Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

1. INTRODUCTION

The global energy consumption is increasing day-by day and there is a steady increase in the demand for the energy over the past decades.

Fig 1.1 Rate of world's energy usage in tera watts(TW) from 1965-2005

Fig 1.1 shows the rate of increase in the world's energy usage. Over the past decades, the energy consumption has increased drastically. So in order to meet the increasing demand , in addition to the existing electrical power generation from fossil fuel based conventional systems, a large number of dispersed generation (DG) units, including both renewable and nonrenewable energy sources such as wind turbines, photovoltaic (PV) generators, fuel cells, small hydro, wave generators are being integrated into power systems at distribution level. The main advantages of using renewable sources are the elimination of harmful emissions and the inexhaustible resources of the primary energy. However, the main disadvantage, apart from the higher costs,e.g., photovoltaic, is the uncontrollability. The availability of renewable energy sources
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Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

has strong daily and seasonal patterns. But the power demand by the consumers could have a very different characteristic. Therefore, it would be difficult to operate a power system installed with only renewable generation units due to the characteristic differences and the high uncertainty of the availability of the renewable sources. The way of fully exploiting the renewable energy is the grid connection, normally at distribution level. The power electronic technology plays a vital role to match the characteristics of the dispersed generation units and the requirements of the grid connections, including frequency, voltage, control of active and reactive power, harmonic minimization etc. It is an essential part for the integration of dispersed generation unit to achieve high efficiency and performance in power systems.

Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

2. WIND ENERGY- AN OVERVIEW Wind Energy is generated by harnessing the kinetic energy of atmospheric air. Wind Energy has had been in use for centuries for several other purposes such as sailing, irrigation and for grinding grain. Wind power systems transform kinetic energy of the wind into useful sources of power. More than 80% of the global Wind Energy capacity is installed in 5 countries with India at the 5th position. Wind power is the fastest growing source of renewable energy globally with an established capacity in excess of 14,000 MW. Winds are caused because of the absorption of solar energy on the earth's surface and in the atmosphere and the rotation of earth about its axis and its motion around the sun. Thus alternate heating and cooling cycles occur, differences in pressure are created and the air is caused to move. The advantages of using wind energy are that its potential as a source of electrical energy is reasonably good and that its capture produces no pollution. The energy is available in dilute form and the availability of energy varies considerably over a day and with the seasons. For these reasons the face areas of the machines which extract energy from the wind have to be necessarily large and a continuous supply of mechanical or electrical power cannot be obtained from them. 2.1 Classification of wind turbines Wind machines are classified in terms of the orientation of the axis of rotation of their rotors as horizontal axis machines and vertical axis machines. In a horizontal axis machine, the axis can be adjusted so that it is parallel to the wind direction. In a vertical axis machine, the axis is vertical and fixed, and is perpendicular to both the surface of the earth and the wind stream. the rotors are classified into four types namely i. Multi-Blade Type ii. Propeller Type iii. Savonius Type iv. Darrieus Type

Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

The first two are generally used in horizontal axis machines and the last two in vertical axis machines..

Fig 2.1 Propeller type wind turbine

The Propeller type wind turbine shown in the figure 1.1 are generally used for the generation of electricity. They are also designed for high power ratings that are required for the generation of electricity.

Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

3. WIND POWER CONVERSION

Wind turbines capture the power from wind by means of turbine blades and convert it to mechanical power. The common way to convert the low-speed, hightorque mechanical power to electrical power is using a gearbox and a generator with standard speed.

