PROJECT REPORT ON WORKING OF TWO STOCK

This Project Report submitted in the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Mechanical Engineering

Submitted To:Mr. Sovit Saini H.O.D. of Mechanical Deptt. S.K.P, Kurukshetra

Submitted By:Deepchand Punit Jain Sunny Goyal Sarvjeet (0904217111) (0904217093) (0904217074) (0904217115)

SHRI KRISHAN POLYTECHNIC KURUKSHETRA

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is our privilege to acknowledge with respect and gratitude, the keen valuable and ever-available guidance render to us by MR. Pardeep Narwal & NAVDEEP NAIN Lecturer in Department Of Mechanical Engg. Of SHRI KRISHAN POLYTECHNIC (DEV BHOOMI), Kurukshetra. We shall always be grateful to them for providing us strength, perception and patience to complete this work. The fact remains that it is virtue of their rich experience and versatile knowledge which enabled us to complete this project report. At the same time , we will like to give a special thanks to all my friends for their valuable suggestions . They illuminated many dark corners of the subject .Above all, we thank almighty , for the light he has kindled on us, which has led the path we are all on

Submitted By-: Punit Jain Sarvjeet (R. no. 0904217093) (R. No. 0904217066)

Sunny Goyal (R. No. 0904217074) Deepchand (R. No. 0904217111)

CERTIFICATE
This is certified that the project cultivated Power generation by Two Stock Engine is the bonafide of Mr. Punit Jain, Sarvjeet, board of

Sunny Goyal , Deepchand. This is submitted for partial fulfillment of awards of diploma in MECHANICAL ENGINEERING the state technical education, Chandigarh Haryana.

It is further certified that he has work for their complete semester for preparing this project in many opinions, the project report is up to the required standard and recommended this project might be sent for evaluation.

Guide By-:
Mr. Pardeep Narwal & Mr. Navdeep Nain

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Introduction
MECHANICALLY, the two-stroke engine is very simple, and unfortunately on too many occasions this apparent simplicity has fooled would-be tuners into believing that this type of power unit is easy to modify. Just a few hours work with a file in the exhaust and inlet ports can change the entire character of the engine for the better, but if you go just 0.5mm too far, you could end up with a device slower than its stock counterpart. Therefore modifications must be planned carefully, keeping in mind that seldom, if ever, is the biggest (or most expensive) the best. As you plan your modifications always tend to be conservative. If necessary, you can go bigger later. Possibly the worst viewpoint you can start out with is that the manufacturer didn't know what he was doing. I started out thinking that way too; but then I began to realise why the engineers did it that way. Pretty soon I was learning more about what makes a two-stroke fire and making fewer mistakes. You must keep in mind that all production engines are a compromise, even highly developed racing engines like the Yamaha TZ250. You can make the TZ churn out more power, but will you be able to ride it with the power band narrowed right down, and do you have the experience to handle a sudden rush of power at the top end on an oily or wet track? Also, think about the added wear caused by more rpm and horsepower; do you have the finances to replace the crankshaft, pistons and cylinder more frequently now that you are running at 12,500rpm instead of 11,500rpm? When you begin to think about things like this, you start to understand a few of the reasons why manufacturers make compromise engines and machines. Remember the TZ250 started out as a road racer, so you can imagine some of the problems you could come up against if you were to modify a single cylinder 125 motocross engine for use in a road racer. Obviously the first work you should do is bring the engine up to the manufacturer's specifications. This is termed blueprinting, and involves accurately measuring everything and then correcting any errors made in production. You will be 9 amazed at the gains to be made, particularly in reliability, and to a lesser extent in performance, by correcting manufacturing deficiencies. I am convinced manufacturers bolt their road racers together merely to make shipping all the pieces easier, such are their tolerances. I have seen engines that have never been started with piston clearances larger than the manufacturer's serviceable limit. Conrods that vary 0.4mm in centre to centre length and 20 grams in weight, on the same crank. Crankwheels which are 0.1mm outside true centre. Cylinder heads with a squish band clearance of 1.7mm, instead of 0.7-1.0mm. Cylinders with port edges so sharp that the side of the piston and rings would have been shaved away in a few minutes' running. New pistons with cracks. New cylinder heads that are porous. Included in blueprinting is cleaning the rough cast out of the ports, and matching all gaskets so they don't overlap the ports. The transfer ports must be matched to the

