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0 DEVELOPMENT OF SENSORY TESTING IN FOOD INDUSTRY

1.1 Introduction:

Sensory tests have been conducted as human beings began to evaluate the quality in their surroundings. Sensory analysis began during the wartime when there are some efforts to provide food to the soldiers. There will be a worth value for sensory testing as it helps to determine its acceptability in marketplace. The three principal uses for sensory techniques are quality control, product development, and research. To conduct valid and reliable tests that provide data is the primary function of sensory testing. Basically, there are many kinds of tests which can be classified into two major tests. They are analytical tests and affective tests. Analytical test can be divided into overall difference test, various attribute difference tests and also descriptive tests. The affective tests are based on consumer testing. There are many types of Difference Test. A Triangle Test is a sensory test that is used to determine difference between products. These differences could be ingredients, processing, or differences in packaging. Effective testing includes presenting three samples and asking which sample is different. In any type of test, leaving room for panelists to make comments is also beneficial because it can sometimes better explain their choices. A Two-out-of-Five test is similar to the Triangle Test. Panelists are asked to pick two out of the five that are similar in characteristics. Multiple Paired Comparison Tests, where panelists are asked to taste two samples and rate attributes such as saltiness. The panelists may be asked to mark the sample that is the most or least salty. This test involves a number sample pairs. In a ranking test, panelists are asked to rank in order an attribute the sample possesses (or lack of.) Ranking samples of apples on levels of crispiness (most crisp to mushy) is an example of a ranking test. Ranking the color brown on various types of French fries after being deep fat fried (using different types of potatoes may cause

intensity changes to occur in the browning of the potato) is another example of a Difference Ranking Test. Descriptive analysis methods involve the detection (discrimination) and the description of both the qualitative and quantitative sensory aspects of a product by trained panels of 5 to 100 judges (subjects). It is a method by which attributes of a food or product are identified and quantified using human subjects who have been trained for this purpose. It is an appropriate for use when detailed information is required on individual characteristics of the product or material or both. It involves the detection and description of both qualitative and quantitative sensory aspects of a product by trained panelists. Descriptive test can provided information that cannot be obtained by other analytical means. The analysis can include all parameters of the products or it can be limited to certain aspects. Smaller panels of five to ten subjects are used for the typical product on the grocery shelf, whereas, the larger panels are used for product of mass production where small differences can be very important, example like, beers and soft drinks. Panelists must be able to detect and describe the perceived sensory attributes of a sample. Plus, panelists must learn to differentiate and rate the quantitative or intensity aspects of a sample and also must learn to define to what degree each characteristic or qualitative note is present in that sample. Panelists must be screened and quantified to participate and must maintain their skills. The qualitative aspects of a product combine to define the product and include all of the appearance, aroma, flavor, texture, or sound properties of a product that differentiate it from others. The goal of descriptive analysis is to provide a quantitative specification of the important sensory aspects of a product. Use descriptive tests to obtain detailed description of the aroma, flavor, and oral texture of foods and beverages, skin-feel of personal care products, hand-feel of fabrics and paper products, and the appearance and sound of any product.

Qualitative factors include terms that define the sensory profile or picture of the sample. There are three type of scales used which are category scales, line scales and magnitude estimation. The order of appearance of physical properties, related to oral, skin and fabric textures, are generally predetermined by the way the product is handled (the input of forces by the panelist). In addition to the detection and description of the qualitative, quantitative and time factors that define the sensory characteristics of a product, panelists are capable of, and management is often interested in, some integrated assessment of the product properties. The overall impression includes total intensity of aroma or flavor; balance or blend (amplitude) of the aroma; overall difference of the sample; and hedonic ratings.