Fig 3.1Wind power Conversion

Fig 3.1 shows the basic structure of a wind energy to electrical energy conversion system. The gear box is optional as generators with multiple poles are now designed. When a generator with a fixed poles is used then gear box is essentail. The gearbox adapts the low speed of the turbine rotor to the high speed of the generator, though the gearbox may not be necessary for multi-pole generator systems. The generator converts the mechanical power into electrical power, which being fed into a grid possibly through power electronic converters, and a transformer with circuit breakers and electricity meters. The two most common types of electrical machines used in wind turbines are induction generators and synchronous generators. Induction generators with cage rotor can be used in the fixed speed wind turbines due to the damping effect. The reactive power necessary to energize the magnetic circuits must be supplied from the network or parallel capacitor banks at the machine terminal that may have the danger of self-excitation, when connection to the network is lost. In such a case, the terminal voltage or reactive power may
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not be directly controlled, and the induction generators may suffer from voltage instability problem, which is becoming a significant concern with large-scale wind farm penetration. Synchronous generators are excited by an externally applied dc or by permanent magnets (PMs). There is considerable interest in the application of the multiple-pole synchronous generators (either with PM excitation or with an electromagnet) driven by a wind-turbine rotor without a gearbox or with a low ratio gearbox. Synchronous machines powered by wind turbines may not be directly connected to the ac grid because of the requirement for significant damping in the drive train. The use of a synchronous generator leads to the requirement for a full rated power electronic conversion system to decouple the generator from the network.

3.1 Wind turbine topologies Many wind turbine electrical topologies are based on the application of power electronics, since they can improve dynamic and steady-state performances, help to control the wind turbine generator, and decouple the generator from the electrical grid. All these topologies can be broadly classified into four wind turbine concepts. The main differences between these concepts are in the generating system and the way in which the aerodynamic efficiency of the rotor is limited during above the rated value in order to prevent overloading. 3.1.1. Soft-Starter for Fixed-Speed Wind Turbines The scheme as shown in fig 3.1.1 consists of an SCIG, connected via a transformer to the grid and operating at an almost fixed speed. The power can be limited aerodynamically either by stall control, active stall, or pitch control.

Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

Fig 3.1.1Cage-induction-generator-based fixed-speed wind turbine with power electronic soft-starter

The advantages of wind turbines with induction generators are the simple and cheap construction, in addition that no synchronization device is required. These solutions are attractive due to cost and reliability. Some drawbacks are: 1) the wind turbine has to operate at constant speed; 2) it requires a stiff power grid to enable stable operation; and 3) it may require a more expensive mechanical construction in order to absorb high mechanical stress, since wind gusts may cause torque pulsations on the drive train. Connecting the induction generators to power system produces transients that are short duration with very high inrush currents, thus causing disturbances to both the grid and high torque spikes in the drive train of wind turbines with a directly connected induction generator. Such a transient disturbs the grid and limits the acceptable number of wind turbines. The high starting currents of induction generators are usually limited by a thyristor soft-starter. The current limiter or softstarter, based on thyristor technology, typically limits the rms value of the inrush current to a level below two times of the generator rated current. The soft-starter has a limited thermal capacity and it is short circuited by a contactor, which carries the full-load current, when the connection to the grid has been completed. In addition to reduce the impact on the grid, the soft-starter also effectively dampens the torque peaks associated with the peak currents, and hence reduces the loads on the gearbox. 3.1.2. Power Electronics for Variable-Speed Wind Turbines Variable-speed operation of a wind turbine system has many advantages. For instance, the wind turbine can increase or decrease its speed if the wind speed and
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Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

torque vary. This means less wear and tear on the tower, gearbox, and other components in the drive train. Also, variable-speed systems can increase the production of the energy and reduce the fluctuation of the power injected into the grid. In variable-speed systems, the generator is normally connected to the grid through a power electronic system. This is shown in fig 3.1.2.

