TRAINING METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

Training methods are, generally, classified by the location of instruction. Training can take place in various situations, on the job or off the job, in the company or outside the company. It necessarily involves the use of a number of tools, methods and techniques. Some of the widely used training method are as follows: A. On the Job Training On-the-job-training is the heart and soul of all training in business art industry. OJT as it is known or sometimes called" Shop Training" is the most universal form of employee development. This is the traditional method of learning, which is designed to maximise learning while allowing the employee to perform his job under the supervision and guidance of a trained worker or instructor, providing him practical application and making principles and concepts of learning meaningful and realistic. This is the most effective method of development applicable at all levels to a wide range of semiskilled, skilled and technical jobs, as well as supervisory and management development programmes. There are several types of on the job training. Those prominently deployed in use in OJT are as follows: 1. Job Instruction Training (JIT). Commonly known as JIT, this technique of training was developed during World War II. It is a four step instructional! process. JIT is basically used to teach the workers how to do their current jobs. A trainer, supervisor or coworker can act as the coach. The four steps involved in this process are: . The trainee receives an overview of the job, its purposes and desired outcomes, with a clear focus on the relevance of training. . The trainer demonstrates the job in order to give the employee a model to copy. The trainer demonstrates to him the right way of doing the job. . The trainee is then asked to copy the trainer's demonstration. Demonstrations by the trainer and practice by the trainer are repeated till the trainee master the right way to perform the job.

. Finally the employee does the job independently without supervision. 2. Coaching. On the Job coaching by the supervisor is an important and potentially effective approach. It is a kind of daily training and feedback given to employees by their immediate supervisors. It involves a continuous process of learning by doing. Coaching involves direct personal instructions and guidance, usually with extensive demonstration and continuous critical appraisal and correction. It has the advantage of increased motivation for the trainee and minimisation of the problem of transfer from theory of practice. However, the method will loose its value if the Coach does not possess the requisite skills to guide the trainee in a systematic way. Effectiveness of coaching depends upon the patience and communication skills of the coach. He will have to: - Explain appropriate ways of doing things. - Make clear why some actions are taken. - State the observations accurately. - Offer possible alternatives - Give suggestions whenever required - Follow up. 3. Mentoring. It is a somewhat different form of training method. In mentoring, senior person in the organisation assumes the responsibility for training as well as grooming of a Junior person. A mentor acts as a teacher, guide, counseller, philosopher, exemplar, supporter and facilitator of the junior person. The basic objective of mentoring is to help an employee gain psychological maturity and effectiveness and get integrated with the organisation. Mentoring can take place both at formal and informal levels depending on the prevailing work culture and commitment from the management. A good mentor has to : Listen to the mentee and understand him Challenge his intellect and stimulate the learning process Coach . Build Self Confidence Provide wise counselling Teach by examples Act as the role model Share experiences Offer encouragement

A person can learn a lot from his mentor if he : - Listens - Acts on advice - Shows commitment to learn - Leave ego at the door - Asks for feedback - Is Open minded - Is willing to change - Is proactive Mentoring in India is based on the time honoured Guru-Shishya relations where the guru would do everything to develop the personality of the Shishya offering emotional support and guidance. Shishya on the other hand can do anything and everything for the guru. Companies like Coca-Cola, TISCO have used mentoring systems to good effects in recent times. 4. Position Rotation. Position rotation training is the broadening of background of the trainee in the organisation. If the trainee is rotated periodically from one job to another job, he acquires a general background. He understands the larger organisational perspective and different functional areas. He attains better sense of his own career objectives and interests. Rotation allows the trainees to build rapport with a large number of individuals within the organisation and facilitates future cooperation among departments. The cross trained personnel will be more flexible in future in case of transfers, promotions or replacements. In position rotations, the productive work suffers because of the disruptions caused by such changes. As specialisation advances, rotation becomes less useful as few people have the technical knowledge and skills to move from one functional area to another. To get the best results out of this method, it should be tailored to the needs, interests and capabilities of the individual trainee and not be a standard sequence that all trainees undergo. 5. Apprenticeship. Apprenticeship training may be traced back to medieval times when those who wanted to learn trade skills used to bind themselves to master craftsman to learn by doing the work under his guidance. During earlier periods, apprenticeship was not restricted to artisans only. It was used in

