Percentage Composition and Applications of Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Materials

By: Utkarsh prabhat (100906112)

Acknowledgement

I would like to express my gratitude to Mr. V. K. Singla for providing me the opportunity of taking up this project work. I would like to put on record my deep sense of indebtedness to my Mother and Father, under whose valuable guidance this work has been completed. I am pleased to acknowledge the support of my friends and my batchmates for their valuable suggestions without which it would not have been possible to complete the project work. ~~~___~~~

Introduction
The structure of metals greatly influences their behaviour and properties. Knowledge of structures guides us in controlling and predicting the behaviour and performance of metals in various manufacturing processes. Understanding the structure of metals also allows us to predict and evaluate

their properties. This then helps us make appropriate selections for specific applications under particular force, temperature and environmental conditions. Before we elaborate about the different materials it is important to take note of various properties and the way all metals and their alloys are categorised. Physical Properties:: Hardness Toughness The resistance a materials has to cutting and surface indentations. This describes the amount of energy a material can absorb without breaking. This is the opposite to brittleness. We measure a material's ability to absorb shock. The maximum force a material can withstand in tension(pulling) compression(squashing) , torque(twisting) and shearing(sideways pressure). The amount of hammering, pressing and shaping a material can take without breaking. The length that a material can be stretched without breaking. The length that a material can be stretched and return to its original length when released. The measure of how well a material can conduct heat or electricity. The denseness of materials. A dense material will be heavy in relation to its size. The measure of how a material withstands a heavy load without breaking. It plays important role in the casting and afterwards in daily use of the material A good galvanizing material can be used.

Tensile Strength Malleability Ductility Elasticity Heat and Electrical Conductivity Heaviness Strength Thermal expansion Resistance to corrosion

Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metals Table::

Metals
All metals can be classified as either Ferrous or Non-ferrous.

Ferrous
These are metals which contain iron. They may have small amounts of other metals or other elements added, to give the required properties. All ferrous metals are magnetic and give little resistance to corrosion

Non-Ferrous Metals
These are metals which do not contain any iron. They are not magnetic and are usually more resistant to corrosion than ferrous metals. Examples are aluminium, copper, lead. zinc and tin.

Pure Metals
A pure metal only consists of a single element. This means that it only has one type of atom in it. The common pure metals are:-aluminium, copper, iron, lead, zinc, tin, silver and gold. Alloys An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals. When a material is needed which requires certain properties and this does not exist in a pure metal we combine metals . Pure white aluminium is very soft and ductile. Other elements can be added to create an aluminium alloy. This can produce a metal which is stronger than Mild Steel has improved hardness and is resistant to corrosion while still remaining light in weight. ~~~___~~~

Ferrous alloys
Ferrous metals and alloys contain iron as their base metal and are variously categorized as carbon and alloy steels, stainless steels, tool and die steels, cast irons, and cast steels Carbon Steels::
Carbon steel, also called plain carbon steel, is steel where the main alloying constituent is carbon. The AISI defines carbon steel as: "Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or required for chromium,

cobalt, columbium [niobium], molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium or zirconium, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect; when the specified minimum for copper does not exceed 0.40 percent; or when the maximum content specified for any of the following elements does not exceed the percentages noted: manganese 1.65, silicon 0.60, copper 0.60." Steel with a low carbon content has properties similar to iron. As the carbon content rises, the metal becomes harder and stronger but less ductile and more difficult to weld. In general, higher carbon content lowers the melting point and its temperature resistance. Carbon content influences the yield strength of steel because carbon atoms fit into the interstitial crystal lattice sites of the body-centered cubic (BCC) arrangement of the iron atoms. The interstitial carbon reduces the mobility of dislocations, which in turn has a hardening effect on the iron. To get dislocations to move, a high enough stress level must be applied in order for the dislocations to "break away". This is because the interstitial carbon atoms cause some of the iron BCC lattice cells to distort. Carbon steel is broken down in to four classes based on carbon content:

Mild and low carbon steel

Mild steel is the most common form of steel as its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many applications. Low carbon steel contains approximately 0.050.15% carbon[1] and mild steel contains 0.160.29%[1] carbon, therefore it is neither brittle nor ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and malleable; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing.[2] It is often used when large amounts of steel is needed, for example as structural steel. The density of mild steel is approximately 7.85 g/cm3 (0.284 lb/in3)[3] and the Young's modulus is 210,000 MPa (30,000,000 psi).[4] Low carbon steels suffer from yield-point runout where the materials has two yield points. The first yield point (or upper yield point) is higher than the second and the yield drops dramatically after the upper yield point. If a low carbon steel is only stressed to some point between the upper and lower yield point then the surface may develop Lder bands.[5]

Higher carbon steels

Carbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have a carbon content in the range of 0.301.70% by weight. Trace impurities of various other elements can have a significant effect on the quality of the resulting steel. Trace amounts of sulfur in particular make the steel red-short. Low alloy carbon steel, such as A36 grade, contains about 0.05% sulfur and melts around 14261538 C (26002800 F).[6] Manganese is often added to improve the hardenability of low carbon steels. These additions turn the material into a low alloy steel by some definitions, but AISI's definition of carbon steel allows up to 1.65% manganese by weight. Medium carbon steel Approximately 0.300.59% carbon content.[1] Balances ductility and strength and has good wear resistance; used for large parts, forging and automotive components.[7] High carbon steel Approximately 0.60.99% carbon content.[1] Very strong, used for springs and high-strength wires.[8] Ultra-high carbon steel

Approximately 1.02.0% carbon content.[1] Steels that can be tempered to great hardness. Used for special purposes like (non-industrial-purpose) knives, axles or punches. Most steels with more than 1.2% carbon content are made using powder metallurgy. Note that steel with a carbon content above 2.0% is considered cast iron. Steel can be heat treated which allows parts to be fabricated in an easily-formable soft state. If enough carbon is present, the alloy can be hardened to increase strength, wear, and impact resistance. Steels are often wrought by cold working methods, which is the shaping of metal through deformation at a low equilibrium or metastable temperature.

