Formulae v2

[ Baroka ] [2010] [ MATHEMATICS FORMULAE ]
1
(1) NUMBERS

(a) Types of numbers
- Whole numbers Eg. : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
- Integer numbers Eg. : , 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
- Odd numbers Eg. : 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17,
- Even numbers Eg. : 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18,
- Prime numbers Eg. : 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, ...
- Perfect square numbers Eg. : 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144, 169, ...
- Cube numbers Eg. : 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, 512, ...

(2) POLYGONS / ANGLES

(a) Triangles

Equilateral Triangles Isosceles Triangles Right-angled Triangles Scalene Triangles

a = 180 2b

b =
2
180 a

a + b= 90

a = 90 b

b = 90 a

c = a + b

(b) Rhombus

- All sides are equal in length.

- Opposite sides are parallel.

- Opposite angles are equal in size.

- Diagonal bisect each other in right angle.

- a + b = 180

(c) Type of Polygon

Polygons / side
sum of interior angles
(n 2) 180
Regular Polygons

- exterior angle + interior angle = 180

- sum of exterior angle = 360

Triangle / 3 180
Quadrilateral / 4 360
Pentagon / 5 540
Hexagon / 6 720
Heptagon / 7 900
Octagon / 8 1080
Nonagon / 9 1260
Decagon / 10 1440

(d) Angles

Acute angle Right angle Obtuse angle Reflex angle

60 60
60

a
b b

a
b

c
b
a

a
a
b
b

-
Angle at centre =
n
360

Interior angle = 180
n
360

Exterior angle =
n
360

-

x < 90

x = 90

90 < x < 180

180 < x < 360
2
(e) Properties of angle

a = c and b = d

a + b + c = 180

a + b + c = 360

a = c and b = d

a = c and b = d

a + d = 180 and b + c = 180

a + b = c

a + b = c

a + b = c

b
c
d
a

c
b
a

c
b
a

b
a
c
d

b
a
d
c

b
a
d
c

b
a
c

b
a
c

a
c
b
3
(3) INDICES

(a) Table for Numbers Power of n

n 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2
8
1

2
1

1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
3
27
1

9
1

3
1

1 3 9 27 81 243 729
5
125
1

25
1

5
1

1 5 25 125 625 3125

6
216
1

36
1

6
1

1 6 36 216 1296

2 =
2
1
4 5 =
2
1
25
3 =
2
1
9 6 =
2
1
36
4 =
2
1
16 7 =
2
1
49

(b) Indices and Law of Indices

a
n
= a a a ( n times of a )

a
0
= 1

a
n
=
n
a
1
, a
n
=
n
a
1
,

n
b
a

|
.
|
\
|
=
n
a
b
|
.
|
\
|

n
a
1
=
n
a

n
m
a = ( )
m
n
a =
n m
a

a
m
a
n
= a
m +

n

a
m
a
n
=
n
m
a
a
= a
m

n

(a
m
)
n
= (a
n
)
m
= a
mn

a
n
b
n
= (ab)
n
,
n
n
n
b
a
b
a
|
.
|
\
|
=

Example 1 :

2
4
k
k k
= ???

= k
4 + 1

(2)

= k
4 + 1

+ 2

= k
7

Example 2 :

(3f
5
g)
2
(f
4
)
3
f
2
g
7
= ???

= 9 f
10
g
2
f
12
f
2
g
7

= 9 f
10 + (12) (2)
g
2 7

= 9 f
10 12 + 2
g
5

= 9 f
0
g
5

= 9g
5

Example 3 :

3
x 1
= 81

3
x 1
= 3
4

x 1 = 4

x = 4 + 1

x = 5

4
1
4
(4) PYTHAGORAS' THEOREM

c =
2 2
b a +
c
2
= a
2
+ b
2
b =
2 2
a c
b
2
= c
2
a
2

a =
2 2
b c
a
2
= c
2
b
2

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4
a / b b / a c / c a / b b / a c / c a / b b / a c / c a / b b / a c / c
3 4 5 5 12 13 7 24 25 8 15 17
6 8 10 10 24 26 14 48 50 16 30 34
9 12 15 15 36 39
12 16 20

(5) SPEED, CHANGE OF RATES

(a) Speed

time
ce dis
speed
tan
=
speed
ce dis
time
tan
=

distance = speed time

(b) Change of Rates

Example 1 :

90 kmh
1
= ?? ms
1

h
km
1
90
=
s
m
60 60 1
1000 90

= 25 ms
1

Example 2 :

900 m min
1
= ?? kmh
1

min 1
900 m
=
h
km
60
1
1000
900
= 54 kmh
1

Example 3 :

50 ms
1
= ?? kmh
1

s
m
1
50
=
h
km
60 60
1
1000
50
= 180 kmh
1

(6) LINEAR EQUATIONS I, II

(a) Linear Equation

Example 1 :

2k 3 = k 2k + 2

2k k + 2k = 2 + 3

3k = 5

k =
3
5

Example 2 :

10k = 3 7k

10k + 7k = 3

17k = 3

k =
17
3

Example 3 :

5 8k = 12 + 4k

8k 4k = 12 5

12k = 17

k =
12
17

k =
12
17

a
c
b

2k 3 = k 2 (k 1)

2k =
5
7 3 k

) 3 ( 2 4
2
5
k k =

5 8k = 4 (3 k)

5
(b) Simultaneous Linear Equation

Example 1 :

2k 3m = 9, 7k + 3m = 9 k = ?, m = ?

Example 2 :

x + 2y = 6 (i),
2
3
x y = 7 x = ?, y = ?

2k + 7k = 9 + (9)

9k = 18

k =
9
18

k = 2

2k 3m = 9

2(2) 3m = 9

4 3m = 9

3m = 9 + 4

3m = 5

m =
3
5

m =
3
5

x + 3x = 6 + (14)

4x = 8

x =
4
8

x = 2

x + 2y = 6

2 2y = 6

2y = 6 + 2

2y = 8

y =
2
8

y = 4

Example 3 :

2k 3w = 10 (i), 4k + w = 1 k = ?, w = ?

Example 4 :

7x 5y = 45 (i), 2x + 3y = 4 (ii) x = ?, y = ?

(i) 2,

6w (+w) = 20 (1)

7w = 21

w =
7
21

w = 3

4k + w = 1

4k + (3) = 1

4k 3 = 1

4k = 1 + 3

4k = 2

k =
4
2

k =
2
1

(i) 2, (ii) 7

10y (+ 21y) = 90 28

31y = 62

y =
31
62

y = 2

2x + 3y = 4

2x + 3(2) = 4

2x + 6= 4

2x = 4 6

2x = 2

x =
2
2

x = 1

2k 3m = 9

7k + 3m = 9

+ )

x + 2y = 6
3x 2y = 14

+ )

4k 6w = 20

4k + w = 1

)

14x 10y = 90

14x + 21y = 28

)
6
(7) LINEAR INEQUALITIES

(a) Linear Inequalities in One Unknown

x < 3 x = , 6, 5, 4

x s 3 x = , 5, 4, 3.

x > 2 x = 3, 4, 5,

x > 2 x = 2, 3, 4,

3 < x < 2 x = 2, 1, 0, 1

3 < x s 2 x = 2, 1, 0, 1, 2

3 s x < 2 x = 3, 2, 1, 0, 1

3 s x s 2 x = 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2

(b) Solving Inequalities in One Variable

Example 1 :

x + 3 < 5
x < 5 3
x < 2

Example 2 :

x + 3 > 5
x > 5 3
x > 2

Example 3 :

x 3 < 5
x < 5 + 3
x < 8

Example 4 :

x 3 > 5
x > 5 + 3
x > 8

Example 5 :

2x < 5
x <
2
5

Example 6 :

2x > 5
x >
2
5

Example 7 :

2x < 5
x >
2
5

x >
2
5

Example 8 :

2x > 5
x s
2
5

x s
2
5

Example 9 :

x < 10

Example 10 :

x > 10

Example 11 :

x > 10

Example 12 :

x s 10

x
3
2
(a)

x
3
2
(b)

x
3
2
(c)

3
2
(d)

x
3
2
(e)

x
3
2
(f)

x
3
2
(g)

x
3
2
(h)

2
x
< 5

2
x
> 5

2
x
< 5

2
x
> 5

7
(8) ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS

Example 1 :

=
mv
v v
15
2 5 ( 3

=
mv
v v
15
2 5 3 +

=
mv
v
3
1

Example 2 :

=
2
6
) 2 ( 3
m
m m +

=
2
6
2 3
m
m m

=
2
3
1
m
m

Example 3 :

=
mp
p p
2
) 1 ( 2 3
2
1

=
mp
p p
2
2 3 +

=
mp
p 1 2

Example 4 :

3
2
+ x

9
5
2
+
x
x

=
9
) 5 ( ) 3 ( 2
2
+
x
x x

=
9
5 6 2
2

x
x x

=
9
11
2
x
x

(9) ALGEBRAIC FORMULAE

Example 1 :

5h 20 = 7g

5h = 7g + 20

5
20 7 +
=
g
h

Example 2 :

v
1
+
u
1
=
f
1
, v = ???

v
1
=
f
1

u
1

v
1
=
fu
f u

v =
f u
fu

Example 3 :

5m p 3m = 21

5m 3m = 21 + p

2m = 21 + p

m =
2
21 p +

Example 4 :

LT 3L = T LT

LT + LT T = 3L

2LT T = 3L

T (2LT 1) = 3L

T =
1 2
3
L
L

Example 5 :

3
2
=
+
h
g
, g = ???

h
g + 2
= 3
2

2 + g = 9h

g = 9h 2

Example 6 :

m = 5 3n
2
, n = ???

3n
2
= 5 m

n
2
=
3
5 m

3
5 m
n

=

m 5
1

mv
v
15
2 5

(3v)
(3v)

=
mv
v
15
5 5

5
5

(3m)
m 2
1

2
6
2
m
m +

(3m)

=
2
6
2 2
m
m

2
2

2 (p) m 2
3

|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|

mp
p
2
1
1

(p)
2

=
mp
p
2
2 4

2
2
(x3)
3
2
+ x

9
5
2
+
x
x

(x3)
=

g
h ) 4 ( 5
= 7, h = ???