Fig 3.1.2 Wound rotor induction generator with a rotor resistance converter

3.1.3) Wounded Rotor Induction Generator With Rotor Resistance Control In this scheme, the rotor windings are connected with variable resistors. The equivalent resistance in the circuit can be adjusted by an electronic control system. The higher the resistance of the rotor windings, the higher the slip is. In this way, the generator speed can be varied in a limited range. Conventionally, the connection is usually done with brushes and slip rings, which is a drawback in comparison with the simple technical design of a cage rotor induction machine. It also introduces parts, which raise the maintenance requirements. This solution still needs a soft-starter . Both cage induction generators and rotor resistancecontrolled wounded induction generators need to operate at a super synchronous speed to generate electricity. Both of them draw reactive power that might be supplied from the grid or from installed compensation equipment, such as capacitor banks or additional power electronic equipment. In order to keep the cost as low as possible, capacitor banks are normally used. Modern megawatt-class
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Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

turbines have thyristor switched capacitors (TSCs) allowing for a more dynamic compensation. A static VAr compensator (SVC) or similar technology may be needed to improve the dynamic responses of the wind farm. 3.1.4) Doubly Fed Induction Generator: The stator of a doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) is connected to the grid directly, while the rotor of the generator is connected to the grid by electronic converters through slip rings as shown in fig 3.1.3.

Fig 3.1.3 Wind Turbine topology with Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG)

The generator can deliver energy to the grid at both super synchronous and sub synchronous speeds. The slip is varied with the power flowing through the power electronic circuit. The advantage is that only a part of the power production is fed through the power electronic converter. Hence, the nominal power of the power electronic converter system can be less than the nominal power of the wind turbine. By controlling the active power of the converter, it is possible to vary the rotational speed of the generator, and thus the speed of the rotor of the wind turbine. Self-commutated converter systems, such as IGBT-based switching
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Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

converters, are normally used for this type of system. As shown in Fig, the DFIG normally uses a back-to-back converter, which consists of two bidirectional converters sharing a common dc link, one connected to the rotor and the other one to the grid. The power electronic converters for variable-speed generators have the ability to control both the active and reactive power delivered to the grid. This gives potential for optimizing the grid integration with respect to steady-state operation conditions, power quality, voltage, and angular stability. The reactive power to the grid from the generation unit can be controlled as zero or to a value required by the system operator within the converter rating limit. In general, the harmonics generated by the converter are in the range of some kilohertz. Thus, filters are necessary to reduce the harmonics. The DFIG system also enables the application of special operation strategies and provides the high-quality power to the grid. The acoustical noise from the wind turbines can effectively be reduced since the system can operate at a lower speed when the wind becomes quiet. The dynamic response and controllability are excellent in comparison with traditional induction generator systems. The DFIG solution needs neither a soft-starter nor a reactive power compensator. 3.1.5) Wind Turbine Systems With Full Rated Power Electronic Converters: Cage induction generators and synchronous generators may be integrated into power systems with full rated power electronic converters. The wind turbines with a full scale power converter between the generator and grid give the added technical performance. Usually, a back-to-back voltage source converter (VSC) is used in order to achieve full control of the active and reactive power, though with synchronous generators, diode rectifiers may be used, but in this case, it would be more difficult to fully control the whole system.

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Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

Fig 3.1.4 Wind turbine systems with full-scale power converters. Since the generator is decoupled from the grid in this system, the generator can operate at a wide variable frequency range for optimal operation while the generated active power will be sent to the grid through the grid-side converter that can be used for controlling the active and reactive power independently and the dynamic response may be improved. The grid-side converter enables the system to control active and reactive power very fast. However, the negative side is a more complex system with more sensitive electronic parts. Fig. 3.1.5 shows four possible solutions with full-scale power converters. All four solutions have almost the same controllable characteristics since the generator is decoupled from the grid by a dc link. The grid-side converter enables the system to control active and reactive power very fast. However, the negative side is a more complex system with more sensitive electronic parts. The configurations shown in Fig. 3.1.5(a) and (b) are characterized by having a gearbox. The wind turbine system with a cage rotor induction generator and full rated power electronic converters is shown in Fig. 3.1.5 (a). The synchronous generator shown in Fig. 3.1.5 (b) needs a small power converter for field excitation. Multi-pole systems with the synchronous generator without a gear are shown in Fig. 3.1.5 (c) and (d). The last solution uses Permanent Magnet machines, which are becoming cheaper and thereby attractive.