Alloy Steels::

Alloy steel is steel alloyed with other elements in amounts of between 1 and 50% by weight to improve its mechanical properties. Alloy steels are broken down into two groups: low alloy steels and high alloy steels. The differentiation between the two is somewhat arbitrary; Smith and Hashemi define the difference at 4%, while Degarmo, et al., define it at 8%.[1][2] However, most commonly alloy steel refers to low alloy steel. These steels have greater strength, hardness, hot hardness, wear resistance, hardenability, or toughness compared to carbon steel. However, they may require heat treatment in order to achieve such properties. Common alloying elements are molybdenum, manganese, nickel, chromium, vanadium, silicon and boron.
Alloy steels comprise a wide variety of steels which have compositions that exceed the limitations of C, Mn, Ni, Mo, Cr, Va, Si, and B which have been set for carbon steels. However, steels containing more than 3.99% chromium are classified differently as stainless and tool steels. Alloy steels are always killed, but can use unique deoxidization or melting processes for specific applications. Alloy steels are generally more responsive to heat and mechanical treatments than carbon steels.

AISI Designation

Typically, alloy steels are designated by distinct AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) four-digit numbers. The first two digits indicate the leading alloying elements, while the last two digits give the nominal carbon content of the alloy in hundredths of a percent. Occasionally we see five-digit designations where the last three digits tell that the carbon is actually over 1%. Here is an example:

XXX :x.xx% average carbon content 51100 13xx:1.75Mn 23xx:3.50Ni 31xx:1.25Ni, 0.65-0.80Cr 40xx:0.20-0.25Mo 44xx:0.40-0.52Mo 41xx:0.50-0.95Cr, 0.12-0.30Mo 46xx:0.85-1.82Ni, 0.20-0.25Mo 48xx:3.5Ni, 0.25Mo 50xx:0.27-0.65Cr 51xx:0.80-1.05Cr 50xxx:0.50Cr, 1.00C 51xxx:1.02Cr, 1.00C 52xxx:1.45Cr, 1.00C 61xx:0.60-0.95Cr, 0.10-0.15V 92xx:1.4-2Si, 0.65-0.85Mn, <0.65Cr 43xx:1.82Ni, 0.50-0.80Cr, 0.25Mo 47xx:1.05Ni, 0.45Cr, 0.20-0.35Mo 81xx:0.30Ni, 0.40Cr, 0.12Mo 86xx:0.55Ni, 0.50Cr, 0.25Mo 87xx:0.55Ni, 0.50Cr, 0.25Mo 88xx:0.55Ni, 0.50Cr, 0.20-0.35Mo 93xx:3.25Ni, 1.20Cr, 0.12Mo 94xx:0.45Ni, 0.40Cr, 0.12Mo Manganese Nickel Nickel-Chromium Molybdenum Chromium-Molybdenum Nickel-Molybdenum

Chromium

Chromium-Vanadium Silicon-Manganese

Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum

If a B shows up between the second and third digits of an AISI number, it means that this grade is a Boron steel; Sometimes a suffix H is attached to a AISI number to indicate that the steel has been produced to prescribed hardenability limits.

Low alloy steel

Low alloy steels are usually used to achieve better hardenability, which in turn improves its other mechanical properties. They are also used to increase corrosion resistance in certain environmental conditions.[3] With medium to high carbon levels, low alloy steel is difficult to weld. Lowering the carbon content to the range of 0.10% to 0.30%, along with some reduction in alloying elements, increases the weldability and formability of the steel while maintaining its strength. Such a metal is classed as a high-strength low-alloy steel. Some common low alloy steels are:

D6AC 300M Principal low alloy steels[4]

SAE designation 13xx Mn 1.75%

Composition

40xx Mo 0.20% or 0.25% or 0.25% Mo & 0.042% S 41xx Cr 0.50% or 0.80% or 0.95%, Mo 0.12% or 0.20% or 0.25% or 0.30% 43xx Ni 1.82%, Cr 0.50% to 0.80%, Mo 0.25% 44xx Mo 0.40% or 0.52% 46xx Ni 0.85% or 1.82%, Mo 0.20% or 0.25% 47xx Ni 1.05%, Cr 0.45%, Mo 0.20% or 0.35% 48xx Ni 3.50%, Mo 0.25% 50xx Cr 0.27% or 0.40% or 0.50% or 0.65%

50xxx Cr 0.50%, C 1.00% min 50Bxx Cr 0.28% or 0.50% 51xx Cr 0.80% or 0.87% or 0.92% or 1.00% or 1.05% 51xxx Cr 1.02%, C 1.00% min 51Bxx Cr 0.80% 52xxx Cr 1.45%, C 1.00% min 61xx Cr 0.60% or 0.80% or 0.95%, V 0.10% or 0.15% min 86xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.20% 87xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.25% 88xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.35% 92xx Si 1.40% or 2.00%, Mn 0.65% or 0.82% or 0.85%, Cr 0.00% or 0.65% 94Bxx Ni 0.45%, Cr 0.40%, Mo 0.12% Dual-phase steel (DPA) is a high-strength steel that has a ferrite and martensitic microstructure. DPA starts as a low or medium carbon steel and is quenched from a temperature above A1 but below A3 on a continuous cooling transformation diagram. This results in a microstructure consisting of a soft ferrite matrix containing islands of martensite as the secondary phase (martensite increases the tensile strength). The desire to produce high strength steels with formability greater than microalloyed steel led the development of DPS in 1970s.[1][2] The steel melt is produced in an oxygen top blowing process in the converter, and undergoes an alloy treatment in the secondary metallurgy phase. The product is aluminum-killed steel, with high tensile strength achieved by the composition with manganese, chromium and silicon. Their advantages are as follows:[1][3]

Low yield strength Low yield to tensile strength ratio (yield strength / tensile strength = 0.5) High initial strain hardening rates Good uniform elongation A high strain rate sensitivity (the faster it is crushed the more energy it absorbs)[2] Good fatigue resistance

Due to these properties DPS is often used for automotive body panels, wheels, and bumpers.[3]

Stainless Steels::

In metallurgy, stainless steel, also known as inox steel or inox, is defined as a steel alloy with a minimum of 11% chromium content by mass.[1] Stainless steel does not stain, corrode, or rust as easily as ordinary steel (it stains less, but it is not stain-proof).[2] It is also called corrosion-resistant steel or CRES when the alloy type and grade are not detailed, particularly in the aviation industry. There are different grades and surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment to which the material will be subjected in its lifetime. Common uses of stainless steel are cutlery and watch cases and bands. Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of chromium present. Carbon steel rusts when exposed to air and moisture. This iron oxide film (the rust) is active and accelerates corrosion by forming more iron oxide. Stainless steels have sufficient amounts of chromium present so that a passive film of chromium oxide forms which prevents further surface corrosion and blocks corrosion from spreading into the metal's internal structure.

