CHAPTER 4 VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER CONTROL 4.

1 Introduction Power industry is required to generate both real and reactive power. Reactive power is required to excite the various types of electrical equipment in addition to energizing the transmission network. The reactive power requirement of the consumers is mainly lagging vars to supply magnetizing current to transformers and induction motors. In transmission network, requirement is the difference between that absorbed in the series inductance (I2X) and that produced in shunt capacitance (V2B). The reactive power compensation of the transmission system depends on the load and its power factor. When the line is operated at no load, the full charging power occurs and would results in considerable increase unless some compensating device is used. With full compensation at no load, the line may be operated at any partial load between no load and full load with the voltage not exceeding the permissible limits The loss in a line are given by PL = K P 2l V 2 cos 2

where P is the power transmitted at voltage V over a line of length l at a power factor cos . Higher voltages are selected for transmission to keep the losses in an economically justifiable relationship to the power P. In view of the inverse square relationship, reduction of reactive power becomes an essential factor for obtaining efficient operation. Hence in order to supply quality service to customers reliably and economically, voltage and (or) var control play(s) a leading role. Such a control has to be exercised at all levels in the power system, i.e. right from the generating point to the consumer terminals. Rapid changes in voltage (flicker) caused by some of industrial load such as: - arc furnaces - arc welders - wood chippers Voltage disturbance at transmission and distribution level may be due to cyclic and noncyclic loads

Other voltage and var variation events due to: - planned line switching - unplanned line trips - planned and unforeseen generator trips - equipment failure

Need proper voltage support at strategic location in the system otherwise the aforementioned events may results in loss of stability and possible loss of service to a large number of consumers.

5 4
Time(h)

5 4
Time(h)

3 2 1 10 20 30

3 2 1 0 10 20 30

Real Power (MW)

Reactive power (MVar)

Figure 4.1: Arc furnace consumption Continuous control can be achieved by means of synchronous compensators installed at line ends and /or in the intermediate substations. The use of shunt connected controllable var compensation to improve the power transfer capability and stability Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3 show the power transfer without and with intermediate voltage support/var compensator.

E2
V1 V2

E1
X12

E2 P12=

12
E1 E 2 sin 12 X 12

E1

Figure 4.2 Power transfer without intermediate voltage support 2

X13

X32

E1
V1 V3 V2

E2

Controllable shunt Var compensator

E2

V3

32 13
E1

P13 =

E1V3 sin 13 X 13 V3 E 2 sin 32 X 32

P32 =

Figure 4.3 Power transfer with intermediate Var compensator

4.1 The Generation and Absorption of Reactive Power Synchronous generators

Can be used to generate or absorb reactive power. The ability to supply reactive power is determined by the short-circuit ration (1/synchronous reactance) as the distance between the power axis and the theoretical stability-limit line as shown in Figure 4.4. The Var capacity can also be increased by the use of continuously acting voltage regulators. An over-excited machine, i.e one with greater than normal excitation, generates reactive power whilst an under-excited machines absorbs it (or generates negative or leading vars). The generator is the main source of supply to the system of both positive and negative vars.
Overhead lines

Lines absorb reactive power when fully loaded. With a current I amperes for a line of reactance/phase X ohms the vars absorbed are I2X/phase. On light loads the shunt capacities of longer lines may become predominant and the lines become var generators

Transformers

Transformer always absorbs reactive power. A useful expression for the quantity may be obtained for a transformer of reactance XT p.u. and a full load rating of 3V. Irated The ohmic reactance =
V .X T I rated

therefore the vars absorbed = 3 .I 2 .

V .X T I rated

I 2V 2 = 3. .X (IV ) rated T

(VAload )2

RatedVA

.X T

Cables

Cables are generator of reactive power owing to their high capacitance. For example; 275kV, 240MVA cable produces 6.25 to 7.5MVAr/km 132kV cable roughly 1.9MVAr/km 33kV cable,0.125 MVAr/km
Loads

In planning a network it is desirable to assess the reactive power requirements to ascertain whether the generators are able to operate at the required power factors for the extremes of load to be expected. For example, a load 0.95 power factor implies a reactive power demand of 0.33kVar/kW of power. Figure 4.4 shows the reactive losses are added for each item until the generator power factor is obtained.

160km 0.1pu

0.04p.u

E G

48 km 0.1 p.u.

0.1p.u

Load 50MW p.f=1 0.1p.u 0.04p.u 0.1p.u 0.1p.u

275KV 200MW 0.8p.f lagging

132KV

11KV

Figure 4.4 Radial transmission system with intermediate loads. Calculation of reactive power requirement.

Example 4.1

In the radial transmission system shown in Figure 4.4 above all p.u. values are referred to the voltage bases shown and 100MVA. Determine the power factor at which the generator must operate.

4.3 Relation between Voltage, Power and Reactive Power.

Consider the system shown in Figure 4.5. The voltage at bus 2 is related to the voltage at bus 1 by the relation,

Bus 1

P+jQ I Z = RL + jXL

Bus 2

V1

V1 = V1 < 0 0

V2 = V2 < 0 0

V2

Figure 4.5 Power flow across a short line

V2 = V1 IZ

(4.1)

Also So that

V1 I = P + jQ

I=

P jQ P jQ = V1 V1

(4.2)

since V1 is the reference phasor. From equations (4.1) and (4.2)

P jQ V2 = V1 V Z 1

Neglecting the line resistance, R0 P Q XL XL V1 V1

V2 = V1 j

(4.3)

Equation (4.3) is illustrated by the phasor diagram in Figure 4.5. It can be inferred from Eq. (4.3) or Figure 4.5 the voltage level is influenced largely by the reactive power QX L PX L since the quadrature component does not materially affect the voltage drop V1 V1 profile (both the drops are only small fractions of the bus voltage magnitudes).

1PX L V1

V1
QX L V1

V2 Figure 4.5 Phasor representation of Eq. (4.3) In other words, it clearly observed that load voltage V2 is not affected much due to the real component of the load P as it is normal to the vector V1 The drop due to Q of load is directly subtracted from the voltage V1 Assuming voltage drop due to P0, equation (4.3) becomes V2 = V1 Q XL V1 (4.4)

To keep the receiving and voltage V2 fixed to a particular sending end voltage V1, the Q drop X L must remain constant. V1 Q X L Q can be adjusted to keep this quantities fixed V1 - by connecting shunt capacitors or synchronous capacitor or QXL can be kept constant introducing series capacitors which reduce the net reactance of the system voltage variation will be more for larger loads (larger reactive power), could be controlled by switching in suitable series capacitor. 8

4.3.1 Power Transfer and Reactive Power

Figure 4.6 shows the simplest electrical model for a synchronous generator feeding into a power system represented by a voltage source (V).

I- Z SA E V00 SB

Figure 4.6 Power transfer between sources

E V S A = EI = E Z

E V0 = E Z

E [E V ] Z E = [E V + ] Z E2 EV = + Z Z E2 (cos + j sin ) EV (cos( + ) + j sin ( + )) = Z Z =

2 E2 EV ( + ) + E sin EV sin ( + ) cos cos = Z Z Z Z = PA + jQ A

Similarly

S B = VI *
EV V2 = cos( ) cos + Z Z = PB + jQ B EV V2 j sin ( ) sin Z Z

(4.6)

If R=0
Z = jX = X 90 0

Hence

EV sin X E 2 EV QA = cos X X EV PB = sin X EV V2 QB = cos X X PA =

(4.7) (4.8) (4.9) (4.10)

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Example 4.2

An interconnector transfers 60MW between two 132kV, 3 phase power systems having the same frequency. Assume that the interconnctor is 100km long and that each line conductor has a reactance of 1.0/km and negligible resistance. Determine the kVA supplied by the interconnector.

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4.3.2 Calculation of sending and receiving voltages in terms of power and reactive power

The determination of the voltages and currents in a network can obviously be achieved by means of complex notion. In power systems usually power (P) and reactive power (Q) are specified and often the resistance of lines is negligible compared with resistance. For example, of R=0.1X, the error in neglecting R is 0.49 % and even if R =0.4X the error is 7.7%

R+jx

P+jQ

(a) d E IX IP Ia I (b) Figure 4.7 Phasor diagram for transmission of power through a series impedance V V a IR g b V c

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Figure 4.7 (a) shows a simple transmission link. It is required to establish the equations for E, V and . From Figure 4.7 (b),

E 2 = (V + V ) + V 2
2

= (V + RI cos + XI sin ) + ( XI cos RI sin )

2
2 2

RP XQ XP RQ + E = V + + V V V V
2

(4.11)

Hence V = and RP + XQ V XP RQ V (4.12)

V =
If

(4.13)

V V + V
RP + XQ E = V + V
2 2

(4.14)

and

E V =

RP + XQ = V V

(4.15)

Hence the arithmetic difference between the voltages is given approximately by

RP + XQ V
If R 0

(4.16)

E V =
i.e. voltage depends only on Q

XQ V

(4.17)

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4.3.3 The Operation of a Generator on Infinite Bus

Most synchronous machines are connected to large interconnected electric power networks. These networks have the important characteristic that the system voltage at the point of connection is constant in magnitude, phase angle, and frequency. Such a point in a power system is referred to as an infinite bus, i.e. an infinite system of generation. The voltage at the generator bus will not be altered by changes in the generators operating condition. For example, a 600MW generator is removed from a 30,000MW systems, the difference in voltage and frequency caused will be very slight. Consider a synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus
I E
I

V00 Xd

Infinite bus

Figure 4.8 An alternator connected to an infinite bus

I=

E V0 jX d E 90 V 90 Xd Xd

(4.18)

(4.19)

Power P = Real [VI*]

E90 V90 = Real V X d Xd = VE cos(90 ) Xd EV sin Xd (4.20)

P=

14

And the reactive power Q = I m VI * =

[ ]

VE sin (90 ) V 2 Xd Xd EV cos V 2 Xd Xd (4.21)

Q=

Example 4.3 A synchronous generator delivers 1.0 p.u. current at 1.0 p.u. voltage and p.f. (i) 0.8 lag (ii) 0.8 lead to an infinite bus. The reactance of the generator X is 1.0 p.u.. Determine (a) P, Q, E and (b) If the excitation is increased by 20%, calculate P, Q, E, and I (c) If the system is as in (a) and the power P is increased by 20%, calculate Q, E, , I and P.

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Example 4.4

A 50MVA, 30kV, three phase, 60Hz synchronous generator has a synchronous reactance of 9 per phase and a negligible resistance. The generator is delivering rated power at a 0.8 power factor lagging at the rated terminal voltage to an infinite bus. (a) Determine the excitation voltage per phase E and the power angle (b) With the excitation held constant at the value found in (a), the driving torque is reduced until the generator is delivering 25 MW, Determine the armature current and the power factor. (c) If the generator is operating at the excitation voltage of part (a), what is the steady-state maximum power the machine can deliver before losing synchronism? Also, find the armature current corresponding to this maximum power.

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4.4 Methods of Voltage Control

Three methods of voltage control; injection of reactive power, tap-changing transformer and FACTS.
4.4.1 Injection of Reactive power.

In general three methods of injection are available, involving the use of: a) static shunt capacitors and reactors b) static series capacitors c) synchronous compensators. a) Static shunt capacitors and reactors Shunt capacitor - used for lagging power factor circuits - Connected either directly to a busbar or to the tertiary winding of a main transformer - To supply part of reactive Vars required by the load so that the reactive Vars transmitted over the line are reduced, thereby the voltage across the load is maintained within a certain desirable limit. Shunt reactors - used for leading power factor circuit such as created by lightly loaded cables - connected across the load to absorb some of leading vars.

Load

Figure 4.9 Line with shunt capacitors

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Disadvantages: - as the voltage falls the vars produced by shunt capacitor or reactor fall. i.e. when it is most needed its effectiveness falls - on the light loads when the voltage is high the capacitor output is large and the voltage tends to rise to excessive levels. Series Capacitors - connected in series with a line conductors - used to reduce the inductive reactance between supply point and load Vs X C I VR (a) Vs
VR IX

I-

IXC=VC

VR(Without C) I

Vc (b)

Figure 4.10 (a) Line with series capacitor (b) phasor diagram Effectively used: If voltage drop is the limiting factor If the total line reactance is high Improve stability limit

Disadvantage - produces high over voltage when a short-circuit current flows through the capacitor - need a special protective devices

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Synchronous Compensator (Condenser or phase modifier) - is a synchronous motor running without a mechanical load. - Can absorb or generate reactive power depending on the value of excitation (under or over) - great advantage o flexibility use for all load condition produces vars when over excited consumes vars when under excited o smooth variations compared to static capacitor Disadvantage - unstable and un-synchronous when fault occur

4.4.2 Tap-changing Transformer

transform electric energy from one voltage level to another basic operation by controlling the secondary voltage changing the transformation ratio in the secondary circuit, i.e. taps for ratio control widespread used for controlling voltage at all level two types of tap changing transformers: o off-load tap changing transformers o on-load (under-load) tap changing transformers do not control the voltage by regulating the flow of reactive vars by changing the transformation ratio tap changing operation is motor operated in radial line o maintain voltage at their secondary terminals or at load terminals within limits in tie lines o the tap-changer can regulate vars substantially. In network or loop o Can controlled circulating vars

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Z=R+jX Is Ir

V1 Vs

Vr

V2

Load P+jQ

1:ts

tr:1

Figure 4.11: Coordination of two tap-changing transformers in a radial transmission link

t sV1 = t rV2 + IZ IZ = V = v r cos + v x sin = IR cos + IX sin RP XQ = + Vr Vr RP + XQ = t r V2 Eqn (4.23) into (4.22) t sV1 = t rV2 + when t r = 1 / t s V22 t s2V1V2 + ( RP + XQ)t s2 = 0 V2 =
1/ 2 1 2 t s V1 t s t s2V12 4(RP + XQ ) 2

(4.22)

(4.23)

RP + XQ t r V2

(4.24)

Hence if ts is specified there are two values of V2 for a given V1

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a) Off-load tap changing transformer

Figure 4.12 Off-load tap changing transformer requires the disconnection of the transformer when the tap setting is to be changed

b) On-load tap changing transformer

Winding

Q1 S1 S2

Q2

Winding

Neutral

Figure 4.13 On-load tap changing transformer 21

c) -

modern practice in position shown the voltage is maximum and since the cuurents divide equally and flow in opposition through the coil between Q1 and Q2, the resultant flux is zero and hence minimum impedance to reduce the voltage, the following operations are required in sequence: (i) open Q1;(ii) move selector switch S1 to the next contact; (iii) close Q1; (iv)open Q2; (v) move selector switch S2 to the next contact; and (iv) close Q2. Six operations are required for one change in tap position Voltage change between taps is 1.25percent of the nominal voltage Nominal voltage are the voltages at the ends of the transmission line Booster transformers two winding load tap changing transformer performs two function: o transforming the voltage o bucking or boosting the voltage (booster transformer role) can be installed at a sub-station as an additional equipment if voltage regulation is further found to be necessary or can be installed as a separate piece of equipment at any intermediate point in a line Booster

Regulating transformer

Figure 4.14 Booster transformer along with regulating transformer Advantages of booster transformer - can be used at any intermediate point in the system - when it is used along with a fixed ratio transformer it can be taken out for inspection or overhaul without affecting much the system - the rating of the booster is the product of the current and the injected voltage and is hence only about 10% of that of a main transformer

22

Disadvantages of the booster transformer, when it is used in conjunction with the main transformer are - the two are expensive than a transformer with on-load tap changing gear - less efficient due to the losses in the booster - take more floor space - used in distribution feeders where the cost of tap changing transformer is very high.

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Example 4.5

A 132kV line is fed through an 11/132kV transformer from a constant 11kV supply. At the load end of the line the voltage is reduced by another transformer of nominal ratio 132/11kV. The total impedance of the line and transformers at 132kV is (25+j66) . Both transformers are equipped with tap-changing facilities which are so arranged that the product of two off-nominal settings is unity. If the load on the system is 100MW at 0.9p.f. lagging calculate the settings of the tap-changers required to maintain the voltage of the load busbar at 11 kV. Use a base of 100MVA. V1=132kv Vs 1:ts Z tr:1 P1Q V1=132kv Vr

24

Problems

1. In the radial transmission system shown in Figure 1 above all p.u. values are referred to the voltage bases shown and 100MVA. Determine the total power, active and reactive supplied by the generator and the power factor at which the generator must operate.

0.1pu

0.05p.u

E G

0.15 p.u.

0.08p.

Load 50MW p.f=0.8 0.1p.u 0.05p.u 0.15p.u 0.08p.u

275KV 200MW 0.6p.f lagging

132KV

11KV

(200 MW,315.9 MVAR, 0.5349)

2. Show how the scalar voltage difference between two nodes in a network is given approximately by:

V =

RP + XQ V

3. Derive the expressions for real and reactive power flows delivered by the synchronous generator to an infinite bus. 4. An alternator is connected to an infinite busbar and delivers 1.0 p.u. current at 1.0 p.u. voltage and power factor 0.85 lagging. The reactance of the alternator Xd = 1.0 p.u. i) Determine P,Q, E and . ii) If the excitation is reduced by 20% calculate P, Q, E, , cos dan current I. iii) If the system is as in (i) and the steam input is increased by 20%, calculate , cos, I , P.

25

iv) What is the maximum power that the machine can deliver before losing synchronism for the system in (i). Find also the armature current corresponding to this maximum power. ( (i) 0.851,0.5291,1.5268,29.1 (ii) 0.851, 0.116, 1.4, 37.43, 0.9895,0.859 (iii) 0.421,1.75,35.7, 0.925,1.104,1.0212 (iv)1.75,2.0155) 5. Describe two methods of controlling voltage in a power system. 6. A 230 kV line is fed through an 33/230 kV transformer from a constant 33 kV supply. At the load end of the line the voltage is reduced by another transformer of nominal ratio 132/11 kV. The total impedance of the line and transformer at 132 kV is (30+j80) ohms. Both transformers are equipped with tap-changing facilities which are arranged so that the product of two off-nominal settings is unity. If the load on the system is 150 MW at 0.9 p.f. lagging, calculate the settings of the tap changers required to maintain the voltage of the load bus at 11kV. Use a base of 100VA. ( 1.11)

Dr Y

26