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Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

Fig 3.1.5 Various topologies of Wind turbines with full-scale power converters
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Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

4.CONTROL OF WIND TURBINE

The aerodynamic power, P of a wind turbine is given by

(4.1)
where is the air density, R is the turbine radius, v is the wind speed, Cp is the turbine power coefficient which represents the power conversion efficiency of a wind turbine. Cp is defined as the ratio of the power extracted by the rotor to the power available in the wind stream and is a function of the tip speed ratio . is defined as the ratio of the tip speed of the turbine blades to wind speed, and given by

(4.2)
where is the rotational speed of the wind turbine

In a wind turbine it is essential to be able to control and limit the converted mechanical power at higher wind speeds, as the power in the wind is a cube of the wind speed. It is also important to maximize the energy capture from the wind below maximum power production. The power limitation can be done in three ways namely i. Stall Control in which the blade position is fixed but stall of the wind appears along the blade at higher wind speed, ii. Active Stall in which the blade angle is adjusted in order to create stall along the blades or iii. Pitch Control in which the blades are turned out of the wind at higher wind speed. There are mainly four control schemes to control the operation of a wind turbine namely 1. Pitch angle control 2. Electrical Power output control 3. Yaw control 4. Braking
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Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

4.1 Pitch angle Control The Pitch angle is defined as the angle between the plane of rotation of blade and the orientation of the blade. It aligns the turbine blade area in the direction of wind. This alignment is done in order to maximize the energy capture by operating at the max TSR Since the speed of the wind changes, the tip speed ratio changes continuously. In order to maintain the energy capture at the maximum point the TSR has to be maintained constant at a particular value where the coefficient of turbine power Cp is maximum. This pitch angle control is also used to limit the mechanical power at higher wind speeds which is termed as Active Stall as explained earlier. 4.2 Electrical Power output Control Different control levels exist in a modern variable speed wind turbine. Mainly two control levels are used in a variable speed variable pitch wind turbine based on full scale power converter. The wind turbine control level includes the power control, grid synchronization and monitoring techniques as well as the wind turbine logic and the safety modules a shown in the fig 4.1.

Fig 4.1 Basic Block diagram of Control of Electrical Power output

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Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

4.2.1 Power Control The wind power has to be controlled by means of the aerodynamic system and has to react based on a set-point given by a dispatched center or locally with the goal to maximize the power production based on the available wind power. The power controller should also be able to limit the output power. Below maximum power production the wind turbine will typically vary the speed proportional with the wind speed and keep the pitch angle fixed. A pitch angle controller limits the power when the turbine reaches its rated power 4.2.2 Converter Control This control level consists of the generator side converter and the grid side converter control respectively. The structure of the generator control depends on the generator used in a particular wind turbine. For example a wind turbine equipped with a squirrel-cage induction generator will typically be controlled based on the Field Oriented Control methods. However, independently of the generator type and the power converter configuration, the grid side converter is responsible for the quality of the generated power and the grid code requirements. Different control strategies can be used for the grid side power converter such as synchronous Voltage Oriented Control (VOC) with PI controllers, stationary VOC with Proportional Resonant controllers, Synchronous Virtual Flux Oriented Control (VFOC) with PI controller, Adaptive Band Hysteresis (ABH) Current Control, Direct Power Control (DPC) with Space Vector Modulation (SVM), Virtual Flux DPC with SVM. Out of these the VOC control and the ABH control are discussed briefly here. a. Voltage Oriented Control(VOC) The synchronous Voltage Oriented Control with PI controllers is widely used in grid applications. This control strategy is based on the coordinate transformation between the stationary and the synchronous dq reference frames. It assures fast transient response and high static performance due to the
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Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

internal current control loops. The decomposition of the AC currents in two axes provides a decoupled control for the active and reactive power. A block diagram of the VOC control with PI controllers is shown in Fig. 4.2