Properties
High oxidation-resistance in air at ambient temperature are normally achieved with additions of a minimum of 13% (by weight) chromium, and up to 26% is used for harsh environments.[8] The chromium forms a passivation layer of chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3) when exposed to oxygen. The layer is too thin to be visible, and the metal remains lustrous. It is impervious to water and air, protecting the metal beneath. Also, this layer quickly reforms when the surface is scratched. This phenomenon is called passivation and is seen in other metals, such as aluminium and titanium. Corrosion resistance can however be adversely affected if the component is used in a non-oxygenated environment, a typical example being underwater keel-bolts buried in timber. When stainless steel parts such as nuts and bolts are forced together, the oxide layer can be scraped off causing the parts to weld together. When disassembled, the welded material may be torn and pitted, an effect that is known as galling. This destructive galling can be best avoided by the use of dissimilar materials, e.g. bronze to stainless steel, or even different types of stainless steels (martensitic against austenitic, etc.), when metal-to-metal wear is a concern. In addition, Nitronic alloys (trademark of Armco, Inc.) reduce the tendency to gall through selective alloying with manganese and nitrogen.

Applications::
Stainless steels resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, relatively low cost, and familiar luster make it an ideal base material for a host of commercial applications. There are over 150 grades of stainless steel, of which fifteen are most common. The alloy is milled into coils, sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing to be used in cookware, cutlery, hardware, surgical instruments, major appliances, industrial equipment, and as an automotive and aerospace structural alloy and construction material in large buildings. Storage tanks and tankers used to transport orange juice and other food are often made of stainless steel, due to its corrosion resistance and antibacterial properties. This also influences its use in

commercial kitchens and food processing plants, as it can be steam cleaned, sterilized, and does not need painting or application of other surface finishes. Stainless steel is also used for jewellery and watches. The most common stainless steel alloy used for this is 316L. It can be re-finished by any jeweller and will not oxidize or turn black. Some firearms incorporate stainless steel components as an alternative to blued or parkerized steel. Some handguns, such as the Smith & Wesson Model 60 and the Colt M1911 can be made entirely from stainless steel. This gives a high-luster finish similar in appearance to nickel plating; but, unlike plating, the finish is not subject to flaking, peeling, wear-off due to rubbing (as when repeatedly removed from a holster over the course of time), or rust when scratched. Some automotive aftermarket parts manufacturers use stainless steel only for the making of short shifters, shift knobs and weighted shift knobs.

Uses in sculpture, building facades and building structures

Stainless steel was in vogue during the art deco period. The most famous example of this is the upper portion of the Chrysler Building (illustrated to the right). Diners and fast food restaurants feature large ornamental panels, stainless fixtures and furniture. Owing to the durability of the material, many of these buildings retain their original appearance. The forging of stainless steel has given rise to a fresh approach to architectural blacksmithing in recent years. The Gateway Arch (picture above) is clad entirely in stainless steel: 886 tons (804 metric tonnes) of 0.25 in (6.4 mm) plate, #3 finish, type 304 stainless steel.[10] Type 316 stainless is used on the exterior of both the Petronas Twin Towers and the Jin Mao Building, two of the world's tallest skyscrapers.[11] The Parliament House of Australia in Canberra has a stainless steel flagpole weighing over 220 tons. The aeration building in the Edmonton Composting Facility, the size of 14 hockey rinks, is the largest stainless steel building in North America. The United States Air Force Memorial has an austenitic stainless steel structural skin. The Atomium in Brussels, Belgium is now clad in stainless steel, after a renovation completed in 2006. Previously the spheres and tubes of the structure were clad in aluminium.

Types of stainless steel

There are different types of stainless steels: when nickel is added, for instance, the austenite structure of iron is stabilized. This crystal structure makes such steels non-magnetic and less brittle at low temperatures. For greater hardness and strength, more carbon is added. When subjected to adequate heat treatment, these steels are used as razor blades, cutlery, tools, etc. Significant quantities of manganese have been used in many stainless steel compositions. Manganese preserves an austenitic structure in the steel as does nickel, but at a lower cost. Stainless steels are also classified by their crystalline structure:

Austenitic, or 300 series, stainless steels make up over 70% of total stainless steel production. They contain a maximum of 0.15% carbon, a minimum of 16% chromium and sufficient nickel and/or manganese to retain an austenitic structure at all temperatures from the cryogenic region to the melting point of the alloy. A typical composition of 18% chromium and 10% nickel, commonly known as 18/10 stainless, is often used in flatware. Similarly, 18/0 and 18/8 are also available. Superaustenitic stainless steels, such as alloy AL-6XN and 254SMO, exhibit great resistance to chloride pitting and crevice corrosion due to high molybdenum content (>6%) and

nitrogen additions, and the higher nickel content ensures better resistance to stress-corrosion cracking versus the 300 series. The higher alloy content of superaustenitic steels makes them more expensive. Other steels can offer similar performance at lower cost and are preferred in certain applications.[citation needed] The low carbon version of the Austenitic Stainless Steel, for example 316L or 304L, are used to avoid corrosion problem caused by welding. The "L" means that the carbon content of the Stainless Steel is below 0.03%, this will reduce the sensitization effect, precipitation of Chromium Carbides at grain boundaries, due to the high temperature produced by welding operation.

Ferritic stainless steels are highly corrosion-resistant, but less durable than austenitic grades. They contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium and very little nickel, if any, but some types can contain lead. Most compositions include molybdenum; some, aluminium or titanium. Common ferritic grades include 18Cr-2Mo, 26Cr-1Mo, 29Cr-4Mo, and 29Cr-4Mo-2Ni. These alloys can be degraded by the presence of chromium, an intermetallic phase which can precipitate upon welding. Martensitic stainless steels are not as corrosion-resistant as the other two classes but are extremely strong and tough, as well as highly machineable, and can be hardened by heat treatment. Martensitic stainless steel contains chromium (12-14%), molybdenum (0.2-1%), nickel (0-<2%), and carbon (about 0.1-1%) (giving it more hardness but making the material a bit more brittle). It is quenched and magnetic. Precipitation-hardening martensitic stainless steels have corrosion resistance comparable to austenitic varieties, but can be precipitation hardened to even higher strengths than the other martensitic grades. The most common, 17-4PH, uses about 17% chromium and 4% nickel. There is a rising trend in defense budgets to opt for an ultrahigh-strength stainless steel when possible in new projects, as it is estimated that 2% of the US GDP is spent dealing with corrosion. The Lockheed-Martin Joint Strike Fighter is the first aircraft to use a precipitationhardenable stainless steelCarpenter Custom 465in its airframe. Duplex stainless steels have a mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite, the aim being to produce a 50/50 mix, although in commercial alloys, the mix may be 40/60 respectively. Duplex steels have improved strength over austenitic stainless steels and also improved resistance to localised corrosion, particularly pitting, crevice corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. They are characterised by high chromium (1928%) and molybdenum (up to 5%) and lower nickel contents than austenitic stainless steels. The most used Duplex Stainless Steel are the 2205 (22% Chromium, 5% Nickel) and 2507 (25% Chromium, 7% Nickel); the 2507 is also known as "SuperDuplex" due to its higher corrosion resistance.