2.0 OVERALL DIFFERENCE TESTS 2.1 Triangle test The objective of this test (Triangle test) is to determine whether a sensory difference exists between two products. This method also important to determine whether there are changes in products after treatments upon the products had been done where the product changes that produced unable to be characterized simply by only one or two attributes. Statistically it shown that this method are more efficient compare to the paired comparison and duo-trio methods but triangle test hassle limited use with products which means that it has limited use with products that involved sensory fatigue, carryover or adaptation. It also has limited use with subject that have problem or confuse in testing three samples. Although triangle test has limited use but it is effective in certain situations for instance first is to determine the products differences occur from the changes in ingredients, processing, packaging, or storage. Secondly, is to determine whether an overall difference exists, where there is no specific attributes that can be identified as having affected. Thirdly, it is effective in order to select and monitor panelists for their ability in discriminating given differences. In this test, each panelist presented with three coded samples. Two from the three samples are identical and one is different (odd). Panels need to taste or feel or examine each product in order from left to the right. Panels need to identify the odd samples. The number of panels that identify correctly will be count and to interpret the data we must refer a table. Basically, 20- 40 panels needed to undergo triangle test. In certain situation which the differences are large and easy to identify only a few panels as 12 panels can be used. On the other hand, for the similarity test it requires 50- 100 panels. Panels must be familiar with triangle test format , the procedure and familiar with the product that been tested. It is because of flavour memory is important in this test. An
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orientation session need are recommended before panels undergo this test and care must be taken in giving information in order to be more instructive and motivating. Care is important in order to avoid bias among panels. In this test, there same things that need to be control which are the test area and the preparation of the samples. The lighting at the taste area must be controlled in order to reduce any colour variables. Meanwhile, the samples should be prepared under optimum condition according to the product type that used in this test. Question that related to acceptance, preference, degree of difference or type of difference after initial selection of the odd sample should not be asked because it can cause bias the responses of the panels. 2.2 Two-out-of-Five Test Two- out- of- Five Test is a test or method that statistically very efficient compared to triangle test. it is because of this method give high chances of guessing correctly of the samples which is 1 in 10 samples compare to 1 in 3 samples (triangle test). This test is affected by sensory fatigue and memory effect which this two factor are the principal used in visual, auditory and tactile applications. This principal is not used in flavor testing. This method used when the objective of a test is to determine whether a sensory difference exists between two samples and this method also used when the numbers of subject are small (ten person). Two- out- of- Five Test effective only in certain situations which in situations that need to determine whether the difference of the product was cause by the ingredients, processing, packaging and storage. Other situation which the use of this method is effective is the situation that we need to determine whether there is overall difference exists, where there is no specific attributes that can be identified as having been affected and it also effective in selecting and monitoring panelist for their ability to discriminate differences that given in test situations.
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In this method, panels were presented with five samples. Two of the five samples belong to one type. Meanwhile, the other three were belong to another type. The samples were tasted, view, examined and feel in order from left to right. Panelist need to identify two samples which these two samples are different from the other three samples. To undergo this test, trained panelists were needed. Basically, 10- 20 panels were used. When the differences are large and easy to identified, we can use 5 to 6 panels only. 2.3 Same/ Different Test (or simple Difference Test) Same/ different test also known as simple difference test. This method used when the objective of the test is to determine whether a sensory difference exists between two products. Generally, this method also used when a test is not suitable for triple or multiple presentation which means that not suitable for triangle test and duotrio test. Examples of situation that unsuitable for triangle test and duo- trio test are comparisons between samples of strong or lingering flavour, samples that need to be applied to the skin in half- face tests and samples that very complex which cause mentally confusing to the panelist. As the other test, same/ different Test also effective in certain situation. For examples, this method is effective in situations that need to determine whether product difference is cause by the change in ingredients, processing, packaging, or storage and the other situation is the situation that we need to determine whether there is an overall difference that exists where there is no specific attributes that can be identified as having been affected. This type of test consume more time compare to the other test because the differences between products were obtained by comparing the responses which the responses were obtained from different pairs (A/A, B/B, A/B and B/A). In this method each panels will be presented with 2 samples which panels need to identified either the samples were same or different. Half of these samples will present 2 different samples. Meanwhile, the other half will present the same samples
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which it will present twice. Basically, there will be 20- 50 presentations of each of the four samples combinations (A/A, B/B, A/B and B/A) required to determine differences. More than 200 panels can be used in this method or 100 panels will receive two of the pairs. In a situation where the same/ different test had been use because of the complexity of the stimuli, subject should not be present with more than one pair of samples at a time. Panels that involved in this test can be trained panels or untrained panels but the subjects or panels that involved in this test cannot be the mixture of trained and untrained panels. The results of this method was analyze by comparing the responses for the different pairs by using the x - test. 2.4 A_ Not A Test As the same/ different test, this test was used when the test objective is to determine whether a sensory differences exists between two products and generally it also used when test are not suitable for dual or triple presentation (triangle test and duo- trio test not suitable). Examples of situation that unsuitable for triangle test and duo- trio test are comparisons between samples of strong or lingering flavour, samples that need to be applied to the skin in half- face tests and samples that very complex which cause mentally confusing to the panelist. A_ not A test was used in preference to the same/ different test where it was used when one of the two products has its own importance as a standard or reference product which the panels were familiar with the subjects or one of the two products is essential to a project similar to the current sample against which all others are measured. As the others tests, A_ not A test also effective in certain situation where this A_ not A test effective in situations which is exactly the same with the situations which the same/ different test was effective. This test is very useful for screening of panelists. Other than that, it also can be used for determining sensory threshold by Signal Detection Method. The principle of this test is to familiarize the panelists with samples A and not A. Each panelists will be presented with samples where some of the samples are product A while the other product are not A. Panels should
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identified whether the samples that been presented to them is A or not A. x - test was used to compare the correct identifications with the incorrect ones in order to determine the subjects ability. In this test, to recognize the A and not A 10- 50 trained panels were needed. 20- 50 presentation of each sample in the study. Each panel may receive only one sample either A or not A, 2 samples (one A and one not A) or panels may test more than 10 samples in a series. Number of samples that allowed to be presented to subjects is determined by the degree of physical or mental fatigue that produced by the samples in each panels. In this test, the standard version of the procedure a set of protocol must be observed. The set of protocol are products A and not A must be available to panels only until the start of the test, only one not A sample exists for each test and equal numbers of A and not A must be presented in each test. This set of protocol may be changed for any given test. The changes must be informed to the panels. 2.5 Duo-trio test Application and importance: The duo-trio test (ISO 2004a) is known to be statistically less efficient than the triangle test as the chance of obtaining a correct result by guessing is 1 in 2. However, this test is simple and easily to be understood. The advantage of this test is that a reference sample is presented and this can avoid confusions with respect to what constitutes a difference. On the other hand, the disadvantage of this test does exist, whereby instead of only two samples, three samples must be tasted. This test method will be used only when test objective is to determine whether a sensory difference exist between two samples. It is particularly useful in determining if there is a product differences resulting from change in ingredients, food processing and packaging, or storage. It is also used to determine whether an overall difference exists, where no specific attributes can be identified as having been affected.