Fig 4.2 Block diagram of VOC in Synchronous reference frame A Phase Locked Loop (PLL) is used for the coordinate transformation. The control scheme comprises the DC-link voltage controller and the current controller in the d-axis, while the reactive power and the reactive component of the current are controlled in the q-axis. In order to achieve a high accuracy current tracking the control algorithm accounts for the output filter inductance. Therefore, the output of the current controllers is compensated with the voltage drop on the output filter. Then the reference voltages are translated to the stationary reference frame and applied to a Space Vector Modulator (SVM). It should be noticed that the performances of this control strategy relies on the accuracy of the PLL system for the voltage grid angle estimation. b. Adaptive Hysteresis Band Current Control(ABH) This control strategy is also based on the synchronous reference frame; therefore a PLL is used for the reference frame transformation of the currents. A PI controller provides the control of the DC-link voltage in the d-axis while the reactive power is controlled in the q-axis. The current control is performed by the
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Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

hysteresis comparators for each phase independently after the transformation of the reference dq currents.

Fig 4.3. Block diagram of the ABH Current Control Both control algorithms require the estimation of the reactive power based on measured voltages and currents. Also, both control algorithms can meet the requirements for harmonic current injection in the PCC However, the VOC algorithm is more sensitive to voltage unbalances and asymmetries than the ABH current control due to the double transformation of axes. 4.2.3 Grid Synchronization Synchronization of delivered power with the utility network was a basic requirement for interconnecting distributed power generators with the power system. In case of wind turbines, reactive power control at the point of common coupling is requested. Consequently, the wind turbine control should accommodate an algorithm capable of detecting the phase angle of grid voltage in order to synchronize the delivered power. Moreover, the phase angle plays an important role in control, being used to transform the feedback variables to a suitable reference frame in which the control structure is implemented. Hence, phase angle
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Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

detection has a significant role in control of the grid side converter in a wind turbine. Numerous research works are reporting several algorithms capable of detecting the grid voltage phase angle, i.e. zero crossing detection, the use of arctan function or phase-locked loop (PLL) technique. Significant line voltage distortion due to notches caused by power device switching and/or low frequency harmonic content can easily corrupt the output of a conventional zero-crossing detector. Hence filtering is needed to find the fundamental harmonic in the line current. This causes delay in the output of the ZCD and thus the overall system response is slow. Arctan method has the drawback that requires additional filtering in order to obtain an accurate detection of the phase angle and frequency in the case of a distorted grid voltage. Hence in these techniques the PLL technique is widely used. 4.3 Yaw Control It is done for orienting the wind turbine in the direction of the relative wind. A separate servo motor is used for Yaw control which is aligned perpendicular to the shaft of the wind turbine which rotates to the specific position and aligns the wind turbine in the direction of the wind which is sensed by the anemometers fixed at the end of the turbine shaft. It can also be used for power control, but was never used 4.4 Braking Braking is usually done at the time shutting down. Mechanical brakes are applied to the turbine shaft completely slow down the wind turbine

Reactive Power and Voltage Control The induction-generator-based wind turbines are the consumer of reactive power. To minimize the power losses and increase voltage stability, these wind turbines are compensated to a level depending on the requirements of the power system operators. For wind turbines with PWM converter systems, the reactive power can be controlled by the converter. Thus, these wind turbines have the possibility to control voltage by controlling the generation or consumption of
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Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

reactive power. The reactive power control can be conducted by following the power system requirement to contribute to the power system voltage control; it can also be performed to minimize the possible voltage fluctuations caused by wind power fluctuations. Power Quality Power quality issues are addressed especially for wind turbines connected to the medium voltage networks. Specific values are given for fast variations in voltage, short term flicker severity, long term flicker severity and the total harmonic distortion. A schedule of individual harmonics distortion limits for voltage are also given based on standards.