Tool and Die Steels::

Tool steel refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that are particularly well-suited to be made into tools. Their suitability comes from their distinctive hardness, resistance to abrasion, their ability to hold a cutting edge, and/or their resistance to deformation at elevated temperatures (red-hardness). Tool steel is generally used in a heat-treated state. With a carbon content between 0.7% and 1.4%, tool steels are manufactured under carefully controlled conditions to produce the required quality. The manganese content is often kept low to minimize the possibility of cracking during water quenching. However, proper heat treating of these steels is important for adequate performance, and there are many suppliers who provide tooling blanks intended for oil quenching.

Tool steels are made to a number of grades for different applications. Choice of grade depends on, among other things, whether a keen cutting edge is necessary, as in stamping dies, or whether the tool has to withstand impact loading and service conditions encountered with such hand tools as axes, pickaxes, and quarrying implements. In general, the edge temperature under expected use is an important determinant of both composition and required heat treatment. The higher carbon grades are typically used for such applications as stamping dies, metal cutting tools, etc. Tool steels are also used for special applications like injection molding because the resistance to abrasion is an important criterion for a mold that will be used to produce hundreds of thousands of parts. The AISI-SAE grades of tool steel is the most common scale used to identify various grades of tool steel. Individual alloys within a grade are given a number; for example: A2, O1, etc. AISI-SAE tool steel grades[1] Defining property AISI-SAE grade Significant characteristics Water-hardening W O Cold-working A D Shock resisting S T High speed M Molybdenum base H1H19: chromium base H20H39: tungsten base H40H59: molybdenum base Tungsten base Oil-hardening Air-hardening; medium alloy High carbon; high chromium

Hot-working

Plastic mold

L Special purpose F

Low alloy Carbon tungsten

Water-hardening grades
W-grade tool steel gets its name from its defining property of having to be water quenched. W-grade steel is essentially high carbon plain-carbon steel. This type of tool steel is the most commonly used tool steel because of its low cost compared to other tool steels. They work well for small parts and applications where high temperatures are not encountered; above 150 C (302 F) it begins to soften to a noticeable degree. Hardenability is low so W-grade tool steels must be quenched in water. These steels can attain high hardness (above HRC 60) and are rather brittle compared to other tool steels. The toughness of W-grade tool steels are increased by alloying with manganese, silicon and molybdenum. Up to 0.20% of vanadium is used to retain fine grain sizes during heat treating. Typical applications for various carbon compositions are:

0.600.75% carbon: machine parts, chisels, setscrews; properties include medium hardness with good toughness and shock resistance. 0.760.90% carbon: forging dies, hammers, and sledges. 0.911.10% carbon: general purpose tooling applications that require a good balance of wear resistance and toughness, such as drills, cutters, and shear blades. 1.111.30% carbon: small drills, lathe tools, razor blades, and other light-duty applications where extreme hardness is required without great toughness.

Air-hardening grades
The first air hardening grade tool steel was mushet steel, which was known as air-hardening steel at the time. A2 is the most common air hardening grade currently used.

Cold-working grades
Grade-O refers to oil hardening tool steels, while grade-A refers to air hardening tool steels. These tool steels are used on larger parts or parts that require minimal distortion during hardening. The use of oil quenching and air hardening helps reducing distortion as opposed to higher stress caused by quicker water quenching. More alloying elements are used in these steels, as compared to water-hardening grades. These alloys increase the steels' hardenability, and thus require a less severe quenching process. These steels are also less likely to crack and are often used to make knife blades. D-grade tool steels contain between 10% and 18% chromium. These steels retain their hardness up to a temperature of 425 C (797 F). Common applications for these grade of tool steel is forging dies, die-casting die blocks, and drawing dies. Due to high chromium content, certain D-grade tool steel grades are often considered stainless or semi-stainless tool steels.

Composition
Here are composition for some of the most common cold-working tool steels, quantities of minor ingredients may vary slightly with manufacturer: O-1 steel contains 0.90% carbon 1.0%1.4% manganese, 0.50% chrome, 0.50% nickel, and 0.50% tungsten. It is a very good cold work steel and also makes very good knives. A-2 steel contains 1.0% carbon, 5.0% chromium, and 1.0% molybdenum. D-2 steel contains 1.5% carbon and 11.0 13.0% chromium; additionally it is composed of 0.45% manganese, 0.030% max phosphorus, 0.030% max sulfur, 1.0% vanadium, 0.7% molybdenum, and 0.30% silicon. D2 is very wear resistant but not as tough as lower alloyed steels. It is widely used for shear blades, planer blades and industrial cutting tools, sometimes used for knives.

Shock resisting grades

S-grade tool steel are designed to resist shock at both low and high temperatures. A low carbon content is required for the necessary toughness (approximately 0.5% carbon). Carbide-forming alloys provide the necessary abrasion resistance, hardenability, and hot-working characteristics. This family of steels displays very high impact toughness and relatively low abrasion resistance, it can attain relatively high hardness (HRC 58/60). This type of steel is used in applications such as jackhammer bits.

High speed grades

T-grade and M-grade tool steels are used for cutting tools where strength and hardness must be retained at temperatures up to or exceeding 760 C (1,400 F). M-grade tool steels were developed to reduce the amount of tungsten and chromium required. T1 (also known as 18-4-1) is a common T-grade alloy. Its composition is 0.7% carbon, 18% tungsten, 4% chromium, and 1% vanadium. M2 is a common M-grade alloy.