7
3
5
=
m
p m
, m = ?

L =
3
) 1 (
T
L T
, T = ???

h
g + 2
= 9

8
(10) CIRCUMFERENCE / PERIMETER AND AREA OF A CIRCLE

(a) the circumference / perimeter of circle = 2tr

(b) the length of arc AB =
360
u
2tr

(a) the area of circle = tr
2

(b) the area of sector AOB =
360
u
tr
2

Example :

(a) the length of arc NR

=
360
30
2
7
22
7

= 3
3
2

the length of arc QP

=
360
60
2
7
22
14

= 14
3
2

the perimeter of the whole diagram

= ON + NR + RQ + QP + PO
= 7 + 3
3
2
+ 7 + 14
3
2
+ 14
= 46
3
1

(b) the area of sector ONR

=
360
30

7
22
7
2

= 12
6
5

the area of sector ORM

=
360
60

7
22
7
2

= 25
3
2

the area of sector OQP

=
360
60

7
22
14
2

= 102
3
2

the area of the shaded region

= 102
3
2
25
3
2
+ 12
6
5

= 89
6
5

O
r

B
A
O
u
r

O
r

B
A
O
u
r

(a) the perimeter, in cm, of the whole diagram,

(b) the area, in cm
2
, of the shaded region.

60
N
R
Q
P M
O
7 cm 7 cm

9
(11) AREA / TOTAL SURFACE AREA / VOLUME

(a) Area

(i) Square

(ii) Rectangle

(iii) Parallelogram

(iv) Triangle

Area = ab
2
1

(v) Trapezium

Area = ) )( (
2
1
h b a +

(b) Total Surface Area of a Solid

(i) Cylinder

Total surface area = 2tr
2
+ 2trh

(ii) Cone

Total surface area = tr
2
+ trl

(iii) Sphere

(iv) Hemisphere

(c) Volume of a Solid

(i) Cube

(ii) Cuboid

(iii) Cylinder

(iv) Semi-Cylinder

a
Area = a a
= a
2

b
a
Area = a b

b
a
Area = ab

b
a a
b
b
a

h
h
b
b
a
a
h
b
a

r
h h
2tr
r

l
r
l
r

r
Total surface area = 4 tr
2

Total surface area = 3tr
2

r

a
= a
3

Volume = a a a

c
a
b
Volume = abc

h
r
Volume = base area h
= tr
2
h

h
r
Volume =
2
2
h r t

10

(v) Cone

(vi) Pyramid

(vii) Sphere

(viii) Hemispheres

(ix) Prism

Volume = base area h
=
2
1
ab h

(x) Prism

Volume = base area t
=
2
1
(a + b)(h) t

Example 1 :

the volume of cone

=
3
1
(
7
22
) (9)
2
(14)

= 1188

the volume of cylinder

=
7
22
(3)
2
(7)

= 198

the volume of the remaining solid

= 1188 198

= 990

Example 2 :

the volume of pyramid

=
3
1
(14 6) (8)

= 224

the volume of prism

= [
2
1
(10 + 14) (FG) ] (6)

= 72FG

224 + 72FG = 584

72FG = 584 224

72FG = 360

FG =
72
360

FG = 5

Volume =
3
1
base area h

=
3
1
tr
2
h
h
r

Volume =
3
1
base area h

=
3
1
ab h

h
a

b

Volume =
3
4
tr
3

r

Volume =
3
2
tr
3

r

h
b
a
b
a
b
a
h
h

b
a
a
t
h
b
h
t

The diagram shows a solid cone with radius 9 cm and
height 14 cm. A cylinder with radius 3 cm and height 7
cm is taken out of the solid. Calculate the volume, in
cm
3
, of the remaining solid.

V
E
D
A B
G
H
F
C
6 cm
10 cm

The height of the pyramid is 8 cm and FG = 14 cm.
It is given that the volume of the combined solid is
584 cm
3
. Calculate the length, in cm, of AF.
11

(12) STANDARD FORM

(a) Significant figures

Type 1 ~ whole number Type 2 ~ decimal number < 1 Type 3 ~ decimal number > 1

Example :

- 63864 (3 s.f.) 63900

- 304638 (4 s.f.) 304600

Example :

- 0.00368 (2 s.f.) 0.0037

- 0.08195 (3 s.f.) 0.0820

Example :

- 1.75692 (3 s.f.) 1.76

- 1.00746 (4 s.f.) 1.007

(b) Standard form ~ A number in the form of A 10
n
, where 1 s A s 10 and n is an integer

Type 1 ~ number > 1 Type 2 ~ number < 1

Example :

- 522.6 5.226 10
2

- 5140000 5.14 10
6

Example :

- 0.565 5.65 10
1

- 0.00042 4.2 10
4

(c) Perform operation involving any two number and express the answer in the standard form

a 10
n
+ b 10
n
= (a + b) 10
n
a 10
n
b 10
n
= (a b) 10
n

Example :

1.8 10
5
+ 88000 = 1.8 10
5
+ 0.88 10
5

= (1.8 + 0.88) 10
5

= 2.68 10
5

Example :

0.0000025 1.3 10
7
= 2.5 10
6
0.13 10
6

= (2.5 0.13) 10
6

= 2.37 10
6

a 10
m
b 10
n
= (a b) 10
m + n

a 10
m
b 10
n
= |
.
|
\
|
b
a
10
m n

Example :

2.7 10
6
8.2 10
2
= (2.7 8.2) 10
6 + (2)

= 22.14 10
4

= 2.14 10
5

Example :

2 3
2
) 10 3 (
10 86 . 4

=
6
2
10 9
10 86 . 4

=
9
86 . 4
10
2 (6)

= 0.54 10
4

= 5.4 10
3

(13) QUADRATIC EXPRESSIONS AND EQUATIONS

(a) Expanding Brackets

= ac + ad bc bd

= ac ad bc + bd

= a
2
+ ac + ab + bc

= a
2
ac + ab bc

Example :

(2x 1) (x + 1)

= 2x
2
+ 2x x 1

= 2x
2
+ x 7

Example :

(3x 1) (2x 7)

= 6x
2
21x 2x + 7

= 6x
2
23x + 20

Example :

(x + 2) (x + 3)

= x
2
+ 3x + 2x + 6

= x
2
+ 5x + 6

Example :

(x + 5) (x 4)

= x
2
4x + 5x 20

= x
2
+ x 20

(a + b)
2

= a
2
+ 2ab + b
2

(a b)
2

= a
2
2ab + b
2

(a + b) (a b)

= a
2
b
2

a (b + c d)

= ab + ac ad

Example :

(m + 3)
2

= m
2
+ 6m + 9

Example :

(3x 2y)
2

= 9x
2
12xy + 4y
2

Example :

(2x + 1) (2x 1)

= 4x
2
1

Example :

3p (4q p + 4)

= 12pq 3p
2
+ 12p

(a b) (c + d)

(a b) (c d)

(a + b) (a + c)

(a + b) (a c)
12
(b) Factorization

ax + ay

= a (x + y )

a
2
b
2
= (a + b) (a b)

= ab + ac + bd + cd
= a (b + c) + d (b + c)
= (b + c) (a + d)

a (b c) + d (c b)
= a (b c) d (b c)
= (b c) (a d)

Example 1 :

5 30k
= 5 (1 6k)

Example 2 :

18pq 15q
= 3q (6p 5)

Example 1 :

81 64d
2
.
= 9
2
8
2
d
2
= (9 + 8d) (9 8d)

Example 2 :

2x
2
72 .
= 2 (x
2
36)

= 2(x + 6) (x 6)

Example 1 :

2m + 2n + mn + n
2

= 2 (m + n) + n (m + n)
= (m + n) (2 + n)

Example 2 :

cd + 5c d 5
= c (d + 5) (d + 5)
= (d + 5) (c 1)

Example 1:

8eu 2ew + fw 4fu
= 2e (4uw) + f (w 4u)
= 2e (4uw) f (4u w)
= (4u w) (2e f)

Example 2 :

pq q
2
4q + 4p
= q (p q) 4 (q p)
= q (p q) + 4 (p q)
= (p q) (q + p)

(c) Solving quadratic equations

Example 1 :

x
2
+ 9x + 20 = 0

(x + 4) (x + 5) = 0

x = 4, x = 5

Example 2 :

q
2
18q + 45 = 0

(q 3) (q 15) = 0

q = 3, q = 15

Example 3 :

2n
2

+ 9n 5 = 0

(2n 1) (n + 5) = 0

n =
2
1
, n = 5

Example 4 :

12k
2

5k 3 = 0

(3k + 1) (4k 3) = 0

k =
3
1
, k =
4
3

9x 20
4
+
x
x 4x
5 5x

x
2

q
2
18q
45
3
+
q
q
3q
q 15 15q

2n
2
9n 5
1
+
n
2n
n
5 10n

12k
2
5k 3
1
+
4k
3k 4k
3 9k
13
(14) SETS

(a) Universal sets (), elements (e), subsets (c), empty set ({ }, C), intersection (), union (),
complements of sets (')

Example :

= { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }

A = { 3, 4, 5 } , B = { 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 } , C = { numbers that are greater than 10 }