crankcase. The carburettor should coincide with the mounting flange and inlet port. Anything the manufacturer has not done (presumably to cut costs), you should do. Blueprinting is slow, tedious work, and it can be expensive when crankshafts have to be separated and then machined and trued, or when cylinder heads have to be machined to close up the squish band without raising the compression ratio. It is not very exciting work because when you have finished the engine is stock standard, and telling your mates all the work you have done won't impress them. But don't let this put you off, the basis for any serious tuning must begin with bringing the engine up to the manufacturer's specifications. Most people won't believe how close to standard are the motors used by the factory racing teams. Other riders are convinced that, because the factory boys are quicker, they must have more power and lots of trick parts. In truth, the differences are in frame geometry and the ability of the factory rider to ride faster and make the right choice of tyres, suspension settings, gearing, jetting etc. Plus, of course, they use blueprinted engines. So that there is no misunderstanding of the two-stroke operating cycle I will describe what goes on in each cylinder, every revolution of the crankshaft. The first example is the piston-ported Bultaco Matador Mk4 which, like most modern two-strokes, operates on the loop scavenge principle. As the piston goes up, the inlet port is opened by the piston skirt at 75 before TDC (Top Dead Centre) and the atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi) forces air/fuel mixture in to fill the crankcase (FIGURE 1.1). The piston continues to rise to TDC, compressing the fuel/air charge admitted on the previous cycle. At 3.2mm before TDC the spark plug fires, sending the piston down on the power cycle. As the piston continues its descent the inlet port is closed and the fuel/air mixture is partially compressed in the crankcase. 85 before BDC (Bottom Dead Centre) the exhaust port is opened by the piston crown and the exhaust gases flow out. After another 22 (63 before BDC) the blow-down period finishes and the piston crown exposes the transfer ports to admit the fresh fuel/air charge. This is forced up the transfer passages due to the descending piston reducing the crankcase volume by the equivalent of the cylinder displacement, in this instance 244cc. As the piston begins rising, the mixture continues to flow into the cylinder and the exhaust gas continues flowing out. The piston continues rising, closing off first the transfer and then exhaust ports. Next the inlet port opens, to start the cycle over again. 10 Rotary valve engines operate on the same loop scavenge principle, but in this case a disc partially cut away and attached to the end of the crankshaft opens and closes an inlet port in the side of the crankcase. The Morbidelli 125 twin road racer is a rotary valve engine. The inlet port opens 30 after BDC and closes 79 after TDC. The piston crown opens and closes the exhaust and transfer ports. The following pages will provide you with the knowledge necessary to develop a successful two-stroke competition engine, but do keep in mind the principles outlined in this chapter so that you avoid the most basic pitfalls associated with two-stroke tuning.

A -mixture in cylinder is compressed & inlet cycle begins. B-mixture in crankcase is compressed. C- exhaust cycle begins & primary compression continues. D- transfer cycle begins & exhaust cycle continues.

Two-stroke engine
A two-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine that completes the process cycle in one revolution of the crankshaft (an up stroke and a down stroke of the piston, compared to twice that number for a four-stroke engine). This is accomplished by using the end of the combustion stroke and the beginning of the compression stroke to perform simultaneously the intake and exhaust (or scavenging) functions. In this way, two-stroke engines often provide high specific power, at least in a narrow range of rotational speeds. The functions of some or all of the valves required by a four-stroke engine are usually served in a two-stroke engine by ports that are opened and closed by the motion of the piston(s), greatly reducing the number of moving parts. Gasoline (spark ignition) versions are particularly useful in lightweight (portable) applications, such as chainsaws, and the concept is also used in diesel compression ignition engines in large and weight insensitive applications, such as ships and locomotives. The first commercial two-stroke engine involving in-cylinder compression is attributed to

Scottish engineer Dugald Clerk, who in 1881 patented his design, his engine having a separate charging cylinder. The crankcase-scavenged engine, employing the area below the piston as a charging pump, is generally credited to Englishman Joseph Day.

Applications
The two-stroke engine was very popular throughout the 20th century in motorcycles and small-engined devices, such as chainsaws and outboard motors, and was also used in some cars, a few tractors and many ships. Part of their appeal was their simple design (and resulting low cost) and often high power-to-weight ratio. The lower cost to rebuild and maintain made the two stroke engine incredibly popular, until the EPA mandated more stringent emission controls in 1978 (taking effect in 1980) and in 2004 (taking effect in 2005 and 2010). The industry largely responded by switching to four-stroke engines, which emit less pollution than two stroke engines [1]. Many designs use totalloss lubrication, with the oil being burned in the combustion chamber, causing "blue smoke" and other types of exhaust pollution. This is a major reason for two-stroke engines being replaced by four-stroke engines in many applications.

Two-stroke engines continue to be commonly used in high-power, handheld applications such as string trimmers and chainsaws. The light overall weight, and light-weight spinning parts give important operational and even safety advantages. For example, only a two-stroke engine that uses a gasoline-oil mixture can power a chainsaw operating in any position. These engines are still used for small, portable, or specialized machine applications such as outboard motors, high-performance, small-capacity motorcycles, mopeds, underbones, scooters, tuktuks, snowmobiles, karts, ultralights, model airplanes (and other model vehicles) and lawnmowers. The two-stroke cycle is used in many diesel engines, most notably large industrial and marine engines, as well as some trucks and heavy machinery. A number of mainstream automobile manufacturers have used two-stroke engines in the past, including the Swedish Saab and German manufacturers DKW and Auto-Union. The Japanese manufacturer Suzuki did the same in the 1970s.Production of two-stroke cars ended in the 1980s in the West, but Eastern Bloc countries continued until around 1991, with the Trabant and Wartburg in East Germany. Lotus of Norfolk, UK, has a prototype direct-injection two-stroke engine intended for alcohol fuels called the Omnivore which it is demonstrating in a version of the Exige.