Hot-working grades
H-grade tool steels were developed for strength and hardness during prolonged exposure to elevated temperatures. All of these tool steels use a substantial amount of carbide forming alloys. H1 to H19 are based on a chromium content of 5%; H20 to H39 are based on a tungsten content of 9%-18% and a chromium content of 3%4%; H40 to H59 are molybdenum based.

Special purpose grades

P-grade tool steel is short for plastic mold steels. They are designed to meet the requirements of zinc die casting and plastic injection molding dies. L-grade tool steel is short for low alloy special purpose tool steel. L6 is extremely tough. F-grade tool steel is water hardened and substantially more wear resistant than W-grade tool steel.

 Cast Irons::
Cast iron usually refers to Gray iron, but also identifies a large group of ferrous alloys, which solidify with a eutectic. The color of a fractured surface can be used to identify an alloy. White cast iron is named after its white surface when fractured due to its carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight through. Grey cast iron is named after its grey fractured surface, which occurs because the graphitic flakes deflect a passing crack and initiate countless new cracks as the material breaks. Iron (Fe) accounts for more than 95% by weight (wt%) of the alloy material, while the main alloying elements are carbon (C) and silicon (Si). The amount of carbon in cast irons is 2.1 to 4 wt%. Cast irons contain appreciable amounts of silicon, normally 1 to 3 wt%, and consequently these alloys should be considered ternary Fe-C-Si alloys. Despite this, the principles of cast iron solidification are understood from the binary iron-carbon phase diagram, where the eutectic point lies at 1154 C and 4.3 wt% carbon. Since cast iron has nearly this composition, its melting temperature of 1150 to 1200 C is about 300 C lower than the melting point of pure iron. Cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. With its low melting point, good fluidity, castability, excellent machinability, resistance to deformation, and wear resistance, cast irons have become an engineering material with a wide range of applications, including pipes, machine and car parts, such as cylinder heads, blocks, and gearbox cases. It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidization (rust).

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Non-ferrous metals and alloys

It covers a wide range of materials right from common metals like aluminium and copper to hightemperature alloys such as tungsten and molybdenum. Though they are more expensive and rarer than ferrous materials, these have many important uses and applications in todays world. Aluminium and its alloys::
Aluminium alloys are mixtures of aluminium with other metals (called an alloy), often with copper, zinc, manganese, silicon, or magnesium. They are much lighter and more corrosion resistant than plain carbon steel, but not as corrosion resistant as pure aluminium. Bare aluminium alloy surfaces will keep their apparent shine in a dry environment due to the formation of a clear, protective oxide layer. Galvanic corrosion can be rapid when aluminium alloy is placed in electrical contact with stainless steel, or other metals with a more negative corrosion potential than the aluminium alloy, in a wet environment. Aluminium alloy and stainless steel parts should only be used together in water-containing systems or outdoor installations if provision is made for either electrical or electrolytic isolation between the two metals.

Alloy designations
Wrought and cast aluminium alloys use different identification systems. Wrought aluminium is identified with a four digit number which identifies the alloying elements. Cast aluminium alloys use a four to five digit number with a decimal point. The digit in the hundred's place indicates the alloying elements, while the digit after the decimal point indicates the form (cast shape or ingot).

Temper designation
The temper designation follows the cast or wrought designation number with a dash, a letter, and potentially a one to three digit number, e.g. 6061-T6. The definitions for the tempers are: -F As fabricated -H Strain hardened (cold worked) with or without thermal treatment -H1 Strain hardened without thermal treatment

-H2 Strain hardened and partially annealed -H3 Strain hardened and stabilized by low temperature heating Second digit A second digit denotes the degree of hardness -HX2 = 1/4 hard -HX4 = 1/2 hard -HX6 = 3/4 hard -HX8 = full hard -HX9 = extra hard -O Full soft (annealed) -T Heat treated to produce stable tempers -T1 Cooled from hot working and naturally aged -T2 : Cooled from hot working, cold-worked, and naturally aged -T3 Solution heat treated and cold worked -T4 Solution heat treated and naturally aged -T5 Cooled from hot working and artificially aged -T51 Stress relieved by stretching -T510 No further straightening after stretching -T511 Minor straightening after stretching -T52 Stress relieved by thermal treatment -T6 Solution heat treated and artificially aged -T7 Solution heat treated and stabilized -T8 Solution heat treated, cold worked, and artificially aged -T9 Solution heat treated, artificially aged, and cold worked -T10 Cooled from hot working, cold-worked, and artificially aged -W Solution heat treated only

Wrought alloys
The International Alloy Designation System is the most widely accepted naming scheme for wrought alloys. Each alloy is given a four-digit number, where the first digit indicates the major alloying elements.

1000 series are essentially pure aluminium with a minimum 99% aluminium content by weight and can be work hardened. 2000 series are alloyed with copper, can be precipitation hardened to strengths comparable to steel. Formerly referred to as duralumin, they were once the most common aerospace alloys, but were susceptible to stress corrosion cracking and are increasingly replaced by 7000 series in new designs. 3000 series are alloyed with manganese, and can be work-hardened. 4000 series are alloyed with silicon. They are also known as silumin. 5000 series are alloyed with magnesium, derive most of their strength from work hardening. It is suitable for cryogenic applications and low temperature work. However is susceptible to corrosion above 60C. 6000 series are alloyed with magnesium and silicon, are easy to machine, and can be precipitation-hardened, but not to the high strengths that 2000, and 7000 can reach. 7000 series are alloyed with zinc, and can be precipitation hardened to the highest strengths of any aluminium alloy. 8000 series is a category mainly used for lithium alloys.

Magnesium and its alloys::

Magnesium alloy developments have traditionally been driven by aerospace industry requirements for lightweight materials to operate under increasingly demanding conditions. Magnesium alloys have always been attractive to designers due to their low density, only two thirds that of aluminium. This has been a major factor in the widespread use of magnesium alloy castings and wrought products. A further requirement in recent years has been for superior corrosion performance and dramatic improvements have been demonstrated for new magnesium alloys. Improvements in mechanical properties and corrosion resistance have led to greater interest in magnesium alloys for aerospace and speciality applications, and alloys are now being specified on programmes such as the McDonnell Douglas MD 500 helicopter.