- 3 e A, 4 e A, 5 e A

- 0 e B, 1 e B, 2 e B, 3 e B, 9 e B

- C = { } or C = C

- A = B

- n (B) = 5

- A . B

- { } c A, C c B

- the number of subsets of A = 2
3
= 8

- subset of A = { }, {3}. {4}, {5}, {3, 4},
{3, 5}, {4, 5}, {3, 4, 5}

- A' = { 0, 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9 }

- A B = { 4, 5 }

- (A B)' = {0, 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9 }

- A B = { 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 }

- (A B)' = { 0, 1, 2, 9 }

** the number of subsets of a given set with n elements = 2
n

** all sets have an empty set as its subset.

(b) Venn Diagrams

set A

set B

set C

set A'

set B'

set C'

set A B

set A C

set A B'

set ( A B )'

set ( A C )'

set A' B

- 4
- 3
- 5
A B
C

- 6
- 9
- 7
- 8
- 0
- 1 - 2

- 4
- 3
- 5
A B
C

- 6
- 9
- 7
- 8
- 0
- 1 - 2

- 4
- 3
- 5
A B
C

- 6
- 9
- 7
- 8
- 0
- 1 - 2

A B
C

- 9
- 0
- 1
- 2
- 4
- 5
- 6
- 7
- 8
- 3

- 3
A B
C

- 9
- 0
- 1
- 2
- 4
- 5
- 6
- 7
- 8

A B
C

- 9
- 0
- 1
- 2
- 4
- 5
- 6
- 7
- 8
- 3

- 3
A B
C

- 9
- 0
- 1 - 2
- 4
- 5
- 7
- 6
- 8

- 4
- 3
- 5
A B
C

- 6
- 9
- 7
- 8
- 0
- 1
- 2

- 3
A B
C

- 6
- 9
- 7
- 8
- 0
- 1 - 2
- 4
- 5

- 3
A B
C

- 9
- 0
- 1
- 2
- 7
- 6
- 8
- 4
- 5

A B
C

- 9
- 0
- 1
- 2
- 4
- 5
- 6
- 7
- 8
- 3

- 3
A B
C

- 9
- 0
- 1
- 2
- 7
- 6
- 8
- 4
- 5
14

set A B

set ( A B )'

set ( B C )'

(c) Various Examples :

set ( P Q' ) R

set G H' F'

set A B C

set A (B C )

set B C A

set A B C'

A B
C

- 9
- 0
- 1 - 2
- 6
- 7
- 8
- 3
- 4
- 5

A B
C

- 9
- 0
- 1
- 2
- 3
- 4
- 5
- 6
- 8
- 7

A B
C

- 9
- 0
- 1
- 2
- 3
- 4
- 5
- 6
- 8
- 7

P
Q R

H
G
F

A
B
C

A
B C

A
B C

A
B
C
15
(15) MATHEMATICAL REASONING

(a) Statement

Statement
~ the sentences that is either true of false

Non-statement
~ the sentences that is neither true nor false

Example :

- 3 is a prime number true statement

- 3
2
+ 2
2
= (3 + 2)
2
false statement

- x + x = 2x true statement

- 7 < 6 false statement

Example :

- 3m 2 = 6,

- 3k + 7, 3 + 7, R (P Q)

** All questions, commands, exclaimations,
algebraic expressions are non statement.

(b) Quantifier all, some

Example 1 :

Object : odd numbers
Property : multiple of 5

Some odd numbers are multiple of 5.

Example 2 :

Object : cuboids.
Property : cross section in the shape of rectangular.

All cuboids has cross section in the shape of
rectangular.

Example 3 :

(i) of the prime numbers are odd numbers. some

(ii) pentagons have five sides. all

(c) Operations on Statements ~ Negation not or no ~P, not P

Example :

- All equilateral triangles are isosceles triangles (true) Not all equilateral triangles are isosceles triangles (false)

- 5 is a odd number (true) 5 is not a odd number (false)

- P = A quadrilateral has five sides (false) ~P = No quadrilateral has five sides (true)

(d) Operations on Statements and or or

p Q p and q
true True true
true False false
false True false
false False false
.

p q p or q
true true true
true false true
false true true
false false false

Example 1 :

8 2 = 4 and 8
2
= 62 the truth = ???

true and false = false

Example 2 :

8 > 7 or 3
2
= 6 the truth = ???

true or false = true

Example 3 :

(i) 4
2
= 8, (ii) 0.4 =
5
2
, (iii) 6 < 5 (i) = false, (ii) = true, (iii) = true

true = 4
2
= 8 or 0.4 =
5
2
, 4
2
= 8 or 6 < 5, 0.4 =
5
2
or 6 < 5, 0.4 =
5
2
and 6 < 5

false = 4
2
= 8 and 0.4 =
5
2
, 4
2
= 8 and 6 < 5

16
(e) Implication

Form 1

antecedent : p
consequent : q

Implication : If p, then q

Example :

antecedent : n < 3
consequent : n
2
< 9

Implication : If n < 3, then n
2
< 9 [ false ]

Form 2

p if and only if q

Implication I : If p, then q
Implication II : If q, then p

Example :

3m > 15 if and only if m > 5

Implication I : If 3m > 15, then m > 5
Implication II : If m > 5, then 3m > 15

Form 3

Implication : If p, then q

Converse : If q, then p

Example :

If x > 9, then x > 5

Converse : If x > 5, then x > 9 [ false ]

(f) Arguments

Form 1

Premise 1 : All A are B

Premise 2 : C is A

Conclusion : C is B

Example :

Premise 1 : All hexagons have six sides
Premise 2 : PQRSTU is a hexagon
Conclusion : PQRSTU has six sides

Form 2

Premise 1 : If p, then q

Premise 2 : p is true.

Conclusion : q is true.

Example :

Premises 1 : If x is greater than 0, then x is a positive number
Premises 2 : 6 is greater than 0
Conclusion : 6 is a positive number

Form 3

Premise 1 : If p, then q.

Premise 2 : Not q is true

Conclusion : Not p is true.

Example :

Premises 1 : If set K is a subset of set L, then K L = L
Premises 2 : K L = L
Conclusion : Set K is not a subset of set L

(g) Induction the process of making a general conclusion from specific cases.

Example 1 :

1 = 3 1 2
4 = 3 2 2
7 = 3 3 2
+

Conclusion : 3 n 2, n = 1, 2, 3, .

Example 2 :

2 = 3 1 1
11 = 3 4 1
26 = 3 9 1

+

Conclusion : 3 n
2
1, n = 1, 2, 3, .

Example 3 :

u
1
= |
u
2
= | + t
u
3
= | + 2t
u
4
= | + 3t

+

Conclusion : | + nt, n = 0, 1, 2, 3 .

| + (n 1)t, n = 1, 2, 3, 4 .

Example 4 :
1 =
2
2 1

1 + 2 =
2
3 2

1 + 2 + 3 =
2
4 3

+

Conclusion :
2
) 1 ( + n n
, n = 1, 2, 3, 4 .

17

Example 5 :

The number of subsets in a set with 2 elements is 2
2
3

4

Conclusion : The number of subsets in a set with n elements is 2
n
, n = 2, 3, 4, .

(h) Deduction the process of making a specific conclusion based on a given general statement

Example :

The sum of the interior angles of a n- sided polygon is (n 2) 180

Specific case : PQRSTU ialah sebuah poligon.

Conclusion : The sum of the interior angles of PQRSTU is 720

18
(16) THE STRAIGHT LINE

(a) Type of straight line and their respective gradient, m

(b) y-intercept (c), and y-intercept of a straight line

- find x-intercept, sub. y = 0

- find y-intercept, sub. x = 0

Example 1 :

3x 4y = 24, y-intercept = ???

x = 0,

3(0) 4y = 24

4y = 24

y =
4
24

= 6

Example 2 :

3y 2x = 6, x-intercept = ???

y = 0,

3(0) 2x = 6

2x = 6

x =
2
6

= 3

(c) Gradient of a straight line, m

m =
distance horizontal
distance vertical

m =
1 2
1 2
x x
y y
=
2 1
2 1
x x
y y

m =
intercept - x
intercept - y

Example 1 :

m = |
.
|
\
|
2
4
= 2

Example 2 :

P (0, 2),

m =
0 4
2 3
=
4
1

Example 3 :

m = |
.
|
\
|
4
8
= 2

Example 4 :

k = ???

) 3 ( 3
6

k
=
3
1

6
6 k
=
3
1

k 6 = 2

k = 2 + 6

k = 4

Example 5 :

x-intercept = ???

|
.
|
\
|
x
3
=
4
1

x
3
=
4
1

x = 12

x
y
O
m > 0 (m +if)

x
y
O
m < 0 (m if)

x
y
O
m = 0

x
y
O
m

x
y
y-intercept
x-intercept
(0, y)
(x, 0)
O

4
Q
y
x
O
2
P

y
x
O
R (4, 3)
P
2

8
Q
y
x
O 4
P

Q (3, 6)
y
x
O
R (3, k)
m =
3
1

m =
4
1

y
x
O
3
F
E
19
(d) Equation of a straight line

x = 5

y = 3

x = 5

y = 3

x + y = 3 y = x + 3

y x = 3 y = x + 3

y = x x y = 0

y = x x + y = 0

(e) Form equation of a straight line, y = mx + c, where
ercept y c
gradient m
int =
=

Example 1 :

y = mx + c

y = 2x + 4

Example 2 :

m =
0 3
0 6
= 2

y = mx + c

y = 2x

Example 3 :

y = mx + c

8 = 2(3) + c

8 = 6 + c

8 + 6 = c

14 = c

y = 2x + 14

Example 4 :

y = mx + c

3 = m(1) + 6

3 = m + 6

m = 6 3

m = 3

y = 3x + 6

Example 5 :

m =
) 2 ( 4
2 6

=
2
1

y = mx + c

6 =
2
1
(4) + c

6 = 2 + c

4 = c

y =
2
1
x + 4

Example 6 :

equation of QR = ???

y = 0,

2x + 0 = 5

2x = 5

x
2
5

x
y
5
O

y
x
3
O

x
y
(5, 3)
O

x
y
(5, 3)
O

y
x
3
O
3

x
3
3
y
O

( 3, 3)
y
x
O

x
y
O
( 3, 3)

x
y
O
4
m = 2

y
x
O
P (3, 6)

m = 2

P
y
x
O
Q (3, 8)

(1, 3)
y
x
O
6

Q (4, 2)
y
x
O
R (4, 6)

2x + y = 5
O
Q
y
x
P
R
20
(f) Solve problems involving the equation of a straight line

Example 1 :

a = ???

y = 2x + 3

a = 2(2) + 3

a = 7

Example 2 :

2x 7y = 14, m = ???

7y = 2x + 14

7y = 2x 14

y =
7
2
x + 2

m =
7
2

(g) Parallel lines, m
1 =
m
2

Example 1 :

2y = x + 6 is parallel to 4y = px + 9, p = ???

Example 2 :

h = ???

