a characteristictypewhichisreflectedinequallycharacteristicsentencestructure. Legalsentencesarelongandcomplex.Theyuseconditionalclauses. Legalsentenceshaveanunderlyinglogicalstructurewhichsays:'ifX,thenZshall beY'.Everyactionorrequirement,fromalegalpointofview,ishedgedaround with,andevendependsupon,asetofconditionswhichmustbesatisfiedbefore anythingatallcanhappen. Adverbialstendtoclusteratthebeginningofthesentence.Theyareusedasa means of clarifying meaning and avoiding ambiguity. Adverbial elements are oftencoordinated: ontheexpiration...oronthepreviousdeath subjecttoanyauthorizedendorsement...andtotheproduction... oncreditorwithoutsuchpayment Adverbialsareputinpositionswhichseemunusualbynormalstandards: aproposaltoeffectwiththeSocietyanassurance.. LegalEnglishishighlynominal(ituseslongcomplicatednominalgroups). Adjectiveslikesplendid,wise,disgusting,andhappyaremuchlessfrequentand intensifyingadverbslikeveryandratherarecompletelyabsent.

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Theuseofthemodalauxiliaryshall+be+pastparticiple.Shallisnotusedasa marker of future tense; it is used to express what is to be the obligatory consequenceofalegaldecision. Verbsareselectedfromasmallnumberoflexicalsets: deem,accept,require,agree,issue,state,specify, constitute,perform, observe,exercise. LegalEnglishisstuddedwitharchaicwordsandphrasesofakindthatcouldbe usedbynoonebutlawyers: witnesseth TheprefixingandsuffixingofprepositionsisacommonfeatureoflegalEnglish: herebyhereofhereunderhereinafteraforesaid A legal characteristic is the coordination of a number of synonyms or near synonyms: altered&modified transformed&altered ableandwilling madeansigned termsandconditions AgooddealoflegallanguageisofFrenchandLatinorigin: LawFrench:puisinejudgepuisneestoppelfeesimplelachesquash LawLatin:aliasamicuscuriaenollepeosequi resjudicata TheirFrenchoriginhasaffectedthewordorderofanumberoflegalphrases: maliceprepense maliceaforethought courtmartial heirapparent secretarygeneral Themostobviousfeatureoflegaldocumentsistheirprolixity.Theyareprolix becauseitsauthoristryingtosecurecompletecoverageofagivenareaof meaning.

Examples Whereas a proposal to effect with the Society an assurance on the Life Insured named in the Schedule hereto has been duly made and signed as a basis of such assuranceandadeclarationhasbeenmadeagreeingthatthispolicyshallbesubject totheSociety'sRegisteredRules(whichshallbedeemedtoformpartofthispolicy) totheTableofInsuranceprintedhereonandtothetermsandconditionsofthesaid Tableandthatthedateofentrancestatedhereonshallbedeemedtobethedateof

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thiscontractANDsuchproposalhasbeenacceptedbythesocietyontheconditions assetforthintheproposal. NOWthispolicyissuedbytheSocietyonpaymentofthefirstpremiumstatedinthe ScheduleheretosubjecttotheRegisteredRulesoftheSociety. WITNESSETHthatiftheLifeInsuredshallpayorcausetobepaidtotheSocietyorto thedulyauthorizedagentorCollectorthereofeverysubsequentpremiumatthedue date thereof the funds of the Society shall on the expiration of the term of years specifiedintheSchedulehereto.... IF UPON THE DEATH OF THE LIFE INSURED there shall be no duly constituted personalrepresentativeornomineeorassigneeoftheLifeInsuredableandwilling to give valid receipt for the sum payable such sum may in the discretion of the Committee of Management be paid to one or more of the nextofkin of the life insuredwhosereceiptshalleffectuallydischargetheSocietyfromallliabilityunder thispolicy. INWITNESSWHEREOFwetheSecretaryandtwooftheCommitteeofManagement oftheSocietyhavehereuntoattachedorsignatures.

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STYLISTICFEATURESOFCOMMERCIALTEXTS Businesslettersmaybefullyblocked(alllinesbeginatthesamepoint)orsemi blocked(paragraphsareindented). Partsofabusinessletterare:theletterhead,thereference(thesenderofthe letter),thedate,thenameandaddressoftheaddressee,theattentionline (whenallcorrespondencesmustbeaddressedtothefirmandnotindividuals), thesalutationorgreeting(dear..),thesubjectheading(indicatedwhattheletter isabout,thebody(itismadeofseveralparagraphs,thecomplimentaryclose (yoursfaithfully),thenameofthecompanysendingtheletter,thesignatory,the designationorthepositionheldbythesignatory. Useofmanyconventionalphrases: youresteemedfavor=aletter youresteemedfavortohandandcontentsnoted=hehasnotonlyreceived theletterbutalsoreaditscontentsandwishestomakeitclearthatheisnot onlycourteousbutalsobriskandefficient. bestattentionatalltimes=usedtoconcludealetterassuringhis correspondence. enclosedpleasefind=Ienclose ult.=thelastmonth instant=thecurrentmonth prox.=thenextmonth replace"you"by"yourgoodself" somewordsandphrasesthatwereonceingeneralusehavesurvivedasfeatures ofcommercialEnglishafterbecomingobsoleteelsewhere: Somewordsserveausefulpurposeinthattheyaretechnicaltermstodescribe commercialpractices,buttheyareliabletobemisused: Proforma=doneforform'ssake=usedwithcourteousdifference incommercialEnglishtodescribeaninvoicewhichthesenderexpects tobepaidbeforethegoodsaresent.

EXAMPLE DearSir MessrsWillingandCo.,ofMarketPlace,Norwich,havegivenyourbankas referenceandweshouldconsideritgreatfavor,ifyouwouldkindlystatewhatyou knowaboutthestandingandfinancialpositionofthisfirm,especiallyinregardto theamountofcreditwhichmightsafelybeextendedtothem. thankingyouinanticipation. weare, YoursFaithfully 56

 DearSirs FurthertomytelephoneconversationwithMrSimpsonthismorningIenclosethe copyofInvoiceNO4635senttomeforcheckingandtheCreditNotereceivedfrom CrossleyLtd. IconfirmthattheoriginaldeliverywasreturnedtoCrossleyLtdandthat replacementsforthedamagedgoodswerelistedonInvoiceNo47869. YoursFaithfully RobertTibbitts BuyingOfficer ENCS

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..

STYLISTICFEATURESOFLITERARYTEXTS Onedefiningfeatureofliteratureisitsspecialuseoflanguage.Iforegrounded,or made strange. Its style is different from that of other everyday uses. It deviates fromordinarylanguage. Useoffigurativelanguage. wordshaveaconnotativemeaning. Anumberofclichestendtooccur: loftyflightsofimagination heightsofmajesty organicunity Useofvagueadjectivesofapproval: fascinatingprofoundexcitingstimulatinglivelyimpressive

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