Key Properties
Light weight Low density (two thirds that of aluminium) Good high temperature mechanical properties Good to excellent corrosion resistance

Applications Aerospace
For many years, RZ5 alloy has been the preferred material for helicopter transmission casings due to the combination of low density and good mechanical properties. More recently, however, the requirement for longer intervals between overhauls and hence improved corrosion properties has caused manufacturers to reconsider material choice. In the past, RZ5 was generally used for gearbox casings but many new programmes will use WE43 instead including the main rotor gearbox castings. For this application, an aluminium transmission would have been used but for the

exceptional corrosion resistance of WE43. The Eurocopter EC 120 and NH90 helicopters have also flown with WE43 transmission casings and WE43 is specified for the Sikorsky S92. Further applications for WE43 will go ahead in the future both on new programmes and also to replace RZ5 on older helicopters. RZ5, ZRE1, MSR and EQ21 alloys are widely used for aircraft engine and gearbox casings. This will continue although it is likely that WE43 will be used increasingly for its corrosion and high temperature properties. Very large magnesium castings can be made, such as intermediate compressor casings for turbine engines. These include the Rolls Royce Tay casing in MSR, which weighs 130kg and the BMW Rolls Royce BR710 casing in RZ5. Other aerospace applications include auxiliary gearboxes (F16, Eurofighter 2000, Tornado) in MSR or RZ5, generator housings (A320 Airbus, Tornado and Concorde in MSR or EQ21) and canopies, generally in RZ5. Magnesium alloy forgings are also used in aerospace applications including critical gearbox parts for the Westland Sea King helicopter and aircraft wheels, both in ZW3. Forged magnesium parts are also used in aero engine applications. In the future, magnesium forgings are most likely to be used in higher temperature applications

Automotive motor racing

In motor racing, RZ5 is generally used for gearbox casings although MSR/EQ21 alloys are also being used increasingly due to their superior ambient temperature properties or because of increased operating temperatures. RZ5 wheels have been shown to have significantly better performance than Mg-Al-Zn alloy wheels under arduous racing conditions. Due to the high operating temperature of racing engines, WE54 castings have been used for a variety of Formula 1 engine parts and are used for engine components for a limited edition road car. Forged WE54 pistons offer great future potential for motor racing and other applications will exist for other wrought products. Magnesium alloys are also used in many other engineering applications where having light weight is a significant advantage. Magnesium-zirconium alloys tend to be used in relatively low volume applications where they are processed by sand or investment casting, or wrought products by extrusion or forging. Zirconium-free alloys, principally AZ91 but also other alloys, are used in automotive and various other high volume applications.

Bicycles
As mentioned above Melram 072, the metal matrix composite is used in the bicycle industry due to its excellent stiffness and reduced weight compared to aluminium.

Copper and its alloys::

Copper alloys are alloys with copper as their principal component. They have high resistance to corrosion. Due to its high electric conductivity, pure electrolytic copper is used mostly for making of electrical cables. The similarity in external appearance of the various alloys, along with the different combinations of elements used when making each alloy, can lead to confusion when categorizing the different compositions. There are as many as 400 different copper and copper-alloy compositions loosely grouped into the categories: copper, high copper alloy, brasses, bronzes, copper nickels, coppernickelzinc (nickel silver), leaded copper, and special alloys. The following table lists the principal alloying element for four of the more common types, along with the name for each type.

Classification of copper and its alloys Family Principal alloying element Zinc (Zn) Tin (Sn) Aluminium (Al) Silicon (Si) UNS numbers C1xxxxC4xxxx,C66400C69800 C5xxxx C60600C64200 C64700C66100 C7xxxx

r alloys, brass

hor bronzes

nium bronzes bronzes

r nickel, nickel silvers Nickel (Ni)

Some common Copper alloys

Name Nominal composition[2] Form and Yield Tensile Elongation[5] Hardness[6] condition strength[3] strength[4] Comments

Copper (ASTM B1, B2, B3, B152, Cu 99.9 B124, R133) " " Gilding metal (ASTM B36) " "

Annealed

10

32

45

42

Electrical equipment, roofing, screens " " Coins, bullet jackets Good for coldworking; radiators, hardware, electrical, drawn

Cold-drawn 40 Cold-rolled 40

45 46

15 5

90 100

Cu 95.0, Zn 5.0

Cold-rolled 50

56

114

Cartridge brass Cu 70.0, Zn 30.0 Cold-rolled 63 (ASTM B14, B19, B36, B134, B135)

76

155

cartridge cases. Phosphor bronze (ASTM B103, B139, B159) High fatiguestrength and spring qualities

Cu 70.0, Sn 10.0, Spring P 0.25 temper

122

241

Yellow or High brass (ASTM B36, Cu 65.0, Zn 35.0 Annealed B134, B135) " "

18

48

60

55

Good corrosion resistance

Cold-drawn 55 Cold-rolled 60 (HT)

70

15

115

"

"

"

74

10

180

"

Cu 58.5, Zn 39.2, Manganese bronze Fe 1.0, Sn 1.0, Mn Annealed (ASTM 138) 0.3 " Naval brass (ASTM B21) " Muntz metal (ASTM B111) "

30

60

30

95

Forgings

Cold-drawn 50

80

20

180

" Resistance to salt corrosion "

Cu 60.0, Zn 39.25, Annealed Sn 0.75 "

22

56

40

90

Cold-drawn 40

65

35

150

Cu 60.0, Zn 40.0 Annealed

20

54

45

80

Condensor tubes

Aluminium bronze (ASTM B169 alloy Cu 92.0, Al 8.0 A, B124, B150) " "

Annealed

25

70

60

80

Hard

65

105

210

"

Beryllium copper (ASTM B194, B196, B197)

Annealed, Cu 97.75, Be 2.0, solution- 32 Co or Ni 0.25 treated

70

45

B60 Electrical, (Rockwell) valves, pumps

"

"

Cold-rolled 104

110

B81 (Rockwell)

"

Free-cutting brass

Cu 62.0, Zn 35.5, Cold-drawn 44 Pb 2.5 Cu 65.0, Zn 17.0, Annealed Ni 18.0 "

70

18

B80 Screws, nuts, (Rockwell) gears, keys

Nickel silver (ASTM B112) "

25

58

40

70

Hardware

Cold-rolled 70

85

170

" Easy to machine; ornaments, plumbing

Nickel silver (ASTM B149)

Cu 76.5, Ni 12.5, Cast Pb 9.0, Sn 2.0

18

35

15

55

Cupronickel (ASTM B111, B171)

Cu 88.35, Ni 10.0, Annealed Fe 1.25, Mn 0.4

22

44

45

Condensor, saltwater pipes

"