2
1
=
4 2
3
h

2
1
=
2
3
h

2h 6 = 2

2h = 4

h = 2

2y = x + 6

y =
2
1
x + 3

m
1
=
2
1

4y = px + 9

y =
4
p
x +
4
9

m
2
=
4
p

2
1
=
4
p

2p = 4
p =
2
4

p = 2

(h) Form equation of a parallel line

Example 1 :

equation of PQ = ???

m = |
.
|
\
|
2
4
= 2

y = mx + c

5 = 2 (3) + c

5 = 6 + c

5 + 6 = c

11 = c

y = 2x + 11

Example 2 :

equation of ST = ???

x + 2y = 14
2y = x + 14
y = x
2
1
+ 7

y = mx + c

5 =
2
1
(2) + c

5 = 1 + c

4 = c

y =
2
1
x 4

(i) Distance, Midpoint

distance =
2
1 2
2
1 2
) ( ) ( y y x x +

midpoint, (x, y) =
|
|
.
|
\
| + +
2
,
2
2 1 2 1
y y x x

Example :

distance PQ =
2 2
] ) 2 ( 4 [ ) 1 9 ( +

= 10

Example :

2
9 1 +
= x

5 = x

2
2 y +
= 8

2 + y = 16

y = 14

x
y
O
(2, a)
y = 2x + 3

y
x
O
F (4, 3)
C
D
y =
2
1
x + 1
E (2, h)

O
R (0, 4)
S (2, 0)
Q
y
x
P (3, 5)

O
y
x
P
R
x + 2y = 14
T (2, 5)
S

y
x
Q (1, 2)
P ( 9, 4)
O

x

y

Q (x, 8)

P (1, 2)

R (9, y)
x = ???, y = ???

21
(17) STATISTICS I, II, III

(a) Mode of a ungrounded data

Mode = the value of data with the highest frequency

Example 1 :

6, 7, 7, 11, 5, 6, 11, 13, 14, 11, 8

5, 6, 6, 7, 7, 8, 11, 11, 11, 13, 14

mode = 11

Example 2 :

Score 2 4 6 8 10
Frequency 3 15 7 12 9

mode = 4

Example 3 :

Score 0 1 2 3 4
Frequency 1 3 7 x 5

mode = 2, the maximum value of x = ???

x < 7 x = 6

Example 4 :

Score 0 1 2 3 4
Frequency 1 7 0 x 2

mode = 3, the minimum value of x = ???

x > 7 x = 8

(b) Median of a ungrounded data

Median = the middle value when a set of data is arranged in ascending order

Example 1 :

5, 3, 3, 5, 7, 7, 1

median = 5

Example 2 :

24, 23, 12, 19, 16, 17

median =
2
19 17 +
= 18

Example 3 :

Number of books 1 2 3 4 5
Number of pupils 3 0 1 5 6

median = 4

Example 4 :

Saiz of shoes 1 2 3 4 5
Number of students 8 14 12 x 3

median = 3, range of x = ???

8 14 1 11 x 3
8 14 11 1 x 3
.

8 + 14 = 11 + x + 3
22 = x + 14
8 = x

8 + 14 + 11 = x + 3
33 = x + 3
30 = x

8 s x s 30

(c) Mean of a ungrounded data

mean =
data of number the
data of values the all of sum
mean =
frequency total
frequency value of sum ) (

Example 1 :

68, 62, 84, 75, 78, 89

mean =
6
79 78 75 84 62 68 + + + + +

= 76

Example 2 :

Mark 74 78 82 86
Frequency 5 10 2 3

mean =
3 2 10 5
) 3 ( 86 ) 2 ( 82 ) 10 ( 78 ) 5 ( 74
+ + +
+ + +

= 78.6

1, 3, 3, 5, 5, 7, 7

12, 16, 17, 19, 23, 24

1, 1, 1, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5

22
(d) Measure of Dispersion ~ range, first / lower quartile (Q
1
), third / upper quartile (Q
3
), interquartile range

- range = ( largest smallest ) value of data

- Q
1
= the value that divides the values of data that are less than median into 2 equal parts

- Q
3
= the value that divides the values of data that are greater than median into 2 equal parts

- Interquatile range = Q
3

Q
1

Example 1 :

5, 30, 45, 29, 25, 6, 21, 8, 28, 4

4, 5, 6, 8, 21, 25, 28, 29, 30, 45

range = 45 4 = 41

Q
1
= 6

Q
3
= 29

Interquartile range = 29 6 = 23

Example 2 :

8, 12, 6, 10, 6, 7, 13, 3, 8, 10, 13, 19

3, 6, 6, 7, 8, 8, 10, 10, 12, 13, 13, 19

range = 19 3 = 16

Q
1
=
2
7 6 +
= 6.5

Q
3
=
2
13 12 +
= 12.5

Interquartile range = 12.5 6.5 = 6

(e) Solve problem involving ungorounded data

Example 1 :

Score 1 3 6 x 12 14
Frequency 1 1 2 3 1 1
.

1, 3, 6, 6, x, x, x, 12, 14

2
12 + x
= 11

x + 12 = 22

x = 22 12

x = 10

Example 2 :

3, 3, 6, x, x, 3

mode = 3, median = 4. Two new pieces of data, 4 and 7 put into the set, mean = ???

3, 3, 3, x, x, 6

2
3 x +
= 4

3 + x = 8

x = 8 3

x = 5

mean

=
8
7 4 6 5 5 3 3 3 + + + + + + +

= 4.5

(f) Class interval, lower / upper limit, lower / upper boundary, size of class interval, midpoint

Example :

Class interval 11 15 16 20 21 25 26 30 31 35 36 40 41 45
.

- lower limit = 16, upper limit= 20

- size of class interval = 5

= upper. B lower. B

= midpoint
2
midpoint
1

- lower boundary = 15.5, upper boundary = 20.5

- midpoint =
2
lim lim it upper it lower +

=
2
boundary upper boundary lower +

= 18

third quartile = 11, x = ???
23
(g) Frequency table, Cumulative Frequency, Modal class, Mean, Range

Example :

Donation, x 11 15 16 20 21 25 26 30 31 35 36 40 41 45
Frequency, f 1 3 6 10 11 7 2
`
Cumulative F. 1 4 10 20 31 38 40
.

- modal class = the class interval with the highest frequency = 31 35

- mean =
f
fx
=
frequency of sum
frequency midpo of sum ) int (
=
40
) 2 ( 43 ) 7 ( 38 ) 11 ( 33 ) 10 ( 28 ) 6 ( 23 ) 3 ( 18 ) 1 ( 13 + + + + + +
= 30

- range = midpoint of (hightest lowest ) class = 43 13 = 30

(h) Histogram, frequency polygons, ogive, first quartile, third quartile, interquartile range

Histogram

- lower / upper boundary.

- frequency

**
the frequency polygon can be
constructed based on a histogram

Example : [ base on frequency table in (g) ]

Frequency Polygons

- midpoint

- frequency

**
the frequency polygon should add a
class with zero frequency before the
first class and after the last class


Ogive

- upper boundary

- cumulative frequency

**
add a class with zero frequency
before the first class


Histogram
2
4
6
10
8
Frequency
Donation
1
0
.
5

0
1
5
.
5

2
0
.
5

2
5
.
5

3
0
.
5

3
5
.
5

4
0
.
5

4
5
.
5

Frequency
polygon

2
4
6
10
8
Frequency
Donation
8

0
1
3

1
8

2
3

2
8

3
3

3
8

4
3

4
8

34.5
Cumulative Frequency
Donation 0
1
0
.
5

1
5
.
5

2
0
.
5

2
5
.
5

3
0
.
5

3
5
.
5

4
0
.
5

4
5
.
5

10
20
30
40
30.5 25.5
2
1
N
4
3
N
4
1
N
Q1 Q3
med
.
24
(18) PROBABILITY I / II

(a) Probability of an event, P (A)

P (A) =
) (
) (
S n
A n
, 0 s P (A) s 1

Example 1 :

P (B) =
10
3

P (R) =
10
7

Example 2 :

20
x
=
5
1

5x = 20

x =
5
20

x = 4

Example 3 :

12 + x
x
=
3
2

3x = 2x + 24

3x 2x = 24

x = 24

(b) Probability of the complement of an event, P(A')

P (A') = 1 P (A) P (A) + P (A') = 1

Example 1 :

P (G) = 1
7
2

=
7
5

Example 2 :

P (D) = 1
3
1

9
2

=
9
4

Example 3 :

x
4
=
6
1

x = 24

(c) Probability of combined event

P(A and B) = P(A B) =
) (
) (
s n
B A n
= P(A) P(B) P(A or B) = P (A B) =
) (
) (
s n
B A n
= P(A) + P(B)

Example 1 :

(i) P (RR)

=
9
5

9
5

=
81
25

(ii) P (RB)

=
9
5

9
4

=
81
20

(iii) P (only one R)

= P (RB or BR)

=
9
5

9
4
+
9
4

9
5

=
81
40

B P(B) = ??

3
7
10
R P(R) = ??