training for the professions including medicine, law, teaching etc. . In today's organisations, apprenticeship training is a structured process by which people become skilled workers through a combination of classroom instructions and on-the-job training. It is widely used to train individuals for many occupations. Many organisations have apprenticeship laws with supervised plans for such training. 6. Committee Assignments. In this method, the trainees are asked to perform special assignments and to solve actual organisational problems. Sometimes, a task force is created which consists of a number of trainees representing different functions in the organisation. In this method, trainers acquire knowledge about the assigned activities and learn how to work with others. They also understand the personalities, issues and processes governing the organisation. However, managers should very well understand that committee assignments could become notorious time wasting activities. Merits. The main advantages of (on-the-job training OJT) are as follows: (i) The trainee learns on the actual machine in use and in real environment of the job. He gets a feel of the actual job. Therefore, he is better motivated to learn and there. is no problem of transfer of training skills on the job. (ii) OJT is the type of training which can be tailored to suit the specific requirements of each trainee, in terms of his background, attitudes, needs, expectations, goals and future assignments. (iii) This method is very economical because no additional space, equipment, personnel or other facilities are required for training. The trainee produces while he learns. (iv) The trainee learns the rules, regulations and procedures by observing their day to day applications. (v) OJT is specific, practical and tangible. (vi) OJT is most suitable for unskilled and semi-skilled jobs where the

job operations are simple, easy to explain and demonstrate within a short span of time. (vii) -The supervisors feel greater responsibility and work more willingly and zealously for the development of their subordinates, while imparting OJT. Demerits. Some of the demerits from which OJT suffers are: (i) In OJT there is a tendency to neglect, disregard and even to do away with, in some cases, the essentials of principles and theory in favour of immediate production. (ii) Trainee while learning may damage equipment, waste materials, cause accidents frequently. (iii) The work place, with environments charged with hustle and noise and the pace of skilled workers, is most likely to affect the learning and may create a feeling of frustration in the mind of a trainee. (iv) Experienced workers cannot use the machinery while it is being used for training. In order to make this training successful, some conditions must be satisfied: (a) What and how to teach should be carefully decided. (b) The instructor should be carefully selected and trained. (c) A definite follow up schedule should be used to judge the results of training. B. Off-the job Training In off-the-Job training methods the trainees have to leave their workplace and devote their entire time to the training. A few offthe-job training techniques are as follows: 1. Vestibule Training

In this method, a training centre called vestibule is set up and actual job conditions are duplicated or stimulated in it. Expert trainers are employed to provide training with the help of equipment and machines which are identical with those used at the work place. This method of training is used primarily when large number of employees must be trained quickly, as needed, as a result of expansion of business activities by firms or industries, although it is also helpful as a preliminary to on thejob-training. Merits. The important merits of vestibule training are: (i) . This method has the fundamental advantage of training a number of people in a short period of time, without causing any interruption or disturbance in the normal flow of work. (it) The trainee can concentrate on learning without disturbance of the workplace noise. (iii) This method is essential where on the job training might result in a serious injury, a costly event or the destruction of valuable equipment and material. (iv) It permits the trainee to practise without the fear of being observed and indicribed by the supervisor/coworker. (v) It is a specialised superior method of instructions, free from any pressures of getting out production. (vi) The interest and motivation of the trainee are high as the real job conditions are duplicated. (vil) This method provides possibility of frequent lectures, or discussions and greater personal attention to individual trainees. Demerits. This method, however, suffers from the following demerits:

(i) The use of this method is limited more or less to those jobs, in which there is a high turnover or there is a continuously increasing demand for workers. (ii) Vestibule training is the most expensive method because of additional investment in class-room, equipment and expert trainers. (iii) The training situation is somewhat artificial and the trainee does not get a feel of the real job. 2. Apprenticeship Training The' Apprenticeship' system is perhaps the oldest and most commonly used method for training in industrial crafts, trades and technical areas. In this method, theoretical knowledge and practical learning are provided to trainees in training institutes. In India, the government has established Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) for this purpose. The aim of this training is to develop all round craftsmen. Generally, a stipend is paid during the training period. Thus, it is an 'earn while you learn' scheme. Merits. The main merits of this method are: (i) The main advantage of this method is that it combines theory and practice. The trainee becomes productive immediately. (ii) It ensures the maintenance of a skilled work force. (iii) It greatly improves workmanship. (iv) This fosters a sense of belongingness and loyalty in the minds of employees and opens up opportunities for their growth and development. Demerits. Apprenticeship training is time consuming and expensive. Many persons leave the training programme midway as the training period extends from one year to three years. 3. Classroom Training