"

Cold-drawn 57 tube

60

15

"

Cupronickel

Cu 70.0, Ni 30.0

Wrought

Heat-exchange equipment, valves

Ounce metal[7] Copper Alloy C83600 (also known as "Red brass" or "composition metal") (ASTM

Cu 85.0, Zn 5.0, Pb 5.0, Sn 5.0

Cast

17

37

25

60

B62) Varies Cu 80Gun Metal (known 90%, Zn <5%, Sn as "red brass" in ~10%, +other US) elements@ <1%

Nickel and its alloys::

Nickel has been used in alloys that date back to the dawn of civilization. Chemical analysis of artifacts has shown that weapons, tools, and coins contain nickel in varying amounts. Nickel in elemental form or alloyed with other metals and materials has made significant contributions to our present-day society and promises to continue to supply materials for an even more demanding future. Nickel is a versatile element and will alloy with most metals. Complete solid solubility exists between nickel and copper. Wide solubility ranges between iron, chromium, and nickel make possible many alloy combinations. Applications and Characteristics of Nickel Alloys Nickel and nickel alloys are used for a wide variety of applications, the majority of which involve corrosion resistance and/or heat resistance. Some of these include: Aircraft gas turbines

Steam turbine power plants Medical applications Nuclear power systems Chemical and petrochemical industries

A number of other applications for nickel alloys involve the unique physical properties of special-purpose nickel-base or high-nickel alloys. These include:

Low-expansion alloys Electrical resistance alloys Soft magnetic alloys Shape memory alloys

Heat-Resistant Applications. Nickel-base alloys are used in many applications where they are subjected to harsh environments at high temperatures. Nickel-chromium alloys or alloys that contain more than about 15% Cr are used to provide both oxidation and carburization resistance at temperatures exceeding 760C.

Corrosion Resistance. Nickel-base alloys offer excellent corrosion resistance to a wide range of corrosive media. However, as with all types of corrosion, many factors influence the rate of attack. The corrosive media itself is the most important factor governing corrosion of a particular metal. Low-Expansion Alloys Nickel was found to have a profound effect on the thermal expansion of iron. Alloys can be designed to have a very low thermal expansion or display uniform and predictable expansion over certain temperature ranges. Iron-36% Ni alloy (Invar) has the lowest expansion of the Fe-Ni alloys and maintains nearly constant dimensions during normal variations in atmospheric temperature. The addition of cobalt to the nickel-iron matrix produces alloys with a low coefficient of expansion, a constant modulus of elasticity, and high strength. Electrical Resistance Alloys. Several alloy systems based on nickel or containing high nickel contents are used in instruments and control equipment to measure and regulate electrical characteristics (resistance alloys) or are used in furnaces and appliances to generate heat (heating alloys). Types of resistance alloys containing nickel include:

Cu-Ni alloys containing 2 to 45% Ni Ni-Cr-Al alloys containing 35 to 95% Ni Ni-Cr-Fe alloys containing 35 to 60% Ni Ni-Cr-Si alloys containing 70 to 80% Ni

Types of resistance heating alloys con-taining nickel include:

Ni-Cr alloys containing 65 to 80% Ni with 1.5% Si Ni-Cr-Fe alloys containing 35 to 70% Ni with 1.5% Si + l% Nb

Soft Magnetic Alloys. Two broad classes of magnetically soft materials have been developed in the Fe-Ni system. The high-nickel alloys (about 79% Ni with 4 to 5% Mo; bal Fe) have high initial permeability and low saturation induction. Shape Memory Alloys.Metallic materials that demonstrate the ability to return to their previously defined shape when subjected to the appropriate heating schedule are referred to as shape memory alloys. Nickeltitanium alloys (50Ni-50Ti) are one of the few commercially important shape memory alloys.

Superalloys::
Superalloys are metallic materials for service at high temperatures. Particularly in the hot zones of modern gas turbines used in airplanes, such materials are needed to improve fuel efficiency, which requires the alloys to withstand higher temperatures and stresses. One of the most important requirements is resistance against high temperature creep. Other crucial material properties are crack resistance, stiffness, as well as an ability to resist oxidation and an acceptable density. The availability of such superalloys led during past decades to a steady increase in the turbine entry temperatures and the trend is expected to continue.

Creep resistance is dependent on slowing the speed of dislocations within the crystal structure. The body centered cubic gamma prime phase [Ni3(Al,Ti)] present in nickel and nickel-iron superalloys presents a barrier to dislocations. Chemical additions such as aluminum and titanium promote the creation of the gamma prime phase. The gamma prime phase size can be finally controlled by annealing. Cobalt base superalloys do not have a strengthening secondary phase like gamma prime. Many other elements, both common and exotic, can be present; chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, aluminium, zirconium, niobium, rhenium, carbon or silicon are just a few examples.

The largest applications of superalloys are the following: aircraft and industrial gas turbines; rocket engines; space vehicles; submarines; nuclear reactors; military electric motors. Many of the industrial nickel-based superalloys contain alloying elements, including chromium, aluminium, and titanium, also molybdenum, tungsten, niobium, tantalum and cobalt.

Titanium has the following advantages: Good strength Resistance to erosion and erosion-corrosion Very thin, conductive oxide surface film Hard, smooth surface that limits adhesion of foreign materials Surface promotes dropwise condensation Commercially pure titanium with minor alloy contents include various titanium-palladium grades and alloy Ti-0,3Mo0,8Ni (ASTM grade 12 or UNS R533400). The alloy contents allow improvements in corrosion resistance and/or strength. Titanium-palladium alloys with nominal palladium contents of about 0,2% Pd are used in applications requiring excellent corrosion resistance in chemical processing or storage applications where the environment is mildly reducing or fluctuates between oxidizing and reducing. Alloy Ti-0,3Mo-0,8Ni (UNS R533400, or ASTM grade 12) has applications similar to those for unalloyed titanium but has better strength and corrosion resistance. However, the corrosion resistance of this alloy is not as good as the titaniumpalladium alloys. The ASTM grade 12 alloy is particularly resistant to crevice corrosion in hot brines. Titanium alloy compositions of various titanium alloys. Because the allotropic behavior of titanium allows diverse changes in microstructures by variations in thermomechanical processing, a broad range of properties and applications can be served with a minimum number of grades. This is especially true of the alloys with a two-phase, +, crystal structure. The most widely used titanium alloy is the Ti-6Al-4V alpha-beta alloy. This alloy is well understood and is also very tolerant on variations in fabrication operations, despite its relatively poor room-temperature shaping and forming characteristics compared to steel and aluminium. Alloy Ti-6Al-4V, which has limited section size hardenability, is most commonly used in the annealed condition. Other titanium alloys are designed for particular application areas. For example:

Titanium and its alloys::

Alloys Ti-5Al-2Sn-2Zr-4Mo-4Cr (commonly called Ti-17) and Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo for high strength in heavy sections at elevated temperatures. Alloys Ti-6242S, IMI 829, and Ti-6242 (Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo) for creep resistance Alloys Ti-6Al-2Nb-ITa-Imo and Ti-6Al-4V-ELI are designed both to resist stress corrosion in aqueous salt solutions and for high fracture toughness Alloy Ti-5Al-2,5Sn is designed for weldability, and the ELI grade is used extensively for cryogenic applications Alloys Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn, Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al for high strength at low-to-moderate temperatures. Welding has the greatest potential for affecting material properties. In all types of welds, contamination by interstitial impurities such as oxygen and nitrogen must be minimized to maintain useful ductility in the weldment. Alloy composition, welding procedure, and subsequent heat treatment are highly important in determining the final properties of welded joints. Some general principles can be summarized as follows: Welding generally increases strength and hardness Welding generally decreases tensile and bend ductility Welds in unalloyed titanium grades 1, 2 and 3 do not require post-weld treatment unless the material will be highly stressed in a strongly reducing atmosphere Welds in more beta-rich alpha-beta alloys such as Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn have a high likelihood of fracturing with little or no plastic straining. Titanium and titanium alloys are heat treated for the following purposes: To reduce residual stresses developed during fabrication To produce an optimal combination of ductility, machinability, and dimensional and structural stability (annealing) To increase strength (solution treating and aging) To optimise special properties such as fracture toughness, fatigue strength, and high-temperature creep strength.

Refractory Metals::
Refractory metals are a class of metals that are extraordinarily resistant to heat and wear. Refractory metals are said to be poorly resistant to oxidation and corrosion.[1] The definition which elements belong to this group differs. The wider definition includes 10 elements of the Group 4, Group 5 Group 6 excluding the transuranium element but including the Group 7 element rhenium, while some definitions include the five metals tungsten, molybdenum, niobium, tantalum and rhenium. The high melting point makes them useful in many applications. Household incandescent bulbs contain refractory metals in their tungsten filaments, and nearly all manufactured goods, particularly those containing metal or electronics, contain or were produced using refractory metals. Refractory metals are used in lighting, tools, lubricants, nuclear reaction control rods, as catalysts, and for their chemical or electrical properties. Because of their high melting point, refractory metal components are never fabricated by casting. The process of powder metallurgy is used. Powders of the pure metal are compacted, heated using electric current, and further fabricated by cold working with annealing steps. Refractory metals can be worked into wire, ingots, bars, sheets or foil.

summary

Ferrous Metals Chooser Chart

Name Composition Properties
Because of low carbon content it can not be hardened and tempered. It must be case hardened. Can be hardened and tempered. Can be brittle. Retains hardness at high temperatures. Corrosion resistant

Uses
girders, Plates, nuts and bolts, general purpose.

Mild Steel 0.15 to0.30% carbon Tough, high tensile strength, ductile.

High Speed Steel Stainless Steel High Tensile Steel High Carbon Steel Medium Carbon Steels

medium carbon, tungsten, chromium and vanadium. 18% chromium, and 8% nickel added. Low carbon steel,, nickel,and chromium. 0.70% to 1.40% carbon.

Cutting tools for lathes.

Kitchen draining boards. Pipes, cutlery, aircraft. Gears, shafts, engine parts.

Very strong and very tough.

The hardest of the carbon steels. Less ductile, tough and malleable.

Chisels, hammers, drills, files, lathe tools, taps and dies. Metal ropes, wire, garden tools, springs.

0.30% to 0.70% carbon.

Stronger and harder than mild steels. Less ductile, tough and malleable.

Cast Iron

Remelted pig iron with small amounts of scrap steel.

Hard, brittle, strong, cheap, selflubricating. Whitecast iron, grey cast iron, malleable cast iron.

Heavy crushing machinery. Car cylinder blocks, vices, machine tool parts, brake drums, machine handle and gear wheels, plumbing fitments.

Non-Ferrous Metals Chooser Chart

Name Aluminium Composition
Pure Metal

Properties
Greyish-White, soft, malleable, conductive to heat and electricity, It is corrosion resistant. It can be welded but this is difficult. Needs special processes. Ductile, Malleable, Work Hardens. Red, tough, ductile, High electrical conductor, corrosion resistant, Can work hard

Uses
Aircraft, boats, window frames, saucepans, packaging and insulation, pistons and cranks.

Aluminium alloysDuraluminium) Copper

Aluminium +4% Copper+1%Manganese Pure metal

Aircraft and vehicle parts.

Electrical wire, cables and conductors, water and central heating pipes and cylinders. Printed circuit

or cold. Needs frequent annealing.

boards, roofs. Castings, ornaments, valves,forgings.

Brass

65% copper +35%zinc.

Very corrosive, yellow in colour, tarnishes very easily. Harder than copper. Good electrical conductor. The heaviest common metal. Soft, malleable, bright and shiny when new but quickly oxidizes to a dull grey. Resistant to corrosion. A layer of oxide protects it from corrosion, bluish-white, easily worked. White and soft, corrosion resistant. Corrosion resistant, golden colour, enamels well.

Lead

Pure metal

Protection against X-Ray machines. Paints, roof coverings, flashings.

Zinc

Pure metal

Makes brass. Coating for steel galvanized corrugated iron roofing, tanks, buckets, rust-proof paints Tinplate, making bronze. Beaten metalwork, jewellery.

Tin

Pure metal 85% copper+15% zinc.

Gilding metal

Bibliography
SITES::

atschool.eduweb.co.uk/trinity/projects/material/ferrous.html www.design-technology.org/CDT10metalslesson.htm www.ebook-search-engine.com/manufacturing-processes-for-engineering-kalpakjian-ebook-pdf.html www.matbase.com/material/ferrous-metals/ www.google.com www.yahoo.com http://www.wikipedia.org/

BOOKS:: Manufacturing processes for engineering materials- Kalpakjian Materials and processes in manufacturing- DeGARMO