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Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

5.ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
A powerful and transparent figure-of-merit of renewable energy sources is energy payback time defined as the time required for an energy producing system or device to generate as much energy as it was required for its manufacturing . Energy payback time is well accepted because it is analogous to the well understood principle in the business world of economic payback time defined as the period of time required for the return on an investment to repay the sum of the original investment which in the case of renewable energy systems would translate into the time required to generate as much economic value in energy as it was spent to purchase the system. We need to look into the full life cycle of the renewable energy system, including the end-of-life phase or recycling. The time it takes to recover the embodied energy (energy required to manufacture and recycle a renewable energy system) is the energy payback time of a renewable energy system.

. Fig 5.1 Energy Payback time of renewable energy sources.

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Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

where Eemb is the energy required for manufacturing and recycling of a component or system. (Eemb)system is the difference in the embodied energy of the conventional system (before the modification) and the modified system. If the only difference is in introducing a power electronic converter and the rest of the system stays the same then (Eemb)system is equal to the embodied energy of the power electronics converter or system. Eoper is the energy that a system or component consume during their operation over their life time. (Eoper)system is the difference in the operational energy of the conventional system (before the modification) and the modified system. This is in fact the energy saved over the operational time of the system by introducing the modification (a power electronic converter). Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) is another technique for assessing the environmental aspects associated with a product over its life cycle. It gives a single indicator taking into account one or more of the environmental issues: materials depletion, emissions and energy

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Power Electronics for sustainable energy future

6.CONCLUSION
Various wind turbine systems with different generators and power electronic converters are described. Different types of wind turbine systems have quite different performances and controllability. The electrical topologies of wind farms with different wind turbines are briefed. It has been shown that the wind farms consisting of different turbines may need different configurations for the best use of the technical merits.Many power electronics configurations for wind turbine systems have been briefed, mainly the VSCs, including multi converter configurations, are used. With the increasing levels of wind turbine penetration in modern power systems, grid connection issues have posed several new challenges to wind turbine design and development. Coping with grid connection demands is becoming a major issue in the wind turbine industry. In future, the percentage of wind energy on many grids is expected to be a significant part, thus making wind turbines as key grid players. Therefore, these machines will require a built-in capacity to behave like power plants. Power electronic technologies, as the interfaces for wind turbines, also the interfaces for some energy storage systems and as flexible ac transmission systems (FACTs) devices, such as STATCOM, will play a significant role in developing new state-of-the-art solutions for the future success of various new power generation and control concepts.

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7.REFERENCES
1. F. Blaabjerg, F. Iov, T. Kerekes, R. Teodorescu " Trends in Power Electronics and Control of Renewable Energy Systems", 14th International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference, EPE-PEMC 2010 2. Jelena Popovic-Gerber Jan Abraham Ferreira" Power Electronics for Sustainable Energy Future - Quantifying the Value of Power Electronics", IEEE 2010. 3. Zhe Chen, Senior Member, IEEE, Josep M. Guerrero, Senior Member, IEEE, and Frede Blaabjerg, Fellow, IEEE " A Review of the State of the Art of Power Electronics for Wind Turbines", IEEE Transactions On Power Electronics, Vol. 24, No. 8, August 2009. 4. Frede Blaabjerg, Fellow, IEEE, Zhe Chen, Senior Member, IEEE, and Soeren Baekhoej Kjaer, Member, IEEE " Power Electronics as Efficient Interface in Dispersed Power Generation Systems", IEEE Transactions On Power Electronics, Vol. 19, No. 5, September 2004. 5. F. Iov, M. Ciobotaru, F. Blaabjerg, " Power Electronics Control of Wind Energy in Distributed Power Systems" PEDS '07 Conference Thailand 2007.

6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_energy 7. S P Sukhatme , "Solar Energy Principles of Thermal Collection And Storage" second edition, McGraw-Hill Inc., publishers. 8. International Energy Outlook 2009, www.eia.doe.gov

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