?? (
5
1
)
W
B
20

??
(
3
2
)
Y
G 12

( ?? )
(
7
2
)
B
G

(
3
1
)
W
L
D
(
9
2
)
( ?? )

(
2
1
)
R
G
B (
3
1
)
4
??
( )

9
R
B
5
4
2 marbles are chosen at random,
with replacement

25

Example 2 :

(i) P (first is F and second is M)

= P (FM)

=
12
7

11
5

=
132
35

(ii) P (both are M)

= P (MM)

=
12
5

11
4

=
33
5

(iii) P (both are same gender)

= P (FF or MM)

=
12
7

11
6
+
12
5

11
4

=
66
31

(iv) P (a F and a M)

= P (FM or MF)

=
12
7

11
5
+
12
5

11
7

=
66
35

(v) P (at least a F)

= P (FM or MF or FF)

=
12
7

11
5
+
12
5

11
7
+
12
7

11
6

=
33
28

= 1 P (MM)

or = 1
12
5

11
4

=
33
28

12
F
M
7
5
2 workers are selected at random,
26
(19) CIRCLES II / III

(a) Properties of angle in a circle, Cyclic Quadrilaterals

(b) Properties of the tangle to circle

O
a
O
b
a = b = 90

O
a
2a

O
a
2a

O
a
2a

b
b
a
a

a
a

a
a

O
a
a

O
2a
a

c
b
d
a
a + b = 180
c + d = 180

e
a
a = e

tangent

a
b
a + b = 180
tangent

a + b = 90
b
tangent
b
a
a

b
b
a + b = 90
tangent
a
a

b
tangent
b
a
a

b
b
a
a
tangent
27
(20) TRIGONOMETRY I / II

(a) Trigonometrical ratios

sin u =
H
O

cos u =
H
A

tan u =
A
O

sin o =
H
O

cos o =
H
A

tan o =
A
O

(b) The values of trigonometric ratios of 30, 45, and 60 (Special angles)

u sin u cos u tan u

30
2
1

2
3

45
2
1

2
1

1
60
2
3
2
1
3

(c) The value of sine, cosine and tangent, of an angle

In a unit circle,

sin u = the value of coordinate-y

cos u = the value of coordinate-x

tan u =
x coordinate of value the
y coordinate of value the

=
u
u
cos
sin

(d) The values of the angles in quadrant I which correspond to the value in other quadrants

u in other quadrant, u > 90

Corresponding angle in quadrant I
II
180 u
III
u 180
IV
360 u

(e) Finding the angles, given the value of sine, cosine and tangent

Quadrant Angle
I u, from calculator
II 180 u
III 180 + u
IV 360 u

Example 1 :
sin x = 0.5299, 0 s x s 360 x = ???
sin x +if, x I, II
sin 32 = 0.5299 (from the scientific calculator)
x = 32, 148

Example 2 :
cos x = 0.7721, 0 s x s 360 x = ???
cos x if, x II, III
cos 39.46 = 0.7721 (from the sc. calculator)
x = 140.54, 219.46
(f) Solve problem involving sine, cosine and tangent

u
O
H
A
o

2
3
60
30
2
1 1

1
1
2
45
45
3
1

Quadrant 1
0 < u < 90
sin u +if
cos u +if
tan u +if
Quadrant 2
90 < u < 180
sin u +if
cos u if
tan u if
Quadrant 3
180 < u < 270
sin u if
cos u if
tan u +if
Quadrant 4
270 < u < 360
sin u if
cos u +if
tan u if
28

Example 1 :

answer

Example 2 :

answer

tan ZBCA =
4
3
sin ZECD =
5
4

BC
6
=
4
3

CD
4
=
5
4

BC = 8 CD = 5

EC = 3, BE = 8 3 = 5

(g) Compare and differentiate the graph of sine, cosine and tangent for angle between 0 s x s 360

y = sin x

y = cos x

y = tan x

y = sin 2x

y = cos 2x

y = tan 2x

P
Q R
S
8 cm
9 cm
17 cm
y
cos y = ???

P
Q R
S
8 cm
9 cm
17 cm
y
cos y = cos u

=
10
6

=
5
3

u
15 cm
10 cm
6 cm

tan ZBCA =
4
3
,
sin ZECD =
5
4

BE = ???

D
C
B
A
6 cm
4 cm
E

x
y
O
90 180 270 360
1
1

1
x
y
O
90 180 270 360
1

y
x
O 90 180

270

360

x
y
O
90 180 270 360
1
1

1
x
y
O
90 180 270 360
1

x
y
O 90 180 270 360
29
(21) ANGLES OF ELEVATION AND DEPRESSION

(a) Angle of elevation and angle of depression

Example 1 :

answer

Example 2 :

answer

(b) Solve problems involving angle of elevation and angle of depression

Example 1 :

Example 2 :

answer

answer

tan u =
60
45

u = 3652'

tan 42 =
10
t

10 tan 42 = t

9.004 = t

h = 9.004 + 3
= 12.004

u

horizontal line
u = angle of elevation
o = angle of depression
o

M
R N
P
Q
The angle of elevation
of P from M is ???

M
R N
P
Q

Z PMQ

P
Q
T
S
R
The angle of depression
of P from T is ???

P
Q
T
S
R
Z TPS

P
Q
95 m
50 m
S
R 60 m

the angle of
depression of
S from Q is
???

T U
V
h m
10 m
S
3 m

the angle of
elevation of
V from S is
42, h = ???

u
P
Q
95 m
50 m
S
R 60 m
45 m
60 m

T U
V
h m
10 m
S
3 m
t
42
10 m
30
(22) LINES AND PLANES IN 3-DIMENSIONS

(a) Normal to a plane, Orthogonal Projection

(b) The line of intersection between two planes, the point of intersection between two planes

(c) Steps of determine the angle between a line and a plane / base
- determine and shade the plane (base).
- determine and draw the line mark lower point (point on the base),
mark upper point (point on the other side).
- from the upper point draw the normal to the plane (base)
- then, connect it to the lower point (orthogonal projection to the line).
- the angle is at the lower point.
- by using trigonometrical ratios, calculate the angle.

Example :

answer

Z UXV

plane (base)
normal
plane (base)
normal

line
orthogonal
projection
line
orthogonal
projection
u
u

line of intersection
line of intersection
u
u
u

point of intersection
u
u
point of intersection

angle between line XU and the plane WXYZ ???
R
Q
U
S
Z
W
X
V
Y

U
R
Q
S
Z
W
X
Y
V
R
Q
U
S
Z
W
X
V
Y
Lw.
Up.
R
Q
U
S
Z
W
X
Y
Nor.
V

R
Q
U
S
Z
W
X
Y
V u
31
(d) Step of determine the angle between two planes
- determine and shade the first plane (base).
- determine the second plane.
- determine the line of intersection of the two planes / the point of intersection of the two planes.
- from the second plane, determine the line that will be chosen.

- after choosing the line mark lower point (point on the base),
mark upper point (point on the other side).
- from the upper point draw the normal to the plane (base)
- then, connect it to the lower point (orthogonal projection to the line).
- the angle is at the lower point.
- by using trigonometrical ratios, calculate the angle.

Example :

answer

Z PRS

line of intersection / point of intersection
the line that will be chosen

the angle between plane CRP and plane CDRS ???
A
B C
D
R
S P
Q

A
B C
D
R
S P
Q
A
B C
D
R
S P
Q
A
B C
D
R
S P
Q
A
B C
D
R
S P
Q
A
B C
D
R
S P
Q
A
B C
D
R
S P
Q
u

32
(23) NUMBER BASES

(a) Comparision between number in bases ten, two, five and eight

Base 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Base 2 0
2
1
2
10
2
11
2
100
2
101
2
110
2
111
2
1000
2
1001
2
1010
2

Base 5 0
5
1
5
2
5
3
5
4
5
10
5
11
5
12
5
13
5
14
5
20
5

Base 8 0
8
1
8
2
8
3
8
4
8
5
8
6
8
7
8
10
8
11
8
12
8

(b) The value of a digit of a number in bases two, eight and five

Base 2
2
9
2
8
2
7
2
6
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
0

512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Base 8
8
4
8
3
8
2
8
1
8
0

4096 512 64 8 1

Base 5
5
5
5
4
5
3
5
2
5
1
5
0

3125 625 125 25 5 1

Example 1 :

5 4 3 2 1 0

110011
2

the value of the digit 1

= 1 2
4
= 16

or

= 1 16 = 16

Example 2 :

3 2 1 0

7502
8


= 5 8
2
= 320

or

= 5 64 = 320

Example 3 :

2 1 0

241
5


= 4 5
1
= 20

or

= 4 5 = 20

(c) Changing numbers in base 2, base 8, base 5 base 10

base 2 base 10 base 8 base 10 base 5 base 10

Example 1 :

10110
2

= (1 2
4
) + (1 2
2
) + (1 2
1
)

= 22

Example 2 :

1056
8

= (1 8
3
) + (5 8
1
) + (6 8
0
)

= 558

Example 3 :

324
5

= (3 5
2
) + (2 5
1
) + (4 5
0
)

= 89

(d) Changing numbers in base 10 base 2, base 8, base 5 [type 1]

Base 10 base 2 ( 2) ~ cal. base 10 base 8 ( 8) ~ cal. base 10 base 5 ( 5)

Example 1 :

12
10
= ???
2

= 1100
2

Example 2 :

288
10
= ???
8

= 407
8

Example 3 :

144
10
= ???
5

= 1034
5

remainder 1 2 2
6 0 2
3 0 2
1 1 2
0 1

remainder
2 6 3 8
3 2 7 8
4
0 8
4 0

remainder
1 4 4 5
2 8 4 5
5 3 5
0 1
5
0 1
33
(e) Changing numbers in base 10 base 2, base 8, base 5 [type 2]

base 10 base 2 ~ cal. base 10 base 8 ~ cal. base 10 base 5

Example 1 :

2
5
+ 2
2
+ 1 = ???
2

= 100101
2

Example 2 :

2 (8
3
) + 5 (8) + 7 = ???
8

= 2057
8

Example 3 :

5
3
+ 3 = ???
5

= 1003
5

(f) Base 2 base 8 (group of three digits)

base 2 base 8 ~ cal. base 2 base 8 ~ cal.

Example 1 :

1011101
2
= ???
8

= 135
8

Example 2 :

562
8
= ???
2

= 101110010
2

(g) Base 2 base 5, Base 8 base 5

base 2 base 5 Base 8 base 5

- base 2 base 5 = base 2 base 10 base 5




(h) Addition and subtraction of two number in base two

Example 1 : ~ cal.

Example 2 : ~ cal.