Different two-stroke design types

Although the principles remain the same, the mechanical details of various two-stroke engines differ depending on the type. The design types vary according to the method of introducing the charge to the cylinder, the method of scavenging the cylinder (exchanging burnt exhaust for fresh mixture) and the method of exhausting the cylinder.

Piston-controlled inlet port

Piston port is the simplest of the designs. All functions are controlled solely by the piston covering and uncovering the ports as it moves up and down in the cylinder. A fundamental difference from typical four-stroke engines is that the crankcase is sealed and forms part of the induction process in gasoline and hot bulb engines. Diesel engines have mostly a Roots blower or piston pump for scavenging.

Reed inlet valve

A Cox Babe Bee 0.049 cubic inch (0.8 cubic cm) reed valve engine, disassembled, uses glow plug ignition. The mass is 64 grams. The reed valve is a simple but highly effective form of check valve commonly fitted in the intake tract of the piston-controlled port. They allow asymmetric intake of the fuel charge, improving power and economy, while widening the power band. They are widely used in ATVs and marine outboard engines.

Rotary inlet valve

The intake pathway is opened and closed by a rotating member. A familiar type sometimes seen on small motorcycles is a slotted disk attached to thecrankshaft which covers and uncovers an opening in the end of the crankcase, allowing charge to enter during one portion of the cycle. Another form of rotary inlet valve used on two-stroke engines employs two cylindrical members with suitable cutouts arranged to rotate one within the other - the inlet pipe having passage to the crankcase only when the two cutouts coincide. The crankshaft itself may form one of the members, as in most glow plug model engines. In another embodiment, the crank disc is arranged to be a close-clearance fit in the crankcase, and is provided with a cutout which lines up with an inlet passage in the crankcase wall at the appropriate time, as in the Vespa motor scooter. The advantage of a rotary valve is it enables the two-stroke engine's intake timing to be asymmetrical, which is not possible with piston port type engines. The piston port type engine's intake timing opens and closes before and after top dead center at the same crank angle, making it symmetrical, whereas the rotary valve allows the opening to begin earlier and close earlier. Rotary valve engines can be tailored to deliver power over a wider speed range or higher power over a narrower speed range than either piston port or reed valve engine. Where a portion of the rotary valve is a portion of the crankcase itself, it is particularly important that no wear is allowed to take place.

Crossflow-scavenged
In a crossflow engine, the transfer and exhaust ports are on opposite sides of the cylinder, and a deflector on the top of the piston directs the fresh intake charge into the upper part of the cylinder, pushing the residual exhaust gas down the other side of the deflector and out the exhaust port. The deflector increases the piston's weight and exposed surface area, and also makes it difficult to achieve an efficient combustion chamber shape. This design has been largely superseded by the loop scavenging method (below), although for smaller or slower engines, the crossflow-scavenged design can be an acceptable approach.

Loop-scavenged

The Two-stroke cycle A: intake/scavenging B: Exhaust C: Compression D: Expansion(power)

This method of scavenging uses carefully shaped and positioned transfer ports to direct the flow of fresh mixture toward the combustion chamber as it enters the cylinder. The fuel/air mixture strikes the cylinder head, then follows the curvature of the combustion chamber, and then is deflected downward. This not only prevents the fuel/air mixture from traveling directly out the exhaust port, but also creates a swirling turbulence which improves combustion efficiency, power and economy. Usually, a piston deflector is not required, so this approach has a distinct advantage over the cross-flow scheme (above). Often referred to as "Schnuerle" (or "Schnrl") loop scavenging after the German inventor of an early form in the mid 1920s, it became widely adopted in that country during the 1930s and spread further afield after World War II. Loop scavenging is the most common type of fuel/air mixture transfer used on modern two-stroke engines. Suzuki was one of the first manufacturers outside of Europe to adopt loop-scavenged two-stroke engines. This operational feature was used in conjunction with the expansion chamber exhaust developed by German motorcycle manufacturer, MZ and Walter Kaaden. Loop scavenging, disc valves and expansion chambers worked in a highly coordinated way to significantly increase the power output of two-stroke engines, particularly from the Japanese manufacturers Suzuki, Yamaha and Kawasaki. Suzuki and Yamaha enjoyed success in grand Prix motorcycle racing in the 1960s due in no small way to the increased power afforded by loop scavenging. An additional benefit of loop scavenging was the piston could be made nearly flat or slightly dome shaped, which allowed the piston to be appreciably lighter and stronger, and consequently to tolerate higher engine speeds. The "flat top" piston also has better

thermal properties and is less prone to uneven heating, expansion, piston seizures, dimensional changes and compression losses. SAAB built 750 and 850 cc 3-cylinder engines based on a DKW design that proved reasonably successful employing loop charging. The original SAAB 92 had a twocylinder engine of comparatively low efficiency. At cruising speed, reflected wave exhaust port blocking occurred at too low a frequency. Using the asymmetric three-port exhaust manifold employed in the identical DKW engine improved fuel economy. The 750 cc standard engine produced 36 to 42 hp, depending on the model year. The Monte Carlo Rally variant, 750 cc (with a filled crankshaft for higher base compression), generated 65 hp. An 850 cc version was available in the 1966 SAAB Sport (a standard trim model in comparison to the deluxe trim of the Monte Carlo). Base compression comprises a portion of the overall compression ratio of a two-stroke engine.