The duo-trio test uses its general application when there are more than 15, and preferably more than 30, test subjects are available. The test exists in two types, which are the constant reference mode and the balanced reference mode. The constant

reference mode will be used in which the sample, usually drawn from regular
production, is always the reference while the balanced reference mode is where t both the samples being compared are used at random as the reference. Use the constant reference mode with trained subjects whenever a product is well known to them can be used as the reference. The balanced reference mode is used when both samples are unknown or if untrained subjects are being used. The duo-trio test will be less suitable than the paired comparison test if there are pronounced aftertastes. Principle of the Test: An identified reference sample will be presented to the subject followed by two other coded samples, one which matches the reference sample. The subject needs to indicate which coded sample matches the reference. The correct number of replies will be counted and interpretation is referred to the table of Critical Number of Correct Responses. Test Subjects: The minimum subjects for this test is 16, but for less than 28 subjects, the betaerror is high. Discrimination can be improved if 32, 40 or larger number can be applied. At a minimum, subjects need to be familiarized with the product characteristics and the test procedure. Subjects will not be informed about specific information about the samples to avoid bias. Method: Control of lighting may be necessary to reduce colour variables and samples need to be prepared and presented under optimum conditions for the product being inspected. Samples need to be offered simultaneously, if possible, or else sequentially. The samples need to be prepared in equal numbers of the possible combinations and
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allocate the sets at random among the subjects. Score sheet (which is the same as in the balanced reference and constant reference modes) will be provided and space for several duo-trio tests may be provided on the score sheet. The number of correct responses and the total number of responses will be referred to the table of Critical Number of Correct Responses. It will not count for no difference responses and subjects need to guess when in doubt. Usage: As an example, this test will be used in a case where a food manufacturer (i.e.; Chocolate blend) needs to replace the current ingredient of cocoa beans used to make their food product. So, food analyst will try to determine which type of cocoa beans can be best replaced the current blend. They will then test for similarity between the current blend and each type of the project blend. This is to see whether there is any significant difference or similarity between the original blend and the substituting blend. 2.6 Difference-from-control test: Application and importance: This test will be used when the project or the test objective is twofold, where at the same time needs to determine whether a difference exist between one or more samples and a control, and when estimating the size of any such differences. One sample will be designated as the control, reference, or standard. All other samples are evaluated with respect to how different each sample is from the controlling sample. It is useful in situations where the difference may be detectable; however the size of difference affects the decision about the test objective. This test is appropriate when the duo-test and triangle test cannot be used because of normal heterogeneity of food products. It can also be used as a two-sample test in situations where the multiple sample tests are inappropriate because of fatigue and carryover effects.

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Principle of the Test: The subject will be presented a controlling sample plus one more test sample. The size of the difference between each sample and the control will be rated by the subject and a scale is provided for this purpose. Indicate the subjects that some of the test samples may be the same as the control. The resulting mean difference-fromcontrol is evaluated and estimated by comparing them to the difference-from-control obtained with the blind controls. The estimation obtained from the blind controls is used to obtain a measure of the placebo effect. Test subjects: There are generally 20-50 presentations of each of the samples and the blind control with the labelled control are required to determine a degree of difference. When the difference-from-control test is chosen because of a complex comparison or fatigue factor, then no more than one pair of samples should be given to the subjects at the same time. This test can either use trained or untrained panellist, but should not consist mixture of both. The subjects need to be familiarized with the test format, the meaning of the scale and the fact that the proportion of test samples will be blind controls. Method: The test controls and product controls for this test is the same as the triangle test and the duo-trio test. The samples will be presented simultaneously, if possible, with the labelled control evaluated first. One labelled control sample will be prepared and the other test sample will be known as the sample test. When a sample being conducted to all subjects but the sample testing cannot be done in that one test session, they need to keep a record of subjects by sample to ensure that the remaining samples are presented in subsequent sessions.

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Usage: As an example, the test is used in measuring the perceived difference within batches of food, such in the case of flavoured peanut snack. They will develop a test method suitable for monitoring batch-to-batch variations in the production of the flavoured peanut snacks (i.e.: spicy flavour and barbeque flavour). In such difference test as this, subjects need to detect batch-to-batch differences and allows separation of the variations of the flavoured peanut snacks. 2.7 Sequential test Application and importance: This test were meant to economize the number of evaluations required to draw a conclusion, for example, acceptance vs. rejection of a trainee on a panel or shipment vs. destruction of a lot of produced goods. Because alpha and beta error were determined and decided beforehand, the sequential tests provides a direct approach to simultaneously test for either the difference or the similarity between the two samples. It is very practical and efficient as they take into consideration the possibility that the evidence derived from the first few evaluations can be sufficient to provide a conclusion. Further testing can be a waste of time and money. Due to this test, it reduces the number of evaluations as much as 50%. It may be used with existence-ofdifference test in which there is a correct and incorrect answer. Principle: A sequence of evaluation was conducted according to the procedure appropriate for the chosen method and the results will be entered into a test graph. Three results are identified as the acceptance region, the rejection region, and the continue-testing region. The number of trials will be plotted on the horizontal (x) axis while the total of correct responses is plotted on the vertical (y) axis. Result of the first test will be entered and each succeeding test, increase x by 1 and y by 1 for a correct reply and 0