Remarks : Step convert a number in base 10, 2 or 8 to a number in any of these bases by using calculator
Step perform addition and subtraction of numbers in base 2

- mode mode (3)
- base 10 DEC (d), base 2 BIN (b), base 8 OCT (o)

0

2
5

2
3
2
4

2
2

2
1

2
0

( 2 ) ( 1 )
1 1 1
2
0 0

8
3

8
2

8
1

8
0

( 8 ) ( 1 )
0 7
8
5 2

5
3

5
2

5
1

5
0

( 5 ) ( 1 )
0 3
5
0 1

5
8
3

1

1 0 1
2
4 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1

1 0 1 1

0 10
2
4 2 1 4 2 1 4 2 1

2
8
6 5
1 0 1 1 1 0

0
2

+ 0
2

0
2

1
2

+ 0
2

1
2

0
2

+ 1
2

1
2

1
2

+ 1
2

1 0
2

1

11
2

+ 1
2

100
2

1 1

0
2

0
2

0
2

1
2

0
2

1
2

1
2

1
2

0
2

1 0
2

1
2

1
2

0

2

1 0 0
2

1
2

1 1
2

1

0

2

2

1 1 1 0 1
2

+ 1 1 1 0
2

1 0 1 0 1 1
2

1

1

1

0

2

1 1 0 0 0 1
2

1 1 0 1
2

1 0 0 1 0 0
2

1

2

34
(24) GRAPH OF FUNCTIONS

(a) Graphs of linear functions

y = mx, m > 0

y = mx, m < 0

y = mx + c, m > 0

y = mx + c, m < 0

(b) Graphs of quadratic functions

y = ax
2
, a > 0

y = ax
2
+ c, a > 0

y = ax
2
+ bx, a > 0

y = ax
2
+ bx + c, a > 0

y = ax
2
, a < 0

y = ax
2
+ c, a < 0

y = ax
2
+ bx, a < 0

y = ax
2
+ bx + c, a < 0

(c) Graphs of cubic functions

y = ax
3
, a > 0

y = ax
3
, a < 0

y = ax
3
+ c, a > 0

y = ax
3
+ c, a < 0

(d) Graphs of reciprocal functions

y =
x
a
, y = ax
1
, xy = a, a > 0

y =
x
a
, y = ax
1
, xy = a, a < 0

x
y
O
m +if

y
O
x
m if

x
y
O
c
m +if

x
y
O
c
m if

y
x
O
a +if

y
x
O
c
a +if

a +if
y
x
O

y
x
O
c
a +if

y
x
O
a if

a if
y
x
O
c

y
x
O
a if

y
x
O
c
a if

y
x
O
a +if

y
x
O
a if

y
x
O
c
a +if

c
y
x
O
a if

y
x
O
a +if

y
x
O
a if
35
(e) Solve problems involving functiuons

Example 1 :

y = 2x
2
+ px , (4, 0)

0 = 2 (4)
2
+ p (4)

0 = 32 + 4p

4p = 32

p =
4
32

p = 8

Example 2 :

y = 2x
3
+ 2 , (h, 0)

0 = 2h
3
+ 2

2h
3
= 2

h
3
=
2
2

h
3
= 1

h =
3
1

h = 1

(f) Region representing inequalities in two variables

Example 1 :

Example 2 :

4
y = 2x
n
+ px,
y
p = ???
O

y = 2x
3
+ k
(h, 0)
y
x
O
2
h = ???

y = x
y
x
x + y = 5
O
shaded the region which

satisfies the three inequalities

x + y > 5, y s x, and x < 5

y = x
y
x
x + y = 5
O

5
5
x = 5

y
x
O
y = x
y = 2x + 8
state the three
inequalities which satisfy
the shaded region

y = 8
8
y
x
O
y = x
y = 2x + 8
<
>
s
y s 2x + 8, y > x, y < 8

36
(25) TRANSFORMATION I, II, III

(a) Translation
|
|
.
|
\
|
y
x

Example :

Image = object + trans.
|
|
.
|
\
|
y
x

Object = image + trans.
|
|
.
|
\
|
y
x

(b) Reflection

Example 1 :

A reflection in the line x = 4

Example 2 :

A reflection in the line y = 4

Example 3 :

A reflection in the x-axis

Example 4 :

A reflection in the y-axis

Drawing line of reflection

Example 1 :

Example 2 :

y
x
+

+

x
y

translation
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
4

imaje
object

4
x
y
object

4
x
y
object
image

x
y
object
image

x

y
object

N
N'

P
P'
37
(c) Rotation

Example 1 :

An anticlockwise rotation of 90
about the centre C

Example 2 :

A rotation of 180 about
the centre C

Determine centre and describe

A clockwise rotation of 90
about the centre C

(d) Enlargement

scale factor, k =
obejct of length
image of length

area of image = k
2
area of object

Example :

QR = 1 cm, Q'R' = 3 cm and the area of PQR = 5 cm
2
,
area of P'Q'R' = ???

k =
1
3

= 3

area of P'Q'R' = 3
2
5

= 45
Drawing image / determine centre / describe

Example 1 :

An enlargement at centre C with a scale factor of 2

Example 2 :

An enlargement at centre C with a scale factor of
3
1

Example 3 :

An enlargement at centre C with a scale factor of 2

C
object
image

C
image
object

C
image
object

O
Q
Q'
P
P'
R'
R

C
P P'

image
object
C

object
image
C
38
(e) Combination of two transformations

- transformation AB = transformation B is carried out first, followed by transformation A.

- transformation A
2
= transformation AA.

Example :

T = translation
|
|
.
|
\
|
1
3

R = an anticlockwise rotation of 90 about the
centre (0, 2)

,

Solution :

(b) TR. (Ans : (2, 3) )

(f) Solving problems involving transformations (type 1)

Example 1 :

JKLM is the image of ABCD under the
combined transformations VU.

U = ??? , V = ???

answer

U = a reflection in the line x = 1
V = an enlargement at centre (2, 4) with a
scale factor of 3.

Example 2 :

KLRM is the image of ABCD under combined
transformations WU.

U = ??? , W = ???

answer

U = a clockwise rotation of 90 about the
centre (0, 1)

V = an enlargement at centre R with a
scale factor of 2. (b) TR. (Ans : (2, 3) )

x
y
2
4
2 4 6 2 4
2
4
O
N
M

N

T
2
??

M

RT
??

x
y
2
4
2 4 6 2 4
2
4
O
N
M

N
T

(1, 2)
T

(2, 1)

M
R

(3, 4)
T

(6, 3)

x
y
O
6
8
4
2
2 4 6 8
2 4 6
A
B C
D
E
F
G
H
K L
M
J

x
y
O
6
8
4
2
2 4 6 8
2 4 6
A
B C
D
E
F
G
H
K L
M
J
x = 1

y
x
P
Q
R
S
A
B
C
D
2 4 6 8 10 2 4
O
2
2
4
6
M
K
L

y
x
P
Q
R
S
A
B
C
D
2 4 6 8 10 2 4
O
2
2
4
6
M
K
L
39
(g) Solving problems involving transformations (type 2)

Example 1 :

Triangle III is the image of triangle I under
combined transformation WV. The single
transformation which is corresponding to the
combined transformation = ???

answer

translation
|
|
.
|
\
|
0
8

Example 2 :

ABEF is the image of ABCD under
transformation V and GHJK is the image of
ABEF under transformation W. The single
transformation which is equivalent to
transformation WV = ???

answer

an anti clockwise rotation of 90 about the centre (6, 5)

x
2 4 2
4
4
II
I
6
O
2
y
III
6
x = 1 x = 3

x
2 4 2
4
4
I
6
O
2
y
III
6

y
x
A
B
C
E F
D
H
J K
G
2
O
2 4 6 8 10
4

y
x
A
B
C
D
H
J K
G
2
O
2 4 6 8 10
4
40
(26) MATRICES

(a) Matrices / Equal Matrices

Matrices Equal Matrices

Example :

order of matrix
= 2 3

a
13
= 1

a
21
= 7

A =
|
|
.
|
\
|
8 6
3 2
, B =
|
|
.
|
\
|
8
2
k
h

if A = B,

h = 3, k = 6

(b) Addition and Subtration of matrices

Addition Subtration

- ( ) b a + ( ) d c = ( ) d b c a + +

-
|
|
.
|
\
|
b
a
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
d
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
d b
c a

-
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+ +
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
h d g c
f b e a
h g
f e
d c
b a

- ( ) b a ( ) d c = ( ) d b c a

-
|
|
.
|
\
|
b
a

|
|
.
|
\
|
d
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
d b
c a

-
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
h d g c
f b e a
h g
f e
d c
b a

(c) Scalar multiplication

- k ( ) b a = ( ) kb ka
- k
|
|
.
|
\
|
b
a
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
kb
ka
-
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
kd kc
kc ka
d c
b a
k

Example 1 :

|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
5 2
1 3
3 2
0 2
3
1 7
2 5
= ???

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
5 2
1 3
9 6
0 6
1 7
2 5

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+ +
5 ) 9 ( 1 ) 2 ( 6 7
1 0 2 ) 3 ( 6 5

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
13 15
1 14

Example 2 :

( ) ( ) ( ) 8 13 2 1 4 2 = + k h , h + k = ???

( ) ( ) ( ) 8 13 2 2 8 = + k k h

8 + k = 13 2h + 2k = 8
k = 13 8 2h + 2 (5) = 8
k = 5 2h + 10 = 8
2h = 2
h = 1

h + k = 1 + 5
= 4

|
|
.
|
\
|
2 3 7
1 4 9

1st row
2nd row

1st
colume
3rd
colume
2nd
colume
41
(d) Multiplication of two matrices

- ( ) ( ) bd ac
d
c
b a + =
|
|
.
|
\
|

( M 12 ) ( M 21 ) = ( M 11)

- ( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
bd bc
ad ac
d c
b
a

( M 21 ) ( M12 ) = ( M22 )

-
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
df ce
bf ae
f
e
d c
b a

( M 22 ) ( M21 ) = ( M21 )

- ( ) b a
|
|
.
|
\
|
f d
e c
= ( ) bf e b bd ac + +

( M 12 ) ( M22 ) = ( M12 )

-
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
+ +
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
dh cf dg ce
bh af bg ae
h g
f e
d c
b a

( M 22 ) ( M 22 ) = ( M 22 )

Example 1 :

|
|
.
|
\
|
3
m
( ) 1 2 =
|
|
.
|
\
|

3 6
4 6 m m
, m = ???

m (2) = 6 m

2m + m = 6

3m = 6

m =
3
6

m = 2

Example 2 :

( ) 5 k
|
|
.
|
\
|
1
0 3
k
= ( ) 5 24 , k = ???

k (3) + 5 (k) = 24

3k 5k = 24

2k = 24

k =
2
24

k = 12

(e) Identity Matrices, I

- I =
|
|
.
|
\
|
1 0
0 1
, I =
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

- IA = AI = A

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
3 5
0 6
3 5
0 6
P P =
|
|
.
|
\
|
1 0
0 1

(f) Inverse matrices, A
1

- A =
|
|
.
|
\
|
d c
b a
A
1
=
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
d c
b a
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

a c
b d
bc ad
1

- A does not have an inverse /
A
1
does not exist ad bc = 0.