Uniflow-scavenged

The Uniflow Two-stroke cycle A: Intake(effective scavenging 140-250) B: Exhaust C: Compression D: Expansion(power)

In a uniflow engine, the mixture, or air in the case of a diesel, enters at one end of the cylinder controlled by the piston and the exhaust exits at the other end controlled by an exhaust valve or piston. The scavenging gas-flow is therefore in one direction only, hence the name uniflow. The valved arrangement is common in diesel locomotives (Electro-Motive Diesel) and large marine two-stroke engines (Wrtsil). Ported types are represented by the opposed piston design in which there are two pistons in each cylinder, working in opposite directions such as the Junkers Jumo and Napier Deltic. The once-popular split-single design falls into this class, being effectively a folded uniflow. With advanced angle exhaust timing, uniflow engines can be supercharged with a crankshaft-driven (piston or Roots) blower.

Power valve systems

Many modern two-stroke engines employ a power valve system. The valves are normally in or around the exhaust ports. They work in one of two ways: either they alter the exhaust port by closing off the top part of the port, which alters port timing, such as Skidoo R.A.V.E, Yamaha YPVS, Honda RC-Valve, Cagiva C.T.S. or Suzuki AETC systems, or by altering the volume of the exhaust, which changes the resonant frequency of the expansion chamber, such as the Honda V-TACS system. The result is an engine with better low-speed power without sacrificing high-speed power.

Direct injection
Direct injection has considerable advantages in two-stroke engines, eliminating some of the waste and pollution caused by carbureted two-strokes where a proportion of the fuel/air mixture entering the cylinder goes directly out, unburned, through the exhaust port. Two systems are in use, low-pressure air-assisted injection, and high pressure injection. Since the fuel does not pass through the crankcase, a separate source of lubrication is needed.

Lubrication
Most small petrol two-stroke engines cannot be lubricated by oil contained in their crankcase and sump, since the crankcase is already being used to pump fuel-air mixture into the cylinder. Traditionally, the moving parts (both rotating crankshaft and sliding piston) were lubricated by a premixed fuel-oil mixture (at a ratio between 16:1 and 100:1). As late as the 1960s, petrol stations would often have a separate pump to deliver such a premix fuel to motorcycles. Even then, in many cases, the rider would carry a bottle of their own two-stroke oil. Taking care to close the fuel-tap first, he or she would meter in a little oil (using the cap of the bottle) and then put in the petrol, this action mixing the two liquids. Modern two-stroke engines pump lubrication from a separate tank of oil. This is still a total-loss system with the oil being burnt the same as in the older system, but at a lower and more economical rate. It is also cleaner, reducing the problem of oil-fouling of the spark-plugs and coke formation in the cylinder and the exhaust. Almost the only motors still using premix are hand-held two-stroke devices, such as chainsaws (which must operate in any attitude) and the majority of model engines. All two-stroke engines running on a petrol/oil mix will suffer oil starvation if forced to rotate at speed with the throttle closed, e.g. motorcycles descending long hills and perhaps when decelerating gradually from high speed by changing down through the gears. Two-stroke cars (such as those that were popular in Eastern Europe in mid-20th century) were in particular danger and were usually fitted with freewheel mechanisms in the powertrain, allowing the engine to idle when the throttle was closed, requiring the use of the brakes in all slowing situations.

Large two-stroke engines, including diesels, normally use a sump lubrication system similar to four-stroke engines. The cylinder must still be pressurized, but this is not done from the crankcase, but by an ancillary supercharger.