The classroom training, is the traditional way of education, which places the trainee in a class-room. Class-room training takes place either inside the organisation or at some external selected sites, may be institutes, universities or professional associations, which have no connection with the company. The main aim of class-room training is to take the man away from his working environment, to mix with men in a similar position to his own, and as a result bring about change in his attitude and point of view, capable of looking at problems differently. Lectures, case studies, group discussions and audio-visual aids are used to explain knowledge and skills to the trainees. Classroom training is suitable for teaching concepts and problem solving skills. It is also useful for orientation and safety training programmes. It may also include courses in re-training and upgrading. 4. Internship Training In internship training, educational institutions and business firms have a joint programme of training. Selected candidates carry on regular studies for the prescribed period. They also work in some factory or office to acquire practical knowledge and skills. This method helps to provide a good balance between theory and practice. But it involves a long time period due to slow process. Internship training is used in professional courses e.g. MBBS, C.A., ICWA etc. 5. Conferences Conference is a favourite training method. Many organisations have adopted guided discussion type of conferences in their training programmes, in order to escape the limitations of the lecture method. In conferences, the participants pool their ideas and experiences to arrive at improved methods of dealing with the problems which are the common subject of discussion. Conference may include buzz sessions that divide the conference into small groups for intensive discussion. These small groups then report back their conclusions or questions I to the whole conference. Conference method allows the trainees to look at the r problems from a broader angle. However, unless the conference is directed I towards the required needs of the participants, they may feel that the whole exercise is useless. 6. Role Playing

Role playing is a method of human interactions that involves realistic behaviour in imaginary situations. Role playing involves action, doing and practice. The trainees play the role of certain character eg. the different position holders in the organisation. By role playing, a trainee can broaden his experience by trying different approaches/roles, while in actual practice, he often has only one role to play. 7. Programmed Learning Programmed instruction is a step by step learning process that consists of three parts : -Presenting questions, facts or problems to the trainees. - Allowing the trainee to respond - Providing feedback on the accuracy of answers. The advantages of this method are: - It reduces the training time. - It facilitates learning since it lets trainees learn at their own pace. - It provides immediate feedback and reduces the risk of errors. The limitation of this method, however, is that the trainee does not learn much more than he would from a traditional text book approach. The management must weigh the cost of developing the programmed instructions against the potentially accelerated but not improved learning. (c) ELECTRONIC TRAINING Computerised and internet based tools have revolutionised the training process. Some methods of electronic training are as follows: 1. Audio-Visuals Audio-visuals include television slides, overheads, films, power points, video conferencing, audio-video tapes etc. These can be very effective and are widely used as training techniques. These can be used to provide a wide range of realistic examples of job conditions and situations in the condensed period of time. The quality of the presentation can be controlled and will remain equal for all training groups. Audio-visual aids tend to be more interesting. This method, however, is more expensive as