- AB = I, BA = I A = B
1
, B = A
1

Example 1 :

Q =
|
|
.
|
\
|
1 1
5 3
inverse matrix of Q / Q
1
= ???

Q
1
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
3 1
5 1
) 1 ( 5 ) 1 ( 3
1

=
2
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
3 1
5 1

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
3
2
1
2
5
2
1

Example 2 :

|
|
.
|
\
|
6 2
1 k
does not have an inverse, k = ???

1 (6) k (2) = 0

6 2k = 0

2k = 6

k =
2
6

k = 3

Example 3 :

Example 4 :

P =
|
|
.
|
\
|
1 2
3 1
, R =
|
|
.
|
\
|
1
3 1 1
k m
and PR =
|
|
.
|
\
|
1 0
0 1
,
42
the inverse matrix of
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
n m
1
2
1
is
|
|
.
|
\
|
1 3
2 4
,

m = ???, n = ???

|
|
|
.
|
\
|
n m
1
2
1
=
1
1 3
2 4

|
|
.
|
\
|

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
4 3
2 1
) 3 ( ) 2 ( ) 1 ( 4
1

=
2
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
4 3
2 1

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
1
2
3
2
1

m =
2
3
, n = 2

m = ???, k = ???

PR = I

R = P
1

|
|
.
|
\
|
1
3 1 1
k m
=
1
1 2
3 1

|
|
.
|
\
|

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
1 2
3 1
) 2 ( 3 ) 1 ( 1
1

=
5
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
1 2
3 1

m = 5, k = 2

(g) Solve simultabeous linear equations using matrices

Example 1 :

M =
|
|
.
|
\
|
2 5
3 6
,
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
0
f
e
M e = ???, f = ???

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
0
f
e
M

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

2
0
1
M
f
e

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
6 5
3 2
) 5 ( ) 3 ( ) 2 ( 6
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
0

=
3
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
) 2 ( 6 ) 0 ( 5
) 2 ( 3 ) 0 ( 2

=
3
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
12
6

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
4
2

e = 2, f = 4

Example 2 :

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
3
4
1 3
2 5
y
x

|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
|
|
.
|
\
|

3
4
1 3
2 5
1
y
x

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
5 3
2 1
) 3 ( 2 ) 1 ( 5
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
3
4

=
1
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
) 3 ( 5 ) 4 ( 3
) 3 ( ) 2 ( ) 4 ( 1

= 1
|
|
.
|
\
|
3
2

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
3
2

x = 2, y = 3

5x + 2y = 4
3x y = 3

x = ???, y = ???
c
o
m
p
a
r
e

c
o
m
p
a
r
e

43
(27) VARIATIONS

(a) Direct variations

y varies directly as x

y is directly proportional
to square of x

y varies directly
with the cube of x

y varies directly
as the square root of x

- y x

- y = kx

-
x
y
= k

-
2
2
1
1
x
y
x
y
=

- y x
2

- y = kx
2

-
x
y
= k

-
2
2
2
2
1
1
) ( ) ( x
y
x
y
=

- y x
3

- y = kx
3

-
x
y
= k

-
3
2
2
3
1
1
) ( ) ( x
y
x
y
=

- y x / y
2
1
x

- y = k x

-
x
y
= k

-
2
2
1
1
x
y
x
y
=

Example 1 :

p varies directly with q and p = 12 when
q = 16. p = 4, q = ???

Example 2 :

p q

p = k q

12 = k 16

16
12
= k

3 = k

p = 3 q

4 = 3 q

3
4
= q

(
3
4
)
2
= q

9
16
= q

y x
3

y = k x
3

12 = k (4)
3

3
4
12
= k

16
3
= k

y =
16
3
x
3

m =
16
3
(8)
3

m = 96

(b) Inverse Variation

y varies inversely as x

y varies inversely as
the square of x

the cube of x

the square root of x

- y
x
1

- y =
x
k

- yx = k

- y
1
x
1
= y
2
x
2

- y
2
1
x

- y =
2
x
k

- yx
2
= k

- y
1
(x
1
)
2
= y
2
(x
2
)
2

- y
3
1
x

- y =
3
x
k

- yx
3
= k

- y
1
(x
1
)
3
= y
2
(x
2
)
3

- y
x
1
/ y
2
1
1
x

- y =
x
k

- y x = k

- y
1
1
x
= y
2
2
x

y
x
y x

y

x
2

y x
2

y

x
3

y x
3

y
x
y
2
1
x

y 12 m
x 4 8

y varies directly as the
cube of x, m = ???

y
x
1

y
x
1

y

2
1
x

y
2
1
x

y
3
1
x

y

3
1
x

y

y
x
1

2
1
1
x

44

Example 1 :

y varies inversely as x and y = 7 when x = 4.
x = 14, y = ???

Example 2 :

y
x
1

y =
x
k

7 =
4
k

28 = k

y =
x
28

y =
14
28

y = 2

y |, x + = inverse variation

yx / yx
2
/ yx
3
/ y x = k

yx 24 48 = k
yx
2
96 768 = k
yx
3
384 12288 = k
y x

12

12

k

y x = 12 y =
x
12

(c) Joint Variations

y x, y z

y
x
1
, y
z
1

y x, y
z
1

- y xz

- y = kxz

- y
xz
1

- y =
xz
k

- y
z
x

- y =
z
kx

Example 1 :

Example 2 :

r pq

r = kpq

4 = k (3)(8)

) 8 )( 3 (
4
= k

6
1
= k

r =
6
1
pq

12 =
6
1
(w) (10)

) 10 )( (
12
6
1
= w

7.2 = w

w
y
x
2

w =
y
kx
2

40 =
2
) 4 (
2
k

2
4
) 2 ( 40
= k

5 = k

w =
y
x
2
5

m =
4
) 6 ( 5
2

m = 45

*** Graph of other functions

y = ax
3
+ cx + d,
a > 0, c < 0

y = ax
3
+ cx + d,
a < 0, c > 0

y =
2
x
a
, a > 0

y =
2
x
a
, a < 0

x 4 16
y 6 3

relation between y
and x = ???

p 8 w
q 3 10
r 4 12

r pq, w = ???

w x y
40 4 2
m 6 4

w varies directly as
the square of x and
inversely as y,
m = ???

y
x
O
d
a +if, c if

y
x
O
d
a if, c +if

y
x
O
a +if

y
x
O
a if
45
(28) GRADIENT AND AREA UNDER A GRAPH

(a) Distance-time graph

- speed =
in time change
distance in change

- average speed =
taken time total
travelled distance total

Example :

distance travelled in the first 6 s = 8 m

speed, in the first 6 s =
s
m
6
8
=
3
4
ms
1

distance travelled in the last 5 s = 12 m

speed, in kmh
1
, in the last 3 s

= speed in the last 5 s =
h
km
3600
5
1000
12
= 8.64 kmh
1

length of time, the particle is stationary = 4 s

average speed, in ms
1
, for the period of 15 s =
s
m
15
20

distance travelled in the first 4 s = ???

speed in the first 4 s = speed in the first 6 s

6
8
4
=
d
d = ) 4 (
6
8
d =
3
1
5 m

(b) Speed-time graph

- distance = area under the graph

- rate of change in speed = gradient of graph

- rate of change in speed +if acceleration

- rate of change in speed if deceleration

Example :

distance travelled in the first 3 s
=
2
1
(3)(6) = 9 m

distance travelled, with uniform speed
= (5)(6) = 30 m

distance travelled in the last 2 s
=
2
1
( 6 + 12 ) (2) = 18 m

distance travelled in the first 6 s.
=
2
1
( 3 + 6 ) (6) = 27 m

uniform speed = 6 ms
1

the length of time, moves with uniform speed
= 5 s

average speed for the period of 10 seconds
=
s
m
10
57
= 5.7 ms
1

the rate of change in speed in the first 3 s
=
0 3
0 6
= 2 ms
2

acceleration in the last 2 s
=
8 10
6 12
= 3 ms
2

speed, in the last second = ???

acceleration ~ in the last second = in the last 2 s

8 9
6
v
=
8 10
6 12

v 6 = 3

v = 9

stationary / stop
Distance (m)
Time (s)
constant / uniform speed

d
Time (s)
Distance (m)
10 6
O
4
12
15 4

Speed (ms
1
)
Time (s)
constant / uniform speed
acceleration /
increasing speed

deceleration /
decreasing speed

(10, 12)
O
Time (s)
Speed (ms
1
)
8 3
6
12
10 6
(8, 6)
9

(3, 6)
(9, v)
46
(c) Solve problem involving distance-time graph and

Distance-time graph Speed-time graph

Example 1 :

speed of AB and BC are the same, T = ???

4
8
=
4
12
T

2 =
4
12
T

2T 8 = 12

2T = 12 + 8

2T = 20

T =
2
20

T = 10

Example 1 :

total distance travelled for the period of t s is 148,
t = ???

25 + 63 + 15t 180= 148

15t = 148 25 63 + 180

15t = 240

t = 16

Example 2 :

deceleration is 5m s
2
, u = ??