Two-stroke reversibility
For the purpose of this discussion, it is convenient to think in motorcycle terms, where the exhaust pipe faces into the cooling air stream, and the crankshaft commonly spins in the same axis and direction as do the wheels i.e. "forward". Some of the considerations discussed here apply to four-stroke engines (which cannot reverse their direction of rotation without considerable modification), almost all of which spin forward, too. Regular gasoline two-stroke engines will run backwards for short periods and under light load with little problem, and this has been used to provide a reversing facility in microcars, such as the Messerschmitt KR200, that lacked reverse gearing. Where the vehicle has electric starting, the motor will be turned off and restarted backwards by turning the key in the opposite direction. Two-stroke golf carts have used a similar kind of system. Traditional flywheel magnetos (using contact-breaker points, but no external coil) worked equally well in reverse because the cam controlling the points is symmetrical, breaking contact before TDC equally well whether running forwards or backwards. Reed-valve engines will run backwards just as well as piston-controlled porting, though rotary valve engines have asymmetrical inlet timing and will not run very well. There are serious disadvantages to running any engine backwards under load for any length of time, and some of these reasons are general, applying equally to both two-stroke and four-stroke engines. Some of this disadvantage is intrinsic, unavoidable even in the case of a complete re-design. The problem comes about because in "forwards" running the major thrust face of the piston is on the back face of the cylinder which, in a twostroke particularly, is the coolest and best lubricated part. The forward face of the piston is less well-suited to be the major thrust face since it covers and uncovers the exhaust port in the cylinder, the hottest part of the engine, where piston lubrication is at its most marginal. The front face of the piston is also more vulnerable since the exhaust port, the largest in the engine, is in the front wall of the cylinder. Piston skirts and rings risk being extruded into this port, so it is always better to have them pressing hardest on the back wall (where there are only the transfer ports) and there is good support. In some engines, the small end is offset to reduce thrust in the intended rotational direction and the forward face of the piston has been made thinner and lighter to compensate - but when running backwards, this weaker forward face suffers increased mechanical stress it was not designed to resist. Large two-stroke ship diesels are sometimes made to be reversible. Like four-stroke ship engines (some of which are also reversible) they use mechanically-operated valves, so require additional camshaft mechanisms. On top of other considerations, the oil-pump of a modern two-stroke may not work in reverse, in which case the engine will suffer oil starvation within a short time. Running a motorcycle engine backwards is relatively easy to initiate, and in rare cases, can be triggered by a back-fire. It is not advisable.

Model airplane engines with reed-valves can be mounted in either tractor or pusher configuration without needing to change the propeller. These motors are compression ignition, so there are no ignition timing issues and little difference between running forward and running backward.

A Running Two Stroke Engine:

A two-stroke in its purest form is extremely simple in construction and operation, as it only has three primary moving parts (the piston, connecting rod, and crankshaft). However, the two-stroke cycle can be difficult for some to visualize at first because certain phases of the cycle occur simultaneously, causing it to be hard to tell when one part of the cycle ends and another begins. Several different varieties of two-strokes have been developed over the years, and each type has its own set of advantages and disadvantages. The subject of the animated GIF (and this dissertation) is known as a case-reed type because induction is controlled by a reed valve mounted in the side of the crankcase. The easiest way to visualize two-stroke operation is to follow the flow of gases through the engine starting at the air inlet. In this case, the cycle would begin at approximately mid-stroke when the piston is rising, and has covered the transfer port openings: As the piston moves upward, a vacuum is created beneath the piston in the enclosed volume of the crankcase. Air flows through the reed valve and carburetor to fill the vacuum created in the crankcase. For the purposes of discussion, the intake phase is completed when the piston reaches the top of the stroke (in reality, mixture continues to flow into the crankcase even when the piston is on its way back down due to the inertia of the fuel mixture, especially at high RPM): During the down stroke, the falling piston creates a positive pressure in the crankcase which causes the reed valve to close. The mixture in the crankcase is compressed until the piston uncovers the transfer port openings, at which point the mixture flows up into the cylinder. The engine depicted here is known as a loop-scavenged two-stroke because the incoming mixture describes a circular path as shown in the picture below. What is not readily apparent in the picture is that the primary portion of the mixture is directed toward the cylinder wall opposite the exhaust port (this reduces the amount of mixture that escapes out the open exhaust port, also known as short-circuiting): Mixture transfer continues until the piston once again rises high enough to shut off the transfer ports (which is where we started this discussion). Let's fast-forward about 25 degrees of crank rotation to the point where the exhaust port is covered by the piston. The trapped mixture is now compressed by the upward moving piston (at the same time that a new charge is being drawn into the crankcase down below): Somewhat before the piston reaches the top of the stroke (approximately 30 degrees of crank rotation before top-dead-center), the sparkplug ignites the mixture. This event is