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for incorrect reply. The test will be continued until a point touch or crosses one of the lines bordering the region of indecision. Indication of the conclusion will be drawn in the graph. Usage: Sequential test can show a significant test plot that is capable to draw a conclusion by plotting the results in graph. This test can be conducted in cases such as in the sequential Duo-Trio test: The Warmed-Over Flavour in Beef Patties. This example case shows that they need to determine whether difference can be detected for the samples stored for a day, 3 days and five days vs. a freshly grilled patties. The preliminary test shows that in the duo-trio test, 5-days patties shows a strong warmedover-flavour and 1-day patties have none, hence the sequential test design were appropriate; whereby the decision for these two samples could occur just with a few responses based on the graph plot. As each subject completes one test, the result is added to the previous responses, and the cumulative results are plotted. The test series continues until the storage sample is declared similar to or different from the control.

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3.0 ATTRIBUTE DIFFERENCE TESTS Attribute difference tests measure a single attribute such as sweetness, comparing one sample with one or several others. The lack of a difference between samples with regard to one attribute does not simply that no overall difference exists. Attribute difference tests involving two samples are simple regarding test design and statiscal treatment. Determining whether test situations are one-sided or two-sided is the main difficulty to determine. Some designs can be analyzed by the analysis of variance whereas others require specialized statistics if we get more than two samples. The degree of complexity increases rapidly with sample numbers, as does the economy of testing, which is possible by improved test designs. In these attribute test, we will explain about a description of the various multiple pair test follows, multisample tests and their designs. 3.1 Directional Difference Test: Comparing Two Samples DEFINATION the method is also called the paired comparison test or the 2-AFC (2alternative forced choice) test. It is one of the simplest and most used sensory tests that is often used first to determine if other more sophiscated tests should be applied. PURPOSE/USAGE this method when the test objective is to determine in which way particular sensory characteristic differs between two samples. APPLICATION,TOOLS AND TECHNIQUE INVOLVED The number of respondents required for the test is affected by : 1) Whether the test is one-sided or two-sided 2) The values chosen for the test-sensitivity parameters. This test present to each subject two coded samples. Prepare equal numbers of the combinations of AB and BA and allot them at random among the subjects. The subject
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will be ask to taste the products from left to right and fill in the scoresheet. Clearly inform the subject whether no difference verdicts are permitted. Only the forced choice technique is amenable to formal statiscal analysis. However, in some cases subjects may object quite strenuously to inventing a difference when none is perceived. The sensory analyst must then decide whether to divide their scores evenly over the two samples or ignore them. This test procedure Prepare equal numbers of the combinations AB and BA and allocate the sets at random among the subjects. The scoresheet is the same whether the test is one- or two sided, but the scoresheet must show whether no difference verdicts are permitted. Space for the several successive paired comparisons may be provided on single scoresheet,but do not add supplemental questions because these may introduce bias. For the count the number of responses of interest where In a one-sided test, count the number of the correct responses, or the responses in the direction of the interest. In two sided test,count the number of agreeing responses citing one sample more frequently. IMPLICATION AND IMPORTANCE The test is conducted with subjects who have received a minimum of training, it is sufficient that subjects are completely familiar with the attribute under test. Some test is particular important such as an off-flavor in aproduct already on market, highly trained subjects may be selected who have shown special acuity attribute.This is because the chance of guessing is 50%, fairly large numbers of the test subjects are required. 3.2 Pairwise Ranking Test: Friedman Analysis Comparing Several Samples in All Possible Pairs PURPOSE/USAGE
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This method is used when test objective is to compare several samples for a single attribute, such as sweetness,freshness or preference. The test is partiuclary useful for sets of three to six samples that are to be evaluated by a relatively inexperienced panel. It arranges the samples on a scale of intensity of the chosen attribute and provides a numerical indication of the differences between samples and the significance of such differences. APPLICATION,TOOLS AND TECHNIQUE INVOLVED The Principle of the test is it will present a question which is for example which sample is sweeter? (fresher or more prefer ) to each subjects one pair at a time in random order. It will continue until each subject has evaluated all possible pairs that can be formed from the samples.Evaluate it with Friedman Statiscal Analytical Analysis. The tools in this test used is the test subject should be slecet,trainand instruct subjects as described in other test. Use no fewer than 10 subjects,discrimination is much improved if 20 or more can be used. Ascertain that subjects can recognize the attribute of interest, by training with various pairs of known intensity difference in the attribute. Depending on the test objective, subjects may be required who have proven ability to detect small differences in the attribute. The test procedure for test controls and product controls is same with stated before. 3.3 Multisample Difference Tests There are several types of multisample difference tests, those are: 1. Multisample Difference Test: Rating Approach-Evaluation by Analysis of Variance 2. Multisample Difference Test: BIB Ranking test ( Balanced Incomplete Block Design)-Friedman Analysis 3. Multisample Difference Test: BIB Rating Test ( Balanced Incomplete Block Design)-Evaluation by Analysis of Variance