11 7
0
u
= 5

4
u
= 5

u = 5 (4)

u = 20

Example 2 :

average speed for the period t min. is 30 km h
1
,
t = ???

s t
m 18
= 30 km h
1

h
km
t
60
18
= 30 km h
1

18 = 30 (
60
t
)

18 (
30
60
) = t

36 = t

Distance (m)
Time (s)
4
O
4
12
T
B
A
C

Speed (ms
1
)
Time (s)
O
1
9
21
5 12 t

t 12
9
9
1
9
21
7
5
d =
2
1
(1+ 9) (5) = 25
d = 9(7) = 63
d =
2
1
(9+ 21) (t 12)
= 15 (t 12)
= 15t 180

Speed (m s
1
)
Time (s)
7 O
6
u
11
(7, u)
(11, 0)

Time (min.)
Distance (km)
17 1
2
O
10
18
t
47
(29) BEARING

(a) Bearing

- the bearing of a point B from a point A is the angle at a measured clockwise from the north to
the line joining A and B.

- written in a three-digit form, from 000 to 360

Example 1 :

The bearing of M from N is 060 . Diagrams shows the positions of M and N = ???

Example 2 :

P is due south of Q. The bearing of R from Q is 150 and the bearing of P from R is 300

Diagrams shows the posititon of P, Q and R = ???

Example 3 :

bearing of M from N = ???

answer

Example 4 :

bearing of G from F = ???

answer

= 360 70

= 290

= 360 105 60

= 195

Example 5 :

E lies to the north of G,
bearing of G from F = ???

answer

Example 6 :

Q lies to the west of P,
bearing of Q from R = ???

answer

North
60
N

North
60
N
M

North
N

North
Q
P
300
North
P
R
150
North
Q
R

North
Q
P
answer
combine
R

North
M
N
70

75
E
N
G
F

North
M
N
70
North
70

75
E
N
G
F
N
60
105

E
50
20
G
F

P
R
70
Q
50
48

= 360 50 20

= 290

= 360 40

= 320

F
E
50
20
G
North
North
50

Q
40
50
P
60
R
N
90
(W)
30
49

Example 7 :

bearing of L from K is 110,
bearing of K from J = ???

answer

Example 8 :

bearing of H from K is 080,
bearing of G from H = ???

answer

= 180 142

= 038

= 360 20 100

= 240

Example 9 :

bearing of P from R is 215,
bearing of P from Q = ???

answer

Example 10 :

bearing of P and R from Q is 050, and 290,
bearing of R from P = ???

answer

= 360 25 90 = 245

= 360 102 = 258

N
42

30

K
L
J

140
K
G
H

N
42

30

K
L
J
N
110

108

142

140
K
G
H
N
80
20
100
N

Q
R
P
60

R
32
Q
P

215
N
P
R
35

Q
R
P
60
25
35
N
N
30

R
32
Q
P
50
290
70
N
N
28
102
50
(30) EARTH AS A SPHERE

(a) Longitudes [ xE or yW ]

(b) Latitudes [ xN or yS ]

(c) Difference between two longitudes, Difference between two latitudes

Difference between two longitudes, u Difference between two latitudes, u

- same direction u = find the difference

Example :

20E, 50E u = 50 20 = 30

30W, 120W u = 120 30 = 90

- same direction u = find the difference

Example :

20N, 50N u = 50 20 = 30

30S, 120S u = 120 30 = 90

- opposite direction u = find the sum

Example :

10E, 70W u = 10 + 70 = 80

- if the sum of two angles of longituded > 180,
u = 360 (the sum)

Example :

120E, 80W u = 360 (120 + 80)
= 160

- opposite direction u = find the sum

Example :

10N, 70S u = 10 + 70 = 80

N
S
Great circle
meridian
( half of great circle )

10E
N
S
30
10
Greenwich Meridian
(Longitude 0)
30W

N
S
equator

parallel of latitude


35S
N
35
20
equator
(latitude 0)

20N
51
(d) Find longitude, latitude

Find longitude Find latitude

Example :

20W (50) 30E (50) 80E

(diference if +if change direction)

Example :

160E (50) 150W (50) 80W

(sum > 180 (360 sum)change direction)

dif. if,

+if ch. dir.

Example :

(50N)

|

(40)

|

10N

+

(40)

+

(30S)

sum > 90,

(180sum)

Example :

(30S)

|

(40)

|

70S

+

(40)

+

(70S)

(e) Diameter of the earth, Diameter of the parallel of latitude

a + b = 180

Example :

P (30N, 130E), Q (30S, 130E)

(f) Location of a place

Example 1 :

R (40N, 110E)

Example 2 :

latitude of P = 30N 45 = 15S
longitude of P = 80E + 60 = 140E

P (15S, 140E)

E E W
+

W E W

+

S
N
N
+

S
S
N

+
_

N
S
aU
aS
diameter of
the earth

S
bW aE
N
diameter of the
diameter of
the earth

N
S
P = ??
(30N, 50W)
Q = ??

O
N
S
P
R
40
70
R = ???
Greenwich
Meridian

O
N
S
P
R
80E 60
30 N
45

P = ???
52
(g) Distance on the surface of the earth

along a meridian along the equator along the parallel of latitude, yN / S

distance = u 60,
u = different in latitude

u =
60
tan ce dis

distance = u 60,
u = different in longitude

u =
60
tan ce dis

distance = u 60 cos y,
u = different in longitude

u =
y
ce dis
cos 60
tan

(h) Shortest distance ( distance along a great circle : ------------------- )

shortest distance
= (180 2a) 60

shortest distance
= (180 a b) 60

shortest distance
= (180 a + b) 60

Remark :

knot = unit of speed nautical mile = unit of distance

speed =
time
ce dis tan
time =
speed
ce dis tan
distance = speed time

N
S
distance

0
distance
N
S

yN
distance
N
S

aN

aN
bN

aN
bS
53
(i) Problem solving

Example 1 :

The diagram shows four points, P, Q, R and X, on the surface of the earth. P lies on longitude of
80W. QR is the diameter of the parallel of latitude of 50N. X lies 5820 nautical miles due south
of P.

Solution :

(a) longitude of Q = 80W 35 = 45W
R (50N, 135E)

(b) different in longitude of QR = 180
QR = 180 60 cos 50 = 10421.63

(c) different in latitude of PX =
60
5820
= 97
latitude of X = 50N 97 = 47S

(d) different in longitude of RR = 145
PR = 145 60 = 8700

time =
600
8700
= 14.5 hours

Example 2 :

P (60S, 70E), Q, and R are three points on the surface of the earth. PQ is the diameter of the
parallel of latitude 60S. R lies 4800 nautical miles due north of P.
(a) State the longitude of Q.
(b) Find the latitude of R.
(c) Calculate the distance, in nautical miles, from P to Q measured along the parallel of latitude.
(d) An aeroplane took off from Q and flew towards P using the shortest distance, as measured along
the surface of the earth, and then flew due north to R. Given that its average speed for the
whole flight was 560 knots, calculate the total time taken for the flight.

Solution :

(a) longitude of Q = 110W

(b) different in latitude of PR =
60
4800
= 80
latitude of R = 60S 80 = 20N

(c) different in longitude of PQ = 180
QR = 180 60 cos 60 = 5400

(d) different in between PQ = 180 60 60 = 60
PQ = 60 60 = 3600

Total distance = 3600 + 4800 =8400
time =
560
8400
= 15 hours

N
S
O
35
50
X
P
Q
R

(a) Find the position of R.
(b) Calculate the shortest distance, in nautical miles,
from Q to R, measured along the surface of the earth.
(c) Find the latitude of X.
(d) An aeroplane took off from P and flew due west to R
along the parallel of latitude with an average speed of
600 knots. Calculate the time, in hours, taken for
the flight.

80W
N
S
O
35
50
X
P
Q
R
45W
100E
135E
50N
145

N
S
O
P
60S
4800
70E
110W
Q
R
54
(31) PLANS AND ELEVATIONS

(a) Types of lines are used when drawing the plans and elevations of solids

- thick solid lines ( ) visible edges

- thick dashed lines ( ----------------------- ) hidden or unvisible edges

(b) Plans and elevations

(c) Examples

Solid Plan Viewed from X Viewed from Y

object
side elevation
plan
front elevation

X
Y
10 cm
8 cm

4 cm

10 cm
8 cm
10 cm
8 cm

Y
X
8 cm
10 cm
4 cm

10 cm
8 cm
10 cm
4 cm

Y
X
9 cm
5 cm
12 cm

5 cm
12 cm

9 cm
12 cm
9 cm
5 cm

X
Y
3 cm
2 cm
3 cm
3 cm
1 cm

3 cm
2 cm
1 cm

3 cm
1 cm
2 cm
2 cm

3 cm
1 cm
2 cm

7 cm
6 cm
5 cm
5 cm
X
Y

6 cm
2.5 cm
2.5 cm

5 cm
5 cm
7 cm
2 cm
5 cm
6 cm
55
Solid Plan Viewed from X Viewed from Y

5 cm
2 cm
4 cm
7 cm 2 cm
3 cm
X
Y

5 cm
4 cm
2 cm

3 cm
5 cm
7 cm
2 cm
2 cm

3 cm
2 cm
2 cm
4 cm

5 cm
5 cm
2 cm
2 cm
7 cm
5 cm
X
Y

5 cm 2 cm
5 cm

7 cm
2 cm
2 cm
5 cm
5 cm

5 cm
2 cm
2 cm
3 cm

X
Y
2 cm
6 cm
3 cm
4 cm
7 cm
4 cm
8 cm

4 cm
3 cm
3 cm
4 cm

8 cm
4 cm
2 cm
5 cm
4 cm

6 cm
3 cm
4 cm
2 cm
3 cm

3 cm 4 cm
4 cm
6 cm
2 cm
X
Y

3 cm 4 cm
3 cm

3 cm 4 cm
2 cm
6 cm

2 cm
4 cm
4 cm

6 cm
5 cm
X
6 cm
6 cm
2 cm
3 cm
7 cm
3 cm
Y

6 cm
5 cm
1 cm
2 cm
3 cm

6 cm
5 cm
1 cm
2 cm
6 cm

7 cm
3 cm 6 cm
6 cm

Y
5 cm
3 cm
4 cm
6 cm
3 cm
2 cm
2 cm
X
4 cm
5 cm
3 cm
3 cm
2 cm
2 cm
3 cm
2 cm 6 cm
5 cm
3 cm

4 cm 2 cm
2 cm
3 cm
56

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[ Baroka ] [2010] [ MATHEMATICS FORMULAE ]

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