timed such that the burning mixture reaches peak pressure slightly after top dead center. The expanding mixture drives the piston downward until it begins to uncover the exhaust port. The majority of the pressure in the cylinder is released within a few degrees of crank rotation after the port begins to open: Residual exhaust gases are pushed out the exhaust port by the new mixture entering the cylinder from the transfer ports. That completes the chain of events for the basic two-stroke cycle. The discussion is not complete. The animated demonstration has an added device commonly known as an expansion chamber attached to the exhaust port. The expansion chamber (an improperly named device) utilizes sonic energy contained in the initial sharp pulse of exhaust gas exiting the cylinder to supercharge the cylinder with fresh mixture. This device is also known as a tuned exhaust. Picking up the discussion at the point shown by the exhaust blowdown picture above, an extremely high energy pulse of exhaust gas enters the header pipe when the piston begins to open the exhaust port: The sonic compression wave resulting from this abrupt release of cylinder pressure travels down the exhaust pipe until it reaches the beginning of the divergent cone, or diffuser, of the expansion chamber. From the perspective of the sound waves reaching this junction, the diffuser appears almost like an open-ended tube in that part of the energy of the pulse is reflected back up the pipe, except with an inverted sign (a rarefaction, or vacuum pulse is returned). The angle of the walls of the cone determine the magnitude of the returned negative pressure, and the length of the cone defines the duration of the returning waves: The negative pressure assists the mixture coming up through the transfer ports, and actually draws some of the mixture out into the exhaust header. Meanwhile, the original pressure pulse is still making its way down the expansion chamber, although a considerable portion of its energy was given up in creating the negative pressure waves. The convergent section of the chamber appears like a closed-end tube to the pressure pulse, and as such causes another series of waves to be reflected back up the pipe, except these waves are the same sign as the original (a compression, or pressure wave is returned). Notice that this cone has a sharper angle than the diffuser, so that a larger proportion of energy is extracted from the already weak pressure pulse: This pulse is timed to reach the exhaust port after the transfer ports close, but before the exhaust port closes. The returning compression wave pushes the mixture drawn into the header by the negative pressure wave back into the cylinder, thus supercharging (a bigger charge than normal) the engine. The straight section of pipe between the two cones exists to ensure that the positive waves reaches the exhaust port at the correct time. Since this device uses sonic energy to achieve supercharging, it is regulated by the speed of sound in the hot exhaust gas, the dimensions of the different sections of the exhaust system, and the port durations of the engine. Because of this, it is only effective for a very

narrow RPM range. This explains why two-stroke motorcycles equipped with expansion chambers have such vicious powerbands (especially in the old days before variable exhaust port timing existed). With the design illustrated here (i.e. a single divergent stage and a single convergent stage), the powerband of the engine will be akin to a 'light switch' - once the expansion chamber goes into resonance, there will be a HUGE, almost instantaneous increase in power. The powerband can be softened somewhat by reducing the angles on the cones, but this is simply due to a lower degree of supercharging. In order to get the best of both worlds (a large power increase and a wide powerband), the cones should consist of several sections, with a different angle for each section. Proper design of even a simple expansion chamber is somewhat of a black art, even though formulae exist that will get you in the ballpark (there is quite a bit more to this than simply choosing the appropriate angles and lengths based on sonic velocity - everything about the pipe comes into play, including the headpipe diameter and length, and the tailpipe ('stinger') diameter and length). Design of a multi-stage expansion chamber becomes incredibly difficult - it basically comes down to the old 'cut and try' approach in the end. This of course is not even considering whether or not the exhaust and transfer port timings and outlet areas have been optimized for expansion chamber use.

Parts of a 2 Stroke Engine

Basics
Like other types of engines, a two-stroke engine has a crankcase that surrounds and protects all other parts of the engine. Inside, it has a crankshaft, connecting rod and single piston. It's also got an intake port, a reed valve, an exhaust port, and a cylinder---all in addition to the combustion chamber, where the power is produced that moves whatever the engine is powering.

Crankshaft
The crankshaft in a two-stroke engine rotates, moving the piston by means of the connecting rod. These three parts are the only moving parts in a two-stroke engine. All power produced is a direct result of the action of these three moving parts.

Connecting Rod
The connecting rod is connected to the crankshaft at one end, and to the piston at the other. It translates the movement of the crankshaft so that the piston is moved up and down.

Piston
The piston is moved up and down inside the cylinder by the crankshaft, which is connected to it via the connecting rod. A vacuum is formed as it takes its upward stroke, drawing air and fuel down through the reed valve. When the piston reaches the top, the spark plug then lights the air/fuel mixture, burning it and sending the piston back down. On the downward stroke, the reed valve gets closed because of the increased pressure of the fuel and air mixture within, which is being compressed. New fuel and air travel via the intake port into the cylinder, ready to be burnt. The exhaust is expelled through the exhaust port, and an unpleasant side effect is that it usually takes some of the unburned fuel mixture with it. Efficiency

A two-stroke engine fires once every revolution, unlike a four-stroke engine. Theoretically, this means that two-stroke engines should be more powerful than four-stroke engines with the same displacement. However, because some unburned fuel invariably escapes during the combustion process, they are not as efficient as they could be. Variations Different two-stroke engines may have different means of transferring exhaust and unburned fuel and air through them, using various ports and valves. This process is referred to as "scavenge phase," and you can find more information about the main scavenge phase types by following the "Outdoor Power Equipment" link in References.

Two-stroke Basics This is what a two-stroke engine looks like: You find two-stroke engines in such devices as chain saws and jet skis because two-stroke engines have three important advantages over four-stroke engines: Two-stroke engines do not have valves, which simplifies their construction and lowers their weight. Two-stroke engines fire once every revolution, while fourstroke engines fire once every other revolution. This gives two-stroke engines a significant power boost. Two-stroke engines can work in any orientation, which can be important in something like a chainsaw. A standard fourstroke engine may have problems with oil flow unless it is upright, and solving this problem can add complexity to the engine. These advantages make twostroke engines lighter, simpler and less expensive to manufacture. Two-stroke engines also have the potential to pack about twice the power into the same space because there are twice as many power strokes per

revolution. The combination of light weight and twice the power gives two-stroke engines a great power-to-weight ratio compared to many four-stroke engine designs. You don't normally see two-stroke engines in cars, however. That's because two-stroke engines have a couple of significant disadvantages that will make more sense once we look at how it operates.

The Two-stroke Cycle

The following animation shows a two-stroke engine in action. You can compare this animation to the animations in the car engine and diesel engine articles to see the differences. The biggest difference to notice when comparing figures is that the spark-plug fires once every revolution in a two-stroke engine.
This figure shows a typical cross flow design. You can see that two-stroke engines are ingenious little devices that overlap operations in order to reduce the part count.

Sparks Fly
You can understand a two-stroke engine by watching each part of the cycle. Start with the point where the spark plug fires. Fuel and air in the cylinder have been compressed, and when the spark plug fires the mixture ignites. The resulting explosion drives the piston downward. Note that as the piston moves downward, it is compressing the air/fuel mixture in the crankcase. As the piston approaches the bottom of its stroke, the exhaust port is uncovered. Thepressure in the cylinder drives most of the exhaust gases out of cylinder, as shown here:

Fuel Intake
As the piston finally bottoms out, the intake port is uncovered. The piston's movement haspressurized the mixture in the crankcase, so it rushes into the cylinder, displacing the remaining exhaust gases and filling the cylinder with a fresh charge of fuel, as shown here: Note that in many two-stroke engines that use a cross-flow design, the piston is shaped so that the incoming fuel mixture doesn't simply flow right over the top of the piston and out the exhaust port.

The Compression Stroke

Now the momentum in the crankshaft starts driving the piston back toward the spark plug for thecompression stroke. As the air/fuel mixture in the piston is compressed, a vacuum is created in the crankcase. This vacuum opens the reed valve and sucks air/fuel/oil in from the carburetor. Once the piston makes it to the end of the compression stroke, the spark plug fires again to repeat the cycle. It's called a two-stoke engine because there is a compression stroke and then a combustion stroke. In a four-stroke engine, there are separate intake, compression, combustion and exhaust strokes. You can see that the piston is really doing three different things in a two-stroke engine: On one side of the piston is the combustion chamber, where the piston is compressing the air/fuel mixture and capturing the energy released by the ignition of the fuel. On the other side of the piston is the crankcase, where the piston is creating a vacuum to suck in air/fuel from the carburetor through the reed valve and then pressurizing the crankcase so that air/fuel is forced into the combustion chamber. Meanwhile, the sides of the piston are acting like valves, covering and uncovering the intake and exhaust ports drilled into the side of the cylinder wall. It's really pretty neat to see the piston doing so many different things! That's what makes two-stroke engines so simple and lightweight. If you have ever used a two-stroke engine, you know that you have to mix special twostroke oil in with the gasoline. Now that you understand the two-stroke cycle you can see why. In a four-stroke engine, the crankcase is completely separate from the combustion chamber, so you can fill the crankcase with heavy oil to lubricate the crankshaft bearings, the bearings on either end of the piston's connecting rod and the cylinder wall. In a two-stroke engine, on the other hand, the crankcase is serving as a pressurization chamber to force air/fuel into the cylinder, so it can't hold a thick oil. Instead, you mix oil in with the gas to lubricate the crankshaft, connecting rod and cylinder walls. If you forget to mix in the oil, the engine isn't going to last very long!

Disadvantages of the Two-stroke

You can now see that two-stroke engines have two important advantages over four-stroke engines: They are simpler and lighter, and they produce about twice as much power. So why do cars and trucks use four-stroke engines? There are four main reasons:

Two-stroke engines don't last nearly as long as four-stroke engines. The lack of a dedicated lubrication system means that the parts of a two-stroke engine wear a lot faster. Two-stroke oil is expensive, and you need about 4 ounces of it per gallon of gas. You would burn about a gallon of oil every 1,000 miles if you used a two-stroke engine in a car. Two-stroke engines do not use fuel efficiently, so you would get fewer miles per gallon. Two-stroke engines produce a lot of pollution -- so much, in fact, that it is likely that you won't see them around too much longer. The pollution comes from two sources. The first is the combustion of the oil. The oil makes all two-stroke engines smoky to some extent, and a badly worn two-stroke engine can emit huge clouds of oily smoke. The second reason is less obvious but can be seen in the following figure: Each time a new charge of air/fuel is loaded into the combustion chamber, part of it leaks out through the exhaust port. That's why you see a sheen of oil around any twostroke boat motor. The leaking hydrocarbons from the fresh fuel combined with the leaking oil is a real mess for the environment. These disadvantages mean that two-stroke engines are used only in applications where the motor is not used very often and a fantastic power-to-weight ratio is important. In the meantime, manufacturers have been working to shrink and lighten four-stroke engines, and you can see that research coming to market in a variety of new marine and lawn-care products.

Automotive battery
An automotive battery is a type of rechargeable battery that supplies electric energy to an automobile. Usually this refers to an SLI battery (starting, lighting, ignition) to power the starter motor, the lights, and the ignition system of a vehicles engine. Automotive SLI batteries are usually leadacid type, and are made of six galvanic cells in series to provide a 12 volt system. Each cell provides 2.1 volts for a total of 12.6 volt at full charge. Heavy vehicles such as highway trucks or tractors, often equipped with diesel engines, may have two batteries in series for a 24 volt system, or may have parallel strings of batteries. Lead-acid batteries are made up of plates of lead and separate plates of lead dioxide, which are submerged into an electrolyte solution of about 35% sulfuric acid and 65% water. This causes a chemical reaction that releases electrons, allowing them to flow through conductors to produce electricity. As the battery discharges, the acid of the electrolyte reacts with the materials of the plates, changing their surface to lead sulfate. When the battery is recharged, the chemical reaction is reversed: the lead sulfate reforms

into lead oxide and lead. With the plates restored to their original condition, the process may now be repeated. Battery recycling of automotive batteries reduces resources required for manufacture of new batteries and diverts toxic lead from landfills or improper disposal.

Storage
Batteries last longer when stored in a charged state. Leaving an automotive battery discharged will shorten its life, or make it unusable if left for a long time (usually several years); sulfation eventually becomes irreversible by normal charging. Batteries in storage may be monitored and periodically charged, or attached to a "float" charger to retain their capacity. Batteries are prepared for storage by charging and cleaning deposits from the posts. Batteries are stored in a cool, dry environment for best results since high temperatures increase the self discharge rate and plate corrosion.

Changing a battery
When changing a battery, battery manufacturers recommend disconnecting the negative ground connection first to prevent accidental short-circuits between the battery terminal and the vehicle frame. Conversely the positive cable is connected first. A study by the National Highway Traffic Safety Association estimated that in 1994 more than 2000 people were injured in the United States while working with automobile batteries. The majority of automotive lead-acid batteries are filled with the appropriate electrolyte solution at the manufacturing plant, and shipped to the retailers ready to sell. Decades ago, this was not the case. The retailer filled the battery, usually at the time of purchase, and charged the battery. This was a time-consuming and potentially dangerous process. Care had to be taken when filling the battery with acid, as acids are highly corrosive and can damage eyes, skin and mucous membranes. Fortunately, this is less of a problem these days, and the need to fill a battery with acid usually only arises when purchasing a motorcycle or ATV battery.

Charge and discharge

In normal automotive service the vehicle's charging system powers the vehicle's electrical systems and restores charge used from the battery during engine cranking. When installing a new battery or recharging a battery that has been accidentally discharged completely, one of several different methods can be used to charge it. The most gentle of these is called trickle charging. Other methods include slow-charging and quickcharging, the latter being the harshest. The voltage regulator of the charge system does not measure the relative currents charging the battery and for powering the car's loads. The charge system essentially provides a fixed voltage of typically 13.8 to 14.4 V (Volt), adjusted to ambient temperature, unless the alternator is at its current limit. A discharged battery draws a high charge current of typically 20 to 40 A (Ampere). As the battery gets charged the charge current typically decreases to 25 A. A high load results when multiple high-power systems such as ignition, radiator fan, heater blowers, lights and entertainment system are running. In this case, the battery voltage will begin to decrease unless the engine is running at a higher rpm and the alternator/generator is delivering at least enough current to power the load.

Some manufacturers include a built-in hydrometer to show the state of charge of the battery, a transparent tube with a float immersed in the electrolyte visible through a window. When the battery is charged, the specific gravity of the electrolyte increases (since all the sulfate ions are in the electrolyte, not combined with the plates), and the colored top of the float is visible in the window. When the battery is discharged, or the electrolyte level is too low, the float sinks and the window appears yellow (or black). The built-in hydrometer only checks the state of charge of one cell and will not show faults in the other cells. In a non-sealed battery each of the cells can be checked with a portable or hand-held hydrometer. In emergencies a vehicle can be jump started by the battery of another vehicle or by a portable battery booster. Whenever the car's charge system is inadequate to fully charge the battery, a battery charger can be used. Simple chargers do not regulate the charge current, and the user needs to stop the process or lower the charge current to prevent excessive gassing of the battery. More elaborate chargers, in particular those implementing the 3-step charge profile, also referred to as IUoU, charge the battery fully and safely in a short time without requiring user intervention. Desulfating chargers are also commercially available for charging all types of lead-acid batteries.

1. Engine Rotate The Motor opp. Side with Help of Belt. 2.Opp. Rotation Generate The Electric Power. 3.Electric Power On The CFL. 4.As U Know Engine have inbuilt Charger. 5.The Charger Charge The Battery. 6.And When the Engine Was Start CFL Work With The Help of Motor. 7.And When The Engine Off CFL Work With The Help of Battery. 8.Dont Forget When The Engine Was on Start the Switch No.2 And off The Switch No. 1. 9.And When The Engine Was off Start The Switch No.1 And Off The Switch No. 2.