compared to other traditional methods, Moreover, it constitutes a one way system of communication with no scope for the trainees to raise questions or doubts for clarification. There is no flexibility also in this method to change the presentation from audience to audience. 2. Computer Based Training In computer based training, the trainee uses computer based and/or CD. ROM systems to interactively increase his knowledge or skills. In this method, the tests are taken on computer so that the management can monitor each trainee's progress and needs. This programme can be modified easily to reflect technological innovations in the equipment for which the employee is being trained. This training also tends to be more flexible since the trainees can use the computer almost any time and thus, get training when they prefer. The feedback from this method is as rich and colourful as modern electronic games, complete with audio instructions and video displays. A limitation of this method is its high cost, but repeated use often justifies the cost. 3. Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSS). People do not remember everything they learn. The training, in this method, focusses on the skills the employees need every day for performing their jobs. Computer based support systems, then deliver the rest of what they need to know, when they need it. Employers use job aids for this purpose. Job aid is a set of instructions, diagrams or similar methods available at the job site to guide the workers. EPSS is today's job aid. EPSS are a set of computerised tools and displays that automate training, documentation and phone support, integrate this automation into applications and provide support that is faster, cheaper and more effective than traditional methods. 4. Distance and internet based Training. Organisations use various forms of distance learning methods for training. Distance learning methods include traditional paper and pencil correspondence courses as well as tele training, videoconferencing and internet based classes. In teletraining, a trainer in a central location teacher groups of employees at remote locations via television. Honda America corporate began by using satellite technology to train engineers and now it uses it for many other types of employee training.

This method is very cost effective since the employees learn at home and the company does not have to pay for their travel, stay and training. Video-Conferencing is used by companies to train the employees who are geographically separated from each other or from the trainer. This method allows people in one location to communicate line via a combination of audio and visual equipment with people in another city or country or with groups in several cities. Many firms need the internet and their proprietary intranets to deliver computer based training. Employees can access the programmes, whenever they want. Distribution costs are zero and changes can be made in the programmes at the central location whenever 'need arises. Many firms are using Business Portals now-a-days. Training is often found and delivered through training oriented learning portals. These portals contract with employers and deliver training options to the firms employees (often web based). Many firms are creating their own learning portals for their employees. They let the company contract with specific training content providers, which offer their training content to the firm's employees via the portal. The technology of the learning portals puts more and more information into everyone's hands. Instead of limiting training opportunities to teacher led conventional classes or to periodic training sessions, training becomes available all the time. Employees learn at their own pace, whenever they want to.

METHODS / TECHNIQUES OF EXECUTIVE DEVELOPMENT

The basic purpose of executive development programmes is to help the executive in acquiring and developing different types of managerial skills and knowledge. Different types of skills and knowledge needed by executives are as follows: (i) Decision-making skills (ii) Interpersonal skills (iii) Job Knowledge (iv) Organisational Knowledge (v) General knowledge (vi) Specific Individual needs. The methods/techniques which help the executives in acquiring and I developing these skill are as follows: (1) DECISION MAKING SKILLS I The basic job of every executive is to take decisions, both strategic and routine. The techniques which help him in developing decision making skills are as follows: 1. In Basket Exercise. After the trainees are given background information on a simulated exercise about a company and its products, organisation and key personnel, they are provided with an in-basket of assorted memoranda, requests and data pertaining to the firm. The trainee must make sense out of this mass of paper work and prepare memos, make notes and delegate tasks within a limited period. The In-basket training involves: - Situational Judgement in being able to recall details, establish priorities, interrelate items and determine need for more information. - Scheduling meetings with involved explaining reasons for action taken. personnel and

- Willingness to make a decision and take action.

Merits. The In-basket method has the following advantages: (i) (ii) (iii) It is simple and easy to follow. It is inexpensive and can be organised easily.

Trainees learn quickly as they have to list priorities, make assumptions assign work to others and get things done within a time frame. (iv) Since participants are from different departments, it is easy to put out inter-department fires. Demerits. On the negative side: (i) This method is somewhat academic and removed from real life situations. (ii) The participants knowing fully well that they are handling an imaginary situation, may not be too excited about the whole exercise and may not fully commit themselves to the task. (iii) It discourages originality. since the teams have to adopt themselves to rigid situations. 2. Business Games/Management Games. Management games are being devised and used with varying degrees of success in development programmes. Management games are designed to be representative of real life situations. A management game is a classroom exercise, in which teams of students compete against each other to achieve certain common objectives. The trainees are asked to take decisions about production, cost, research and development etc. for a stimulated organisation. Since, the trainees are often divided into teams as competing companies, experience is obtained in team work. Under this method, the trainees learn by analysing problems by using some intuition and by taking trail and error type of decisions. Anything wrongly done is corrected by the trainer or sometimes a second chance is given to do something all over again. . Management games are intended to teach trainees how to take managerial decisions in an integrated manner. Such games illustrate the existence of various group processes including communication, the resolution of conflicts, the emergence of leadership and development of friendly ties.

Merits. Merits of management games are: 1. There is usually a great sense of excitement and enjoyment in playing the games. This helps to develop problem solving skills. 2. These games compress time. Events that take painfully long periods of time are made to occur in a matter of hours. 3. In these games, one can learn from mistakes. Participants can take a different course of action by looking at the consequences and improve performance. 4. It helps in changing attitudes. Participants become more tolerant. 5 . Prompt feedback facilitates quick learning. 6. These games focus attention on planning rather than just putting out fires. Demerits. The demerits of this method are: 1. The games can be very expensive to develop and implement particularly when the game itself is computerised. 2. Business games are removed from reality. These force the decision makers to choose his alternatives from a closed list, whereas in real life, managers may get unlimited chances for creating new alternatives. 3. No evidence is available which may indicate that those who are successful in business games will also be successful in a real job. 4. Unorthodox Strategies may be advanced by innovative participants. But when these strategies do not find acceptance from others, creativity may take a back seat.

5. Participants may be so engrossed in getting ahead of all others that they fail to grasp the underlying management policies being taught. 3. Case Study. The case study method of development utilises actual case examples collected from various organisations for diagnostic purposes. Under this method, a real or hypothetical problem or situation demanding solution is presented in writing to the trainees. They are required to identify and analyse the problem, suggest and evaluate alternative courses of action and choose the most appropriate solution. The trainer guides the discussion and ensures that no relevant factor is overlooked. Thus, the trainees get an opportunity to apply their skills in the solution of realistic. problems. To make the case study an effective tool, the trainer must: (i) Identify the minor and major problems in the case. (ii) Filter out the significant facts from the insignficant ones. (iii) Analyse the issues and use logic to fill the gaps in the facts. (iv) Arrive at some means for solving the identifiable problems. For the effective use of case studies, group discussions may also be Conducted Merits. The merits of case study method are: (i) This method improves the problem solving skills of the participants. (ii) This method is a way of learning by doing. Trainees can apply theory to practical problems and learn quickly. (iii) Trainees get a feel of how others work at a problem and begin to appreciate and learn from each other's thinking. (iv) If the case reflects a real life situation trainees take keen interest ana,

examine the cross currents with an open and inquisitive mind. (v) Case study can provide stimulating discussions among participants a! well as excellent opportunities for individuals to defend their analyticai and judgemental abilities. Demerits. The negative points of case study are: (i) It is a costly and time consuming method since the case studies do not originate easily. (ii) Cases, sometimes, are not sufficiently realistic to be useful. (iii) Examining the old case studies may fail to develop the analytical and reasoning abilities of the participants. (iv) Cases may contain information which may not be appropriate for the kind of decisions that the trainees would take in real life situations. (v) A trainee who is not skilled in this technique may undermine its usefulness. (ii) INTER-PERSONAL SKILLS The various techniques used to foster and develop interpersonal skills are as follows: 1. Role Playing. Under this method, a conflicting situation is artificially created and two or more trainees are assigned different roles to play. No dialogues are given before hand. The role players are provided with either a written or oral description the situation and the roles they are to play. After being allowed sufficient time to plan their actions, they must then act their parts spontaneously before the class. For example, a role playing situation may be a salesman making is presentation to the prospective buyer. Role playing techniques is generally used for human relations

and leadership training. The purpose is to give trainees an opportunity to learn human relations skill through practice and to develop an insight into one's own behaviour and its effect upon other. Thus is a laboratory method which can be used rather easily as a supplement to other conventional training methods. Merits. The merits of Role-Playing method are: (i) In this method learning by doing is emphasised. (ii) Human interactions and sensitivity are stressed. (iii) The knowledge of results is immediate. (iv) Training interest and involvement tend to be high. (v) It brings about desired changes in behaviour and attitudes. (vi) Competitive atmosphere spurs active participation. Demerits. The negative points of Role Playing are: (i) Realism is sometimes lacking in role playing so that the learning experience is diminished. (ii) It is not easy to duplicate the pressures and realities of actual decision making on the job. (iii) Individuals act very differently in real life than they do in acting out a simulated exercise. (iv) Many trainees often feel uncomfortable in role playing situations. 2. Sensitivity Training. This method is also called T-Group training and laboratory training as it is conducted under controlled conditions. Sensitivity training was developed by KURT LEWIN. According to Chris Argyris "Sensitivity training is a group experience designed to provide maximum possible opportunity for the individuals to expose their behaviour, give and receive feedback, experiment with new behaviour and develop awareness of self and of others. The main features of sensitivity training are as follows:

- T Group consists of 10-12 persons. - A leader acts as the catalyst and provides a free and open environment for discussion. - There is no specified agenda. - Trainees express their ideas, opinions and feelings freely and openly. The focus is on behaviour rather than on duties. - The aim is to achieve behaviour effectiveness in transactions with one's environment. Merits. According to Campbell and Dunnettee sensitivity training helps the participants to : - learn more about themselves, especially their own weaknesses an emotions. - Develop insights into how they react to others and how others react to them. - Discover how groups work and how to diagnose human relations problems. - Find out how to behave more effectively in inter-personal relations and how to manage people through means other than power. - Develop more 'component' and 'authentic' relations in which feelings are expressed openly. - Confront interpersonal problems directly, so that they may be solve~ and not try to avoid them rather smooth them over or seek a compromise.

After training, the trainees become more sensitive to others and more open. Such training can also result in increased company' performance and profits. Demertis. The demerits of this training are: - The programme is considered to be a waste of time. Even the trainees' who themselves are favourably impressed with the training cannot point out the specific benefits and 'neither can their associates. - Sensitivity training make the trainees so sensitive to the feelings of others that he is not in a position to take harsh decisions. - Such training induces anxiety among participants. Such anxiety may cause the people to be highly frustrated, unsettled and upset. - T-Group training when applied to technical professionals is often less effective as compared to the conventional methods. - The trainers often create stress situations. There is a danger that training of this sort may do a better job of tearing apart people than of bringing, them together. - The ultimate goals and techniques. of this training are often inconsistent with the business and economic world in which we live. 3. Behaviour Modelling. Behaviour modelling is based on the social learning theory. Behaviour modelling is a more structured approach to teach specific supervisory skills. The approach, generally, involves the following stages: - A conceptual presentation is made in the proper handling of a particular problem. The key action step is identified and emphasised.

- A video tape of the effective handling of the problem is presented. Each key action step is performed. -A behavioural rehearsal period is then undertaken. Though this may look like role playing, the trainee is not free to select a response. Rather he rehearses the behaviour presented to him. - During and after the rehersal period, the trainee is given feedback on performance and is positively reinforced when demonstrating the behaviour model. - Finally, the trainee is encouraged to try the behaviour at the job and report back for discussion of the result of that tryout. 4. Transactional Analysis (TA). TA offers a model of personality and dynamics of self and its relationship to others that makes possible a clear and meaningful understanding of behaviour. It is used in industry as a method of analysing and understanding interpersonal behaviour. When people interact, there is a social transaction in which one person responds to another. The study of these transactions between people is called 'Transactional Analysis'. T A was originally developed by Eric Berne, a psychotherapist, for psychotherapy in 1950. He observed in his patients that it was as if there were several different persons inside one person. He also observed that these several selves transmitted with people in different ways. Later on the application of T A for ordinary transactions was popularised by Harris and Jongeward besides Berne. Transactional analysis is a very popular method of executive development. By exposing their executives to courses in transactional analysis, the companies seek to improve their self understanding, interpersonal effectiveness, communication and leadership skills. 5. Multiple Management. This method is for the training of junior executives. Here the Junior executives are encouraged to put their minds to work on the business as -a whole, rather than to concentrate on their specialised areas. Though the major

objective is training, the organisation is also benefited by the productive ideas. Under this system, a junior board of young executives is constituted. Major problems are analysed in the Junior board which makes recommendations to the Board of Directors. The young executives learn decision making skills and the Board of Directors receives the benefit of collective wisdom of the executive team. Vacancies in the Board of Directors can be filled from the Junior board members who have received considerable exposure to problems and other issues. This method has the advantages of being relatively inexpensive, development of team work and group decision making among managers, enabling the managers to see the problems from the organisational point of view rather than departmental or functional point of view. (iii) Job Knowledge. In addition to the above mentioned skills, the executives should also possess knowledge about the jobs to perform their jobs effectively and efficiently. Job knowledge can be acquired through the following methods: 1. On the Job experience. On the job technique is most useful when the objective is to improve the job behaviour of the executives. Such training is inexpensive and time saving. Training takes place in real job situations and the motivation to learn is high. The success of this technique depends upon the immediate supervisor and his teaching capabilities. This technique is particularly useful for certain groups like scientific and technical personnel. The limitation of this method is that neither the trainer nor the trainee are free from the daily routine and pressures of the job. The costs of training may appear to be low initially, but they may turn out to be high when wastages of all kinds are considered. Despite the limitations, still it is the most popular method of developing the executives. 2. Coaching. Under this method, the immediate superior guides the subordinates about various methods and skills to do the job.

He briefs the trainees in what is expected of them and guides them how to get it. He also watches their performance and guides them to correct their mistakes. The superior only guides and directs but does not teach, although he extends his assistance whenever needed. He periodically reviews the performance and suggests changes required in behaviour and performance. The main objective of coaching is to provide diversified knowledge. Coaching is recognised as one of the responsibilities of the managers. The manager has an obligation to train and develop the subordinates working under him. He guides and trains them and prepares them to handle the complex situations. Merits. The merits of coaching are: - Increased motivation of the trainee, since coaching constitutes learning by doing. - Minimisation of the problems of transferring learning from theory to practice. - Least centralised staff co-ordination is required, since every executive can coach his men 'even if no management development programme exists. - Feed back on performance is received quickly. Demerits. This method has the following demerits also: - This method relies on the ability of the coach to be a good teacher, which he may not necessarily be. - In many cases, the learner cannot develop much beyond the limits of his own boss's abilities. - This technique is authoritarian, for a coach tends to familarise his subordinates with his own work habits and beliefs, even though these may be faulty. - The training atmosphere is not available in this method. Coaching method will work well if the coach provides a good

model with whom the trainee can identify, if both can be open with each other, if the coach accepts his responsibility fully and if he provides the trainee with recognition of his improvement and suitable rewards. 3. Understudy. An understudy is the person who is specially designated as the heir apparent. In this method, the trainee is prepared to perform the work or fill the position of his superior. Such understudy is likely to assume the full duties and responsibilities currently held by his superior as his superior leaves the job due to promotion, retirement or transfer. The department manager picks up one person from the department to become his under study. The departmental manager routes much of his work through the under study, discusses the problems with him and allows him to participate in the decision making process as often as possible. The junior is generally assigned tasks which are closely related to work in his section and he is deputed to attend executive meetings as a representative of his superior. The understudy may even be asked to directly supervise a number of people at work. This will give him an opportunity to try out his leadership skills. Merits. The merits of understudy method are as follows: - This method creates a practical and realistic situation in which the training is conducted. - It is a practical and fairly quick way of training designated persons for greater management responsibilities. - It emphasises learning by doing. - It relieves the boss of some of his workload by delegating some portion of the workload to the understudy. - It ensures that the organisation will not be in a disadvantageous situation if an executive suddenly leaves his job. The understudy will be in position to hold that position.

Demerits. There are quite a few disadvantages of this method also: - Since the understudy has been specifically designated, it may spark off jealously and rivalry among competing subordinates. The others may feel that the competition for promotion is over. This reduces the motivation level of both the one who is designated and the other personnel. - The understudy may be picked up on the basis of his similarity in thinking and acting with those of his superior and then the understudy will learn the ways. of his superior, who has learnt from his superior. Thus, understudy will perpetuate the existing practices, the bad as well as the good. Therefore, outside contacts through other development techniques are essential for the development of the person and for the well being of the organisation. The effectiveness of understudy assignments depends upon the willingness and ability of the higher level manager to share experiences and to transfer knowledge to the understudy manager. (iv) Organisationl Knowledge. In addition to the job knowledge, the executives should possess through knowledge about the organisation in which they work. There are two techniques of imparting organisational knowledge: Job Rotation and Multiple Management. (Multiple management has been discussed under inter-personal skills). Job Rotation Job rotation implies systematic, planned and coordinated effort to transfer an executive from job to job or from plant to plant. The main aim of job rotation is to broaden the general background of the training in the business. The executive is given all the duties and responsibilities which go along with the job to which he is transferred. This method broadens the outlook of the executive as he comes to appreciate the problems faced by other managers, plants, departments etc. According to W.E. Benett "Job rotation is a process of horizontal movement that widens the manager's experience horizon beyond the limited

confines of his own." A junior entrant who is new to the organisation requires a considerable degree of specialised knowledge and skill but a man can never acquire the diversified skill unless he is put in different types of situations. Merits. Job rotation has many advantages: - It works to bring down the feeling of superiority of one department over the others; since everyone is moved from one department to other. - It rather develops inter-departmental co-operation. - Boredom, monotony are reduced. - Job rotation injects new ideas into the different departments of the organisation. - Under this system, an executive is not destined to end up in just one spot but is equipped to step up into any of the several executive posts in any of various functional decisions. - The trainee will learn the nature and significance of management principles by transferring learning from one job to another. - Each executive's abilities and talents are best tested in a variety of jobs. So the organisation can secure his best utilisation in the ultimate assignment. Demerits. The demerits of Job rotation are: - Productive work may suffer due to disruptions caused by chance and limitations of individuals to adjust to a new job. So it is better I lengthen the interval of rotation and to rotate fewer personnel at a time. - The executives can't gain specialised knowledge in one particular branch of work during a short span of time. - It upsets home and family life, since many a time transfers are effected to different geographical areas.

- It becomes difficult for the subordinates to adjust themselves to their new bosses. Interpersonal relationship takes time for adjustment and employees with frequent moves are apt to feel insecure. It develops friction, jealousy and other non-cooperative and dysfunctional forms of human behaviour. (v) General Knowledge. In addition to the knowledge about the job and the organisation, the executive should also possess general knowledge, as every organisation is influenced and affected by the external environments. He should have general knowledge about the economic, political, legal and international environment of the country. General knowledge can be acquired with the help of the following! methods: 1. Special Courses. The executives can attend the workshops or executive development programmes organised by the management institutes, universities and colleges. These courses will help in improving their general knowledge. 2. Special Meetings. Some outside organisations like consumer forums, chambers of industry and commerce, and so many other voluntary organisations, organise special meetings from time to time. The executives can attend such meetings to acquire general knowledge. 3. Specific Readings. Specific articles published by various journals, specific portions of important books are provided to the trainees to improve their general knowledge. (vi) Specific Individual Needs Some executives may have to be trained in some specific areas due to some specific needs or weaknesses. The. methods of training for this aspect are: 1. Special Projects Assignments. A special assignment is a highly training device under which a trainee is assigned a project that is closely related to his job. Sometimes, a number of trainee

executives are put together to work on a project directly related to their functional areas. The trainee studies the problems and submits the written recommendations upon it. It provides him a valuable experience in tackling the problem but would also have the other values of educating the trainees the importance of the problem and to understand the organisational relationship of the problem with different angles. When he works as a member of the team, he not only acquires knowledge, but also learns how to work with others having different points of view. 2. Committee Assignments. This method is similar to project assignment. Under this system an ad-hoc committee is constituted and is assigned a subject related to the business to discuss and to make recommendations. Through discussions in committee meetings, the executives get acquainted with different point of views and alternative methods of problem solving. They also learn interpersonal skills. Generally, the executives are selected from different departments having specialised knowledge in different areas. 3. Conferences. A conference is a group meeting conducted according to an organised plan in whcih the members participate in oral discussion of a particular problem and thus, develop their knowledge and understanding. It is an executive training device for conference .members and conference leaders. Both learn a lot from others view point and compare their opinions with others. The conference leaders may also learn how to develop their skills to motivate people through direction of discussion. The conferences are of three types: (i) Guided or directed conference (ii) Consultative conference and (iii) Problem solving conference. For training purposes, guided or directed conference is used. It is ideally suited in developing conceptual knowledge, reducing dogmatism and modifying attitudes. The trainee actively participates and his interest in learning is maintained.