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3.3.1Multisample Difference Test: Rating Approach-Evaluation by Analysis of Variance Rating approach is used when the test objective is to determine in which way a particular sensory attribute varies over a number of t samples, where t may vary from 3 to 6 or at most 8 and it is possible to compare all t samples as one large set. Subjects will rate the intensity of the selected attribute on a numerical intensity scale in example a category scale. The results also will be evaluate by the analysis of variance. The subjects receives the set of t samples in balanced randomized order in which the task is to rate each sample using the specified scale. The set may be presented once only, or several times with different coding. Accuracy is much improved if the set can be presented two or more times. If more than one attribute is to be rated, theoretically the sample should be presented separately for each attribute. For example the hop character in five beers. The situation is a brewer is producing a new brand of beer that is to have a high level of hop character. He is brewing with five alternative lots of hops that cost $1.00, $1.20, $1.40, $1.60 and $1.80/lb. The project objective is to choose the lot that gives the most hop character for the money while the test objective is to compare the resulting five beers for degree of hop character in which to obtain a measure of the reliability of the results. 20 subjects evaluate the samples on a scale of 0-9. The order of presentation is randomized and the samples are presented on three separate occasions with different coding. 3.3.2 Multisample Difference Test: BIB Ranking test ( Balanced Incomplete Block Design)-Friedman Analysis BIB ranking test is used when the test objective is to determine in which way a particular sensory attribute varies over a number of samples and there are too many samples to evaluate at any one time. Typically, the method is used when the number of samples to be compared is from 6 to 12, or at most 16. The present method (ranking) is chosen when the panelists are relatively untrained for the type of sample or relatively
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simple statistical analysis is preferred. Subjects are asked to rank the samples according to the attribute of interest. For example the species of fish. The situation is where a military field ration XPQ6 ( fish fingers in aspic) has been prepared in the past from 15 different species of fish. The project objective is to compare the 15 species such that quantitative information on the degree of fishy flavor is obtained while the test objective is to compare fish fingers produced from the 15 species for degree of fishy flavor. A randomly selected group of 105 enlisted personnel are randomly divided into 35 groups of three subjects each. A schoresheet is prepared to ask the subject to rank his three samples according to fishy flavor, from least (=1) to most (=3). 3.3.3 Multisample Difference Test: BIB Rating Test ( Balanced Incomplete Block Design)-Evaluation by Analysis of Variance Usage/Application This method is used when the test objective is to determine in which way a particular sensory attribute varies over a number of samples. Basically, the number of samples to be compared is from 6 to 12, or mostly at 16. The present method (rating) is chosen when panelists is trained to use a rating scale and results need to be as precise and actionable as possible. All t samples are presenting as one large block and then the subjects were asked to rate the intensity of the attribute of interest on a numerical intensity scale. The results will be evaluate by analysis of variance. The subjects must be able to recognize the attribute of interest example by training with sets of known intensity levels in the attribute. Not fewer than 8 subjects are used because discrimination is much improved if 16 or more are used. Subjects may require special instruction to enable them to recognize the attributes of interest reproducibly. Depending on the test objectives, subjects may be selected who show high discriminating ability in the attribute(s) of interest.
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BIB rating test offer samples simultaneously if possible or else sequentially. The order of presentation is truly random whereby the subjects must not be led to suspect a regular pattern, as this will influence verdicts. For example a problem given is where a QC manager of an ice cream plant routinely screens samples of finished product to select lots that will be added to the pool of quality reference samples for use in the main QC testing program. The project objective is to maintain a sufficient inventory of reference samples of finished ice cream for QC testing purposes while the test objective is to rate the inventory of six lots each day for overall off-flavor and discard any lot that may not be suitable as a reference. The samples of the six lots are evaluated for overall off flavor by 15 well-trained panelists who use a 10-point category scale from 0 (no off-flavor) to 9 (extreme offflavor). Each of the 15 panelists is randomly assigned one block of four samples from the design. The order of presentation of the samples within each block is randomized.

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4.0 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE Descriptive analysis are applied in documenting product sensory characteristics, identifying and quantifying sensory characteristics, correlating instrumental and chemical measurements with sensory responses, monitoring product quality, interpreting consumer responses, sensory diagnostics of ingredient, processing or packaging changes, prediction of consumer acceptance, and also used in matching of sensory profiles in quality assessments. Not only that, the sensory profiles are used in research and development and in manufacturing to define the sensory properties of a target for new product development; to document product attributes before a consumer test to help in the selection of attributes to be included in the consumer questionnaire and to help in an explanation of the results of the consumer test; to track a products sensory changes over time with respect to understanding shelf life, packaging and many more; to map perceived product attributes for the purpose of relating them to instrumental, chemical or physical properties; and to measure short-term changes in the intensity of specific attributes over time (time-intensity analysis). The principles used in descriptive analysis are it deals with perceptions not with ingredients, causes or implications; it does not ask questions about consumer acceptability; it uses panels consisting of trained or calibrated observers; it uses welldefined terminology; data are quantified through ratings of perceived intensities on scales; and it seeks to answer questions about how products differ on specific sensory bases. There are four components in descriptive analysis, which are, first characteristics (qualitative aspect); second intensity (quantitative aspect which include category scales, line scales, and magnitude estimation); third order of appearance (time aspect); and lastly overall impression (integrated aspect).

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6 Commonly Used Descriptive Test Methods. 1) The Flavor Profile Method. It is an analysis of a product's perceived aroma and flavor characteristics, their intensities, order of appearance, and aftertaste. An amplitude rating is generally included as part of the profile. It provides a general tool for characterizing the flavors of complex food products. Moreover, the method is proved valuable for examining flavor differences among foods that are functions of ingredient, processing and storaging changes. Normally it is carried out by 5-8 panelists. 2) The Texture Profile Method. The texture profile method was developed in order to define the textural parameters of food. Later the method was developed to include specific attribute descriptive to specific products including semisolid foods, beverages, skin feel products and fabrics and paper good. Texture is a sensory attributes that perceived by the senses of touch, sight and hearing of human. The sensory analysis of the texture complex of a food in terms of its mechanical, geometrical, fat and moisture characteristics, the degree of each present, and the order in which they appear from first bite through complete mastication. 3) The spectrum descriptive analysis method. The spectrum Descriptive Analysis methods principal characteristic is that the panelists score the perceived intensities with reference to the pre-learned absolute intensity scales. The purpose is to make the resulting profiles universally understandable and usable, not only at the later date but also at any laboratory outside the originating one. This method provides for this purpose an array of standard attributes names with each with its set of standards which define a scale of intensity usually from 0 to 15. The philosophy of spectrum is pragmatic which provides the tools to design a descriptive procedure for a given product category. The main principal tools are the reference lists contained in spectrums appendices which are together with the
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scaling procedures and methods of panels training. The min aim is to choose the most practical method system which is given the product in question, the overall sensory program, the specific project objectives in developing a panel and the desired level of statistical treatment of the data. 4) Time-Intensity Descriptive Analysis. As food enters the oral cavity, travels over the tongue and is ingested, flavor, texture, and even sound perception change due to the breakdown of food. Conventional scaling procedures, used to evaluate e.g. flavor intensity, require judges to average their sensory response over time. This yields only an overall impression, with no information about the course of the sensation. However, the time-intensity can overcome this. The (T-I) technique focuses on the dynamic changes in food over the entire physiological process. The changes in perception of taste, flavor, texture, irritation and odor over a selected period of time can be precisely measured. The period of the intensity of perception varies among products. The time-intensity studies can be divided into three kinds, including long-term time-intensity studies, shorter term timeintensity studies and the shortest term time-intensity studies. Long term time-intensity can be applied on skin lotion studies- to measure the reduction of skin dryness periodically over days. Shorter term time-intensity track flavor and texture attributes of chewing gum over several minutes. The shortest term time-intensity can be applied on the measurement of sweetness and bitterness of certain products over several seconds. 5) Free-Choice Profiling. Free-choice profile (FCP) was developed in the 1980s which is a sensory analysis method that can be carried out by the untrained panels. The participants need only to be able to use a scale and be consumers of the product under the evaluation. Freechoice profiling is actually a novel technique developed by Williams and Arnold at the Agricultural and Food Council in United Kingdom which they used it as the solution to the problem of consumers using different terms for a given attribute. It also allows the panelists to invent and use as many terms as panels need and can to describe the
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sensory characteristics of a set of samples. The samples are actually all from the same category of products and the panelists can develop their own score sheet. The main advantages of the new technique is that it saves much times by not requiring any training of the panelists other than an hour of instruction in the use of the chosen scale. The second advantage is that the panelist who has not been trained can still be recognized as representing nave consumers. However, questions regarding the ability of the sensory analyst to interpret the resulting terms, combined from all the panelists which need to be addressed. In order to give the reliable guidance to the products researchers, the experiment or sensory analyst must decide what does each of the combined term actually means. Therefore, the words or terms for each resulting parameter come the experimenter or sensory analyst rather than from the panelists. The results may be colored more by the perspective of the analyst than the combined weight of the panelists verdicts. 6) The Quantitative Descriptive Analysis Method (QDA). The Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) method is developed by the Tragon Corp because the other methods are lack of statistical treatment of data. This method relies on the statistical analysis to determine the appropriate terms, procedures and the panelists to be used for analysis of a specific product. These probably will reduce the unnecessary bias such as being dominated by the leader panel in discussion and scaling. The panelists can be selected from large pool of candidates, as long as they successfully passed standardized tests for olfactory, taste and color sensitivity as well as for commemoration, verbal abilities and creativity. In this method, there is also a leader panel. However, unlike the flavor profile test, the leader panel acts as a facilitator, rather than a instructor and refrains from affecting the group. The panelists are free to evaluate the samples and give their own results in separate booths under defined condition such as temperature and light. This will reduce distraction and interaction of the panelists and there is no discussion among the panelists in this method. The result data or score-sheets are collected once they finish evaluating, and the data will be entered into computer for statistical analysis. One of the computer program CASA
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(Computer Aided Sensory Analysis). The results are analyzed statistically and graphic representation of the data will be applied. It is normally in the form of a spider web with a branch or spoke from a central point of each attribute.

Spider-web plots are used to present data graphically.

Panelists work independently of one another. Booths can be used to minimize social influences. Discussion can follow or calibration purposes.

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5.0 AFFECTIVE TESTS 5.1 Usage/Application These are tests in which subjective attitudes, such as product acceptance and preference, are measured. In affective tests the task is to indicate preference or acceptance by either selecting, ranking, or scoring samples. Respondents are usually consumers who are selected on their current or potential use of the product. In laboratory situations, consumer demographics often are substituted in favor of accessible respondents (e.g., employees) whose preference and acceptance behavior satisfactorily correlate with those of the target consumer population. Laboratory-type acceptance tests can be done with 25 to 50 respondents. In field studies where the target population is used, minimum numbers are increased by 75 to 200 or more. As a rule, technical, marketing, and administrative personnel involved with the particular product should not be used in affective tests because of their prior knowledge and potential for biased response. The primary purpose of affective tests is to assess the personal response (preference or acceptance) of current or potential customers to a product, a product idea, or specific product characteristics. Affective tests may be used for a variety of purposes including: Product Maintenance Product Improvement/Optimization New Product Development Assessment of Market Potential Support for Advertising Claims

Affective tests are used mainly by producers of consumer goods, but also by service providers such as hospitals, banks, and the Armed Forces, where many tests were first developed. Every year, the use of consumer tests becomes more common. They have
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proven highly effective as a tool used to design products and services that will sell in large quantities or command a higher price. Prosperous companies tend to excel in customer-testing knowledge and, consequently, in knowledge about their consumers. Affective tests can be qualitative or quantitative, depending on purpose. Whichever type of test is used, care needs to be taken to ensure the sample of testers is representative of the target population expected to buy the product. 5.2 Affective Test MethodsFuzzy Front End One of the affective test methods is the Fuzzy Front End. Uncovering consumers needs often occur in the beginning, at the fuzzy front end. Typically, the research is conducted at the very early stage of a project, when planning is being carried out, initial market and technical feasibility is being assessed, and breakthrough ideas are being explored. Research at the fuzzy front end is conducted before dollars are committed to detailed technical assessment, costly concept testing is executed and significant manpower and out-of-pocket expenses are committed. This does not imply that the tools and techniques applied to understand the consumer early cannot be applied at all stages of the product development process. Methods used are unique because they gather in-depth information on who the consumer really is, how and why products are used, what they really like, dislike, and need. To capture this level of information, one must move beyond the standard, frequently used quantitative and qualitative approaches. The applications of research at the fuzzy front end allows the: Exploration of consumers as purchasers of products with specific features or sensory properties identified. Study of product functionality and ergonomics. Determination of how a consumer is modifying a product or adapting usage to suit his/her needs. Uncovering of attitudes, behaviors, and motivators within the culture.
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Study of the consumers in their own environment through observational research.

Beyond the traditional techniques used to elicit information from consumers in focus groups or one-to-one interviews, information-gathering approaches that are used in support of the fuzzy front end are often imagery-based and include, but are not limited to, compare and contrast, mind maps, word webs, and collages. Quantitative techniques that go beyond CLTs or HUTs to consider include online research and intrinsic/ extrinsic studies. The online research provides early exploration into the design of concepts, attitudes, and behavioral research. Intrinsic or extrinsic research studies the essential aspects of a product along with the external motivators. 5.3 Types of Affective Tests There are two main types of affective tests, namely: 1. Qualitative 2. Quantitative; which may be further divided into: i. ii. I. Preference tests Acceptance tests

Qualitative tests

Qualitative affective tests are those (e.g., interviews and focus groups) which measure subjective responses of a sample of consumers to the sensory properties of products by having those consumers talk about their feelings in an interview or small group setting. Qualitative methods are used in the following situations: To uncover and understand consumer needs that are unexpressed (example: Why do people buy 4-wheel-drive cars to drive on asphalt?). Researchers that include anthropologists and ethnographers conduct open-ended interviews. This type of study, often called the fuzzy front end, can help marketers identify trends in consumer behavior and product use.
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To assess consumers initial responses to a product concept and/or a product prototype. When product researchers need to determine if a concept has some general acceptance or, conversely, some obvious problems, a qualitative test can allow consumers to discuss freely the concept and/or a few early prototypes. The results, a summary and a tape of such discussions, permit the researcher to understand better the consumers initial reactions to the concept or prototypes. Project direction can be adjusted at this point, in response to the information obtained.

To learn consumer terminology to describe the sensory attributes of a concept, prototype or commercial product, or product category. In the design of a consumer questionnaire and advertising it is critical to use consumer-oriented terms rather than those derived from marketing or product development. Qualitative tests permit consumers to discuss product attributes openly in their

own words.
To learn about consumer behavior regarding use of a particular product. When product researchers wish to determine how consumers use certain products (package directions) or how consumers respond to the use process (dental floss, feminine protection), qualitative tests probe the reasons and practices of consumer behavior. Qualitative tests include the use of: 1. Focus Groups A small group of 10 to 12 consumers, selected on the basis of specific criteria (product usage, consumer demographics, etc.) meet for 1 to 2 hours with the focus group moderator. The moderator presents the subject of interest and facilitates the discussion using group dynamics techniques to uncover as much specific information from as many participants as possible directed toward the focus of the session. Typically, two or three such sessions, all directed toward the same project focus, are held in order to determine any overall trend of responses to the concept and/or
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prototypes. Note is also made of unique responses apart from the overall trend. A summary of these responses plus tapes, audio or visual, are provided to the client researcher. Purists will say that 3 12 = 36 verdicts are too few to be representative of any consumer trend, but in practice if a trend emerges that makes sense, modifications are made based on this. The modifications may then be tested in subsequent groups. 2. Focus Panels (focus groups with a longer existence) In this variant of the focus group, the interviewer utilizes the same group of consumers two or three more times. The objective is to make some initial contact with the group, have some discussion on the topic, send the group home to use the product, and then have the group return to discuss its experiences. 3. One-on-one interviews Qualitative affective tests in which consumers are individually interviewed in a oneon-one setting are appropriate in situations in which the researcher needs to understand and probe a great deal from each consumer or in which the topic is too sensitive for a focus group. The interviewer conducts successive interviews with up to 50 consumers, using a similar format with each, but probing in response to each consumers answers. One unique variant of this method is to have a person use or prepare a product at a central interviewing site or in the consumers home. Notes or a video are taken regarding the process, which is then discussed with the consumer for more information. Interviews with consumers regarding how they use a detergent or prepare a packaged dinner have yielded information about consumer behavior which was very different from what the company expected or what consumers said they did. One-on-one interviews or observations of consumers can give researchers insights into unarticulated or underlying consumer needs, and this in turn can lead to innovative products or services that meet such needs.

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All these methods involve small samples so findings usually need to be further supported by larger scale, usually quantitative, studies. However, small scale studies often supply insights that will be missed in large scale quantitative studies which have, by their nature, to focus on specific attributes. Small scale studies, on the other hand, give scope for probing responses and trying to identify reasons behind response. II. Quantitative tests

Quantitative affective tests are those which determine the responses of a large group (50 to several hundred) of consumers to a set of questions regarding preference, liking, sensory attributes, etc. Quantitative affective methods are applied in the following situations: To determine overall preference or liking for a product or products by a sample of consumers who represent the population for whom the product is intended. Decisions about whether to use acceptance and/or preference questions are discussed under each test method below. To determine preference or liking for broad aspects of product sensory properties (aroma, flavor, appearance, texture). Studying broad facets of product character can provide insight regarding the factors affecting overall preference or liking. To measure consumer responses to specific sensory attributes of a product. Use of intensity, hedonic, or just right scales can generate data which can then be related to the hedonic ratings discussed previously and to descriptive analysis data. Preference and acceptance tests should not use trained panelists i.

Preference tests
Simple preference test

Present two samples and ask: Which do you prefer? You can either force a decision or allow a "no preference option"

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If a "no preference" option is permitted, the no preference responses may either be removed from the sample or randomly allocated to the either of the two samples, either way, there is need for particular care in interpreting the results of any expressed preference. From the point of view of a more robust statistical analysis, the forced preference method. On the other hand, some testers believe that "A happy panel is a better panel" The simple preference test is very similar to the directional difference test. Ranking tests

These involve asking subjects to put three or more samples in order of preference. Care should be taken not to induce sensory fatigue by introducing too many samples. An alternative procedure to identify ranking of preference is to use multiple paired preference tests. This can involve all possible pairs of three or more samples or selecting one or two samples as controls and rating the other samples against these. Sample size

Preference Tests require a minimum of 30 assessors. 100 or more is better ii.

Acceptance tests

These tests are aimed at identifying a liking for a product. They can be used for general liking or evaluation of specific attributes. It is possible to infer preference from acceptance scores. Caution needs to be exercised with attribute testing. e.g. Is the tester's and panellists perceptions of sour/bitter/astringent the same? Rating scales are generally preferred to a simple yes/no response as they give an indication of degree of liking. It is important that rating scales are balance i.e. the number of "like this" is equal to the number of "dislike this" options. You should normally include a neutral response (neither like nor dislike).

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Note that rating scales are prone to central tendency errors i.e. a reluctance to use the extremes of the scale, so a sufficient number of scale points should be provided to counter this. Types of Rating Scale 1. Category scales Sample is assigned to one of a set of descriptive terms Mark a point along a line The outer limits of the range are marked at each end of the line Rates sample against some standard Always involves a comparison Needs highly trained panellists to achieve meaningful results 2. Line scales

3. Ratio Scales

Examples of Rating Scale 1. Likeability scale (9-point hedonic scale)

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2. 'Just Right' scales

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3. Line or Numerical Scales Respondent places a mark on a line or gives a number to express the degree of liking, e.g. Please score the suitability of product X for use in ... meal not at all suitable very suitable

for this occasion

4. Likelihood to Purchase or Food-Action-Rating Eat the whole portion & evaluate the sample on the basis of your experience. Tick which statement best reflects your opinion I would eat this at every opportunity I would eat this very often I like this & would eat this now and then I would eat this if available but would not go out of my way for it I don't like this & would eat it only occasionally ... etc. Note: This scale as it stands in unbalanced. There needs to be equal number of like and dislike points and there is no clear neutral response.
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Advantages: Provides essential information; bottom line Can identify liking/disliking segments Can be related to descriptive profile, other variables in optimization

Liabilities: Consumer vocabulary fuzzy Representative samples can be a problem Preference may be ambiguous

Costs: Consumer recruiting, qualification as users/likers Technician time in setup, recruiting , analysis, reporting Computing required if long questionnaire, large sample Some products may require controlled facility (odors, noise